New Immigrants The United States has been
called a nation of immigrants Of all the groups who made
America, only Native Americans have not come from somewhere else
Between 1800 and 1880, more than 10 million immigrants came to the United States
These “old immigrants” were mainly from northern and western Europe
Chinese immigrants also arrived for the Gold Rush or to work on the railroads
New Immigrants Between 1880 and 1910 a
new wave of immigration brought some 18 million newcomers to America
Most came from places in southern and eastern Europe Greece, Italy, Poland, and
Russia Because of severe
immigration laws, smaller numbers came from East Asia
New Immigrants These “new immigrants”
made America more diverse in ethnicity and religion
They included people of Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Jewish faiths
By 1910 nearly one out of every seven Americans was foreign-born
Coming to America
People came to America in search of a better life, but they left their homelands for various reasons
Jews in particular fled Russia and eastern Europe to escape religious persecution
Emigrants left southern and eastern Europe because of desperate poverty and little economic opportunity
Ellis Island The U.S. government opened an
immigration station in 1892 on Ellis Island in New York Harbor
Over the next 62 years, some 12 million Europeans passed through Ellis Island
After 1910 newcomers from Asia passed through Angel Island, an immigration station in San Francisco Bay
Because of discriminatory laws, many Chinese immigrants were held in prison-like conditions for weeks or months, awaiting a ruling on whether they could stay
Coming to America While many immigrants found a
better life in the United States, they also met hardships
Many lived in crowded tenements and took low-paying, unskilled jobs
Many settled near others from their homeland, who spoke their language and shared their culture
People in ethnic neighborhoods worked to keep their cultures alive and build a sense of community
They established churches and synagogues and formed organizations that helped immigrants with money, jobs, health care, and education
Reactions to Immigrants Some native born Americans, known
as nativists, saw immigrants as a threat
Nativists blamed immigrants for increases in crime and poverty and said they took American jobs
On the West Coast, prejudice was directed against Asians
California had restrictions against Chinese holding jobs or even living in certain places
On the federal level, Congress banned immigration for 10 years, with a few exceptions, and barred Chinese immigrants from becoming citizens
In 1906 San Francisco required Japanese students to attend separate schools from white students, although the policy was later dropped
Americanization Some nativists called for all
immigrants to pass a literacy test, an exam to determine whether they could read in English or their native language
Congress approved a literacy test bill over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto
Other native-born Americans, driven by a mixture of fear and charity, wanted to help the new immigrants assimilate, or blend in, to American society This process became known as
Americanization
Reactions to Immigrants Schools and voluntary
organizations taught immigrants English literacy skills and subjects needed for citizenship, such as American history and government
Many immigrants from southern and eastern Europe gained valuable skills
However, the process often involved a loss of cultural heritage
Urban Life in America
Before industrialization, American cities were compact, with buildings only a few stories high
People could walk to workplaces, schools, shops, and churches
In the late 1800s cities changed dramatically
As buildable space grew limited, architects began to build up
Strong steel frames let them design taller buildings
The mechanized elevator, invented by Elisha Otis, made taller buildings practical
Urban Life in America As cities grew more
crowded, some people worried that urban areas would no longer have any green space
Specialists in the new field of urban planning looked at the use of space in cities
Landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted designed city parks such as Central Park in New York City
How Different Classes Lived: The Wealthy
Lifestyles and opportunities varied tremendously with status in society
Most wealthy people of the late 1800s had made their money in industry and business
They showed off their wealth in many ways, especially in their homes
On New York City’s stylish Fifth Avenue, they built houses resembling medieval castles and Italian Renaissance palaces
How Different Classes Lived:The Middle Class
The urban middle class was made up of corporate employees such as accountant and managers
Also professionals such as teachers, engineers, lawyers, and doctors
During the 1870s and 1880s, professional organizations began to set standards for certain occupations such as medicine, education, and the law
How Different Classes Lived:The Working Class
Most people in the cities lived in poverty
