BIOG
EOOCH
EMICAL WRestoration management in degraded fens and bogs WATER-M
ANA
Restoration management in degraded fens and bogs
AGEM
ENT &
A
Fons Smolders
APPLIED
RESEEARCH
ON
ECCOSYSTEM
S
Institute for Wetland and Water ResearchRadboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands
Growth of Sphagnum is often observed in minerotrophic fens where the top layer is acidified
G di t "S h B "6.5 3000
M)
Gradient "Scragh Bog"
S
6
2000 bon
(µCO2
Sphagnu
5.5
pH ic c
arb
pH
um pap
51000
norg
an
HCO -
pillosum
4.5 InHCO3
m
40 20 40 60 80 100
Depth (cm)
0
Depth (cm)
50000
60000
70000
ol/L
)
10000
20000
30000
40000
Tota
l-Ca
(µm
o
0
10000
Depth (m)
0,07
0,08
0,09
y (g
/L)
0 04
0,05
0,06
bulk
den
sity
0,03
0,04
Depth (m)
4000
5000
mol
/L)
1000
2000
3000
Tota
l-Ca
(µm
0
Depth (m)
Sphagnum spec. may form an Acrotelm
wet conditions
Lateral discharge
Sponge
•Increased retention of rain water•Desiccation capitulae Hyaline cells become filled with air and show white
decreased evaporationcoloration increased albedo and lower temperatures
Sphagnum magellancium, Sphagnum papillosum, Sphagnum rubellump g g , p g p p , p g
Acidification of floating fens
Acidifying processes
- Accumulation of rainwater (dillution)
- Desiccation (oxidation)
Nitrification of ammonium:
(1) NH4+ + 2O2 NO3- + 2H+ + H2O
Oxidation of reduced iron:
(2) 4Fe2+ + O2 + 6H2O 4FeOOH + 8H+
Oxidation of iron sulfide:Oxidation of iron sulfide:
(3) 4 FeS + 9 O2 + 6H2O 4FeOOH + 4SO42-+ 8H+
Oxidation of pyrite:Oxidation of pyrite:
(4) 4 FeS2 + 15 O2 + 20H2O 4FeOOH + 8SO42-+ 16H+
9
8
pH
(bi)Carbonaatbuffertrajectbasisch
Buffering processes7
6
5Calciumbuffertrajectzwak zuur
(1) H CO H+ + HCO - H O + CO1
3
2
4Aluminiumbuffertraject
IJzerbuffertraject
zuur
zeer zuur
(1) H2CO3 H + HCO3 H2O + CO2(2) CaCO3 + 2 H+ Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
1
(3) CaMg(CO3)2 + 4 H+ Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
9
pH
7
6
8(bi)Carbonaatbuffertrajectbasisch
3
4
5Calciumbuffertraject
Aluminiumbuffertraject
IJzerbuffertraject
zwak zuur
zuur
1
2IJzerbuffertraject
zeer zuur
(4) ]-Ca2+ + 2 H+ ]- 2 H+ + Ca2+(4) ] Ca 2 H ] 2 H Ca
1000
1200
600
800
1000
mm
ol k
g-1
)
200
400
600
tota
l-S (m
High sulphur content indicates formation of floating fen under relatively sulphur rich
00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
total-Fe (mmol kg-1)
g y pconditions (sulphate rich groundwater).
total Fe (mmol kg )
3500,0 Upon desiccation:
2000,0
2500,0
3000,0
r) (m
mol
L-1
)
4 FeS2 + 15 O2 + 20H2O 4FeOOH + 8SO42-+ 16H+
] Ca2+ + 2 H+ ] 2 H+ + Ca2+
1000,0
1500,0
+Mg
(por
ewat
e ]-Ca2+ + 2 H+ ]- 2 H+ + Ca2+
]-Mg2+ + 2 H+ ]- 2 H+ + Mg2+
0,0
500,0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Ca+
SO4 porewater (mmol L-1)
100
60
70
80
90
kg-1
)
30
40
50
60H
+ (m
mol
k
0
10
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 7000 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Ca+Mg (mmol kg-1)
7,0
6,0
6,5
er)
5,0
5,5
pH (p
orew
ate
4,0
4,5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
H+ (mmol kg-1)
If totalIf total--S/(totalS/(total--Ca+Mg) > 0.67: Ca+Mg) > 0.67: acidificationacidification
Treatments:
0 kg ha-11000 kg ha-12000 kg ha-1g4000 kg ha-1
Liming of acidfied floating fen in the ‘Nieuwkoopse plassen’
Sakes
7,5
8,0
6 0
6,5
7,0
l)
t=0t=6t=12t=24
5,0
5,5
6,0
pH (N
aCl
0,6
0,7
t 24
3,5
4,0
4,5
t=0t=60,4
0,5
mol
/l FW
)
3,00 1000 2000 4000
t=12t=24
0,2
0,3
Ols
en-P
(m
0 0 0 0 e
0
0,1
After two years:Strong decrease of Sphagnum spec after 0
1000
2000
4000
2000
+Fe
Sakes
Strong decrease of Sphagnum spec. after liming
The taming of the water level…The taming of the water level…
Water shortage in summer:Is compensated by the inlet of alkaline sulphate rich river water
External eutrofication:External eutrofication:External eutrofication:External eutrofication:Eutrofication due to an Eutrofication due to an increased external supplyincreased external supply
BIOG
EOCH
Eincreased external supply increased external supply of nutrients.of nutrients.
EMICAL W
ATE
Internal eutroficationInternal eutrofication ::
ER-MAN
AGEMInternal eutroficationInternal eutrofication ::
Eutrofication due to an Eutrofication due to an increased mobilisation ofincreased mobilisation of
MEN
T & A
PPLincreased mobilisation of increased mobilisation of nutrients already present nutrients already present in a system (mainly in in a system (mainly in
LIED R
ESEARCy ( yy ( yshallow waters with a shallow waters with a peaty (organic) sediment.peaty (organic) sediment.
CH O
N ECO
SYp y ( g )p y ( g ) YSTEMS
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEM
4000
5000
2.5
3
Alkalinity
MEN
T & A
PPL3000
4000
y (µ
eq. L
-1)
2
(µm
ol L
-1)Phosphate
LIED R
ESEARC
2000
Alk
alin
ity
1
1.5
Phos
phat
e
CH O
N ECO
SY0
1000
0
0.5
P
YSTEMS
00 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time (days)
0
Electron acceptorsElectron acceptorsSO4, NO3, Fe(III)
BIOG
EOCH
E
NHD iti
N2
EMICAL W
ATE
NH4DecompositionOrganic matter
S2-
Fe(II)FeS
ER-MAN
AGEMHCOCO
Fe(II)
MEN
T & A
PPL
HCO3(alkalinity)PO4
CO2Fe(O)OH
LIED R
ESEARCreleases CH O
N ECO
SY
stimulates
reacts with
YSTEMS
Co-precipitates with or adsorbs to
3500
4000Nederland
2500
3000
3500(µ
mol
L-1)
1000
1500
2000
Am
mon
ium
( BIOG
EOCH
E
0
500
1000A
300
Nederland
EMICAL W
ATE
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Alkaliniteit (µequiv L-1)
200
250
l L-1
)
ER-MAN
AGEM
100
150sf
aat (
µmo
MEN
T & A
PPL
50
100Fos LIED
RESEARC
00 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Alkaliniteit (µequiv L-1)
CH O
N ECO
SY
SO42- + 2CH2O-N-P -----> HS- + HCO3- + CO2 + H2O + PO4 + NH4
Alkaliniteit (µequiv L ) YSTEMS
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATE300 ER-MAN
AGEM
250
NederlandSchutsloterwijdeWormer- en Jisperveld
Tot-Fe:tot-S < 0,5
MEN
T & A
PPL150
200
t (µm
ol L
-1)
LIED R
ESEARC
100Fosf
aat
Tot-Fe:tot-S = 3 0 CH O
N ECO
SY0
50Tot-Fe:tot-S = 3,0
YSTEMS
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Alkaliniteit (µequiv L-1)
PO43-
FeO(OH)-PFeSx Fe
S2S2- Rewetting of fens with and without sulphate
SO42- 60L-1)
0
304050
3-(µ
mol
2S
S
102030
PO
43 4S
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 360
weeks
stagnant + chloridestagnant + chloride stagnant + sulfatestagnant + sulfateBIO
GEO
CHEEM
ICAL WATEER-M
ANAG
EM
8
MEN
T & A
PPL
4
6
mol
L-1
)
LIED R
ESEARC
2 S1 S2
4
o-P
(µm
CH O
N ECO
SY
1 S0.5 S
Control4 Cl0
2
YSTEMS
ControlOutside
Month
46
810 12
PO 3-
Fe2+ + PO43- FeOOH/FePO4
PO4
BIOG
EOCH
EFe2+ PO43- Fe2+ PO43- EMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEM1200
1400
) 250
300
L-1
)IronPhosphate M
ENT &
APPL800
1000
t.) (µ
mol
L-1
)
200
250
wat
.)(µm
ol
LIED R
ESEARC400
600
n (p
ore