Wages were low, and housing shortages meant that people lived in crowded tenements, or rundown apartment buildings
Tenements were usually within walking distance of the factories, stockyards, and ports where many poor urban dwellers worked
How Different Classes Lived:The Working Class
Tenement life was unhealthy Buildings did not have
sufficient light or ventilation The few windows overlooked
streets and alley filled with trash and sewage
With no indoor plumbing, women and children had to haul water from an outdoor water pump
In addition, many working-class women held jobs outside the home
The Settlement House Movement A reform movement in Great
Britain inspired some Americans to try a new approach to helping people overcome poverty
In 1883 London reformers founded the first settlement house, a place where volunteers offered immigrants services such as English-language and job-training courses
They also provided social activities such as clubs and sports
The Settlement House Movement One of the first American
settlement houses was Hull House in Chicago, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889
In New York City, Lillian Wald founded the Henry Street Settlement
In Richmond, Virginia, Janie Porter Barrett began the Locust Street Social Settlement The first for African Americans
By 1910 U.S. cities had 400 settlement houses
Social Gospel Most settlement-house
workers were college-educated women
Many believed in the concept of social gospel, the idea that faith should be expressed through good works
These people believed churches had a moral duty to help solve social problems
Political Scandal and Reform
By the late 1800s many American cities had problems such as crime, bad housing, and poor sanitation
In some cities, control of local government passed to a political machine, which was an organization of professional politicians
Political machines made cities run better, but they were often corrupt
Political Scandal and Reform Machine bosses won support
by giving people jobs or helping their families
In return, they expected votes
They also won elections by fraudulent means and used their positions to gain money Demanding bribes in
exchange for city contracts
Political Scandal and Reform
The most notorious political machine was Tammany Hall in New York City
William Marcy Tweed, known as Boss Tweed, became head of Tammany Hall in 1863
He used his position to make himself and his friends, the Tweed Ring, very rich
Tweed’s power seemed unbreakable until 1871, when his corruption was made public
He was convicted of fraud and sent to prison
Scandal in the Government Political corruption extended all
the way to the nation’s capital Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant
became president in 1869, but scandals marred his presidency
One such scandal involved the Crédit Mobilier, a company set up by the Union Pacific Railroad
It was actually a scheme to funnel federal railroad money to Crédit Mobilier stockholders, who included members of Congress and the vice president
Scandal in the Government Attempts at reform split
the Republican Party In 1880 the Republicans
chose a reformer, Ohio senator James A. Garfield, as their candidate
But four months into his term, Garfield was assassinated
His successor, Chester A. Arthur, surprised many people by supporting government reforms
In 1883 Arthur helped secure passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Act, which required that promotions be based on merit, not political connections
Farmers’ Reform Movements
Times were desperate for farmers in the late 1800s
Crop prices were falling Merchants, banks, and
railroads were getting richer, but farmers were in debt
They organized to help themselves
The first major group of farmers was the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, known as the National Grange
Farmers’ Reform Movements
Its first political goal was to persuade state legislatures to regulate railroad rates
Railroads challenged these laws in court
The Supreme Court first upheld the laws but later ruled that the federal government, not the states, could regulate traffic across state lines
This led Congress to pass the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887, which called for reasonable railroad rates
It was the first time that the federal government had passed a law to regulate an industry
Silver versus Gold Another farmers’ group
the Farmers’ Alliance, formed in the 1870s
The Alliance wanted the government to print more paper money
It believed that farmers could charge more for farm goods if there were more money in circulation
Silver versus Gold
Paper money was originally redeemable for either gold or silver
Then in 1873 Congress put the U.S. dollar on the gold standard, meaning that a dollar could be redeemed only for gold in the U.S. Treasury
That reduced the amount of money in circulation and hurt farmers
Farmers wanted money to be backed by silver
Populist Party Farmers’ Alliance policies gained
support, and its leaders decided to form a national political party
The People’s Party, usually called the Populist Party, was a coalition of Alliance members Farmers, labor leaders, and