wat
100
150
phat
e (p
ore
CH O
N ECO
SY
0
200
0 1 10 100
Iro
0
50
Phos
p
YSTEMS
0 1 10 100
total-Iron/total-Sulphur (sediment) (mol mol-1)
Parapoynx stratiotataDolomedes fimbriatus
Aeshna viridisAeshna viridis
Zwarte stern
25brackish waterfreshwater
20
L-1 )
Lemna gibba
Azolla filiculoides
Ceratophyllum submersum Zannichellia pedunculata
BIOG
EOCH
E10
15
phat
e (µ
mol
Azolla filiculoides
IIIRanunculus
baudotii
EMICAL W
ATE
5Pho
sp Enteromorpha species
I
II
ER-MAN
AGEM
00 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sulphate (µmol L-1) MEN
T & A
PPL
I Stratiotes aloides II Nymphoides peltataHydrocharis morsus ranae Ranunculus circinatusPotamogeton acutifolius Spirodela polyrhizaP t t L t i l
LIED R
ESEARC
Potamogeton compressus Lemna trisulcaPotamogeton lucens Potamogeton mucronatusUtricularia vulgaris
III Potamogeton pectinatus CH O
N ECO
SY
g pMyriophyllum spicatumCeratophyllum demersum
YSTEMS
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPLLIED
RESEARCCH
ON
ECOSYYSTEM
S
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEM Glimmen Tienhoven Zegveld
045 A
MEN
T & A
PPL
Iron content (µmol g-1 Dwt): Apoplastic iron in root (n=12) 68.1 + 29.1 11.3 + 10.2 0.7 + 0.4 Iron in shoot (n=12) 21.0 + 7.2 5.7 + 1.0 0.1 + 0.1
0
5
30
35
40
45
days
)
A
LIED R
ESEARC
Surface water (µmol l-1): Sulphate (n=3) 323 + 43 254 + 32 899 + 101 Sediment pore water (µmol l-1): Iron 555 + 161 89 + 27 1 1 + 1 3
10
15
20
25
30
Surv
ival
tim
e (d
CH O
N ECO
SY
Iron 555 + 161 89 + 27 1.1 + 1.3Sulphide (n=5) < 0.1 < 0.1 24.7 + 8.8 Ortho-phosphate (n=5) 4.1 + 0.7 8.0 + 3.0 25.1 + 6.8 Bicarbonate (n=5) 3111 + 551 3096 + 620 4786 + 712 Ch t i ti I i h H lth h t d R t di b k d t
1000500250100
50
25
0
5
10
S
YSTEMS
Characteristics: Iron rich seepage, iron precipitation in and on the roots leads to root-die-back
Healthy shoots and roots.
Root die-back due to sulphide toxicity, chlorotic iron deficient shoots
0 1 2 3
Log [sulphide] (µmol l-1)
45 0
540
45 A
30
35
(day
s)
1020
25va
l tim
e (
2510
15Surv
iv
1000500250100
50
25
5
10
00 1 2 3
Log [sulphide] (µmol l-1)Log [sulphide] (µmol l )
Stratiotes aloides
Littorella uniflora
100 B
80
) 40
60
italit
y (%
)
20
40V
0
20
05 10 50 100 500
NH4+ in water layer (µmol l-1)
A200
DW
)
ArginineA i
A
100
150
ds (µ
mol
g-1
Asparagine
50
100
amin
o ac
id0
f t
atmosphere
eutrophication
surface water
toxicity
SO4 2- PO43- NH4+
toxicitySO42- + 2 CH2O HCO3- + CO2 + H2O + HS-
Fe~PO43-
FeSx Fe def.
Fe mineralisationgroundwater
Shallow peat lake (Geerplas, the Netherlands)Shallow peat lake (Geerplas, the Netherlands)
45 µmol/L!
dredging
45 µmol/L!
/m3
dredging
inlet P-stripped water!
g PO
4-P/
13 µmol/L!