reformers It lasted only a few years, but its
stand against powerful interests influenced later politicians
It called for bank regulation, government ownership of railroads, and free (unlimited) coinage of silver
Panic of 1893 Soon after the 1892 election, a
major railroad company failed, triggering the Panic of 1893
Stock prices fell, and millions lost their jobs
This depression had many causes
President Cleveland blamed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which required the government to purchase silver with paper money redeemable in either gold or silver
The Election of 1896 Silver was still an issue in the 1896
election The Republicans nominated Ohio
governor William McKinley, who supported the gold standard
Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan
In a famous speech, Bryan defended the free coinage of silver
The “cross of gold” speech won Populist support for Bryan
Terrified business leaders contributed millions of dollars to the Republican campaign, and McKinley won the election
Segregation and Discrimination After Reconstruction ended,
Southern legislatures passed laws that restricted the rights of African Americans
However, the prejudice that led to such laws existed nationwide
Legalized Discrimination Some white southerners
were determined to prevent African Americans from using the right to vote
Tactics included making voters pay a poll tax and pass a literacy test
Most African Americans were too poor to pay the tax and had been denied the education to pass a literacy test
Jim Crow Laws Southern state legislatures also
passed laws—known as Jim Crow laws—to create and enforce segregation in public places
The name Jim Crow came from a character in a minstrel song
The first, passed in Tennessee in 1881, required separate railway cars for African Americans and whites
By the 1890s southern states had segregated many public places, including schools
Homer Plessy In 1890 the Louisiana
legislature passed a law requiring African Americans to ride in separate railway cars from whites
Homer Plessy, an African American man, sat in a whites-only train compartment to test the law
He was arrested, and his case finally went to the U.S. Supreme Court
Plessy v. Ferguson In the case of Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896), the Court upheld segregation
It ruled that “separate but equal” facilities did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment
Justice John Marshall Harlan disagreed, saying “Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.”
But the Plessy decision allowed legalized segregation for nearly 60 years!
Legalized Discrimination In addition to legalized
discrimination, many strict rules of behavior were understood to govern the social and business interactions of white and black Americans
In every encounter, African Americans were supposed to confirm their lower status in society
If they did not do this, the consequences could be serious even deadly
Lynching The worst outcome of this
discrimination was lynching—murder of an individual by a group or mob
Between 1882 and 1892, nearly 900 African Americans lost their lives to lynch mobs
Lynchings could be sparked by even the most minor offenses, or perceived offenses
They declined after 1892 but continued into the early 1900s
Opposing Discrimination Two different approaches
to fighting racism emerged Born into slavery, Booker T.
Washington believed that African Americans had to accept segregation for the moment
He believed they could improve their situation best through acquiring farming and vocational skills
He founded the Tuskegee Institute to teach African Americans practical skills
Opposing Discrimination On the other hand,
W.E.B. Du Bois believed that African Americans should strive for full rights immediately
Du Bois helped found the Niagara Movement in 1905 to fight for equal rights
Members of the Niagara Movement later founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Hispanic Americans Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans,
and Native Americans also experience discrimination
Many Mexican immigrants encountered strong anti-Mexican feelings
Most Mexicans were farmers, but there were not enough farm jobs to go around
Spanish-speaking people often had to take menial jobs for little pay
Many were trapped in their jobs by a system brought from Mexico called debt peonage
They could not leave a job until they paid debts they owed their employer Debt peonage was made illegal in 1911
Asian Americans In some places, Chinese
and Japanese Americans lived in segregated neighborhoods
Many landlords would not rent to Asian tenants
Other laws limited or prevented Asian immigration
In the early 1900s, California legislators passed laws prohibiting marriages between whites and Asian Americans
Native Americans Native Americans had to
endure the government’s Americanization policy, which tried to stamp out their traditional cultures
Living on reservations gave them few economic opportunities
Many Native Americans did not even have American citizenship until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