g
Michielsen et al. 2008
Nit t i bili i
NH4+
Nitrate immobilizes iron
4 BIOG
EOCH
EM
600
MICAL W
ATE
NO3- NO3-
500
600
y = 194.2x-0.3623
R2 = 0 976780
100
120
140
l L-1
)
R-MAN
AGEM
E
Fe2+ Fe(ox)400
(µm
ol L
-1)
R = 0.9767
20
40
60
80
Iron
(µm
o
ENT &
APPLI
200
300
Iron
(
0
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Nitrate (µmol L-1)
ED RESEARCH
100
H O
N ECO
SYS
00-10 10-25 25-50 50-100 100-500 500-1000 >1000
Nitrate (µmol L-1)
STEMS
NH4+
BIOG
EOCH
EMMICAL W
ATE
NO3- NO3-
ER-MAN
AGEM
FeS2 Fe(ox) SO42-Pyrite containing soil
MEN
T & APPLIIED
RESEARC
SO 2
H O
N ECO
SY
SO42-Groundwater
STEMS
The sulphur bridgep gBIO
GEO
NO3-
FeS F ( ) SO 2
NH4+
OCH
EMICAL W
FeS2 Fe(ox) SO42-Pyrite bearing soil layer
WATER-M
ANA
SO42-Ground water
Ground water fed wetland
AGEM
ENT &
A
Ground water
FeSxFe-PO43-
PO43-
APPLIED
RESE
x
SO42-S2- EARCH O
N EC
4
COSYSTEM
S
10
12
8
10
ilabi
lity
anent in
undatio
n
4
6
N a
nd P
ava Perm
ane
Yearly temporal desiccation
0
2
N
01 2 3 4Year 1
JaarYear 4
JaarYear3 Year 2
FeO(OH) PFeS
Pdesiccation
A BFe
SO42-
FeO(OH)-PFeSx
wetNH4+ NO3-
SO42-P
desiccation
NH4 NO3
Oxidized top layer
FeO(OH)-PFeSx N2 NO3-Anaerobic sediment
II: FensII: Fens
Wetland restoration !Wetland restoration !Rewetting measures inRewetting measures inRewetting measures in Rewetting measures in Alder carr woods: high summer Alder carr woods: high summer levellevel
beforebeforeafterafter
R i d b i th N th l dRaised bogs in the Netherlands
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPLLIED
RESEARCCH
ON
ECOSYYSTEM
S
Janssonius 1658
The area covered by raised bogs (1,000,000 ha) has been BIO
GEO
CHE
g ( , , )almost completely lost due to peat cutting activities.....
EMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPLLIED
RESEARCCH
ON
ECOSY
Nowadays less than 3,600 ha are covered by ‘bogs’.
h b li f
YSTEMS
These bog relics are often severely desiccated…….
Rewetting of cut-over bogs
L f d l i d t d Large areas of deeply inundated, strongly humified peat with no growth of Sphagnum mosses
CO COCO2 CO2
BIOG
EOCH
E
Development of S. cuspidatum carpets is usually EM
ICAL WATE
p p yobserved in the more shallowly inundated zones
ER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPLLIED
RESEARCCH
ON
ECOSYYSTEM
S
Relationship between colour of the water layer d li ht i t it t diff t d th
100
and light intensity at different depths
BIOG
EOCH
E80
90
100
EMICAL W
ATE
70
80
cm) L
i ER-MAN
AGEM
50
60
Dep
th (c i
ght MEN
T & A
PPL30
40t
in LIED
RESEARC10
20
5 %
ten CH
ON
ECOSY
0
050 00 50 200
250
300
3 50
400
450
500
sit YSTEM
S
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0 .2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
Colour density (E450)
y
Smolders et al. 2003Wetlands Ecology & Management
Submerged Sphagnum needs substrate derived CO2 f thfor growth
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPLLIED
RESEARCCH
ON
ECOSYYSTEM
S
Growth of S. cuspidatum at different light conditions and CO2 concentrations
40
50
rate
)shallow
inundation
2
BIOG
EOCH
E20
30
ynth
etic
h-
1 g-1
DW
)
Shallow inundation & 2000 µmol l-1 CO2
EMICAL W
ATE
10
20
pho
tosy
(µm
ol C
O 2
deep inundation
ER-MAN
AGEM
-10
0100 2000 100 2000N
et(
MEN
T & A
PPL20
25
30
e LIED R
ESEARC
10
1520
s in
crea
s1 D
W d
-1)
CH O
N ECO
SY-50
5
100 2000 100 2000Bio
mas
(mg
g-
Deep inundation & 100 µmol l-1 CO2 YSTEMS
-15
-10
5 Deep inundation & 100 µmol l CO2
Smolders et al. 2003Wetlands Ecology & Management
Growth of Sphagnum magellanicum at different CO2 concentrations
2000 µmol l-1 CO220 µmol l-1 CO2
Atmosphere
CO2 CH42 1
C incorporated WaterCO2 CH4in SphagnumWater
PeatAnaerobic decompositionAnaerobic decomposition
1
Photosynthesis
Methane oxidation by methanotrophic bacteria
2
BIOG
EOCH
EWith the aid of FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation) EMICAL W
ATE
methanotrophic bacteria have been found in the hyaline cells of S. cuspidatum and on stem leaves
ER-MAN
AGEM
16S rRNA sequence shows highest similarity with uncultured α-Proteobacteria/type II methanotrophic b t i
MEN
T & A
PPL
bacteria
Isotopic mass balance calculation: methane contributed LIED R
ESEARC
between 5 and 20% of the total carbon fixated by S. cuspidatum (field measurements)
CH O
N ECO
SY
This symbiosis is important in the view of global change (efficient recycling of methane)
YSTEMS
Raghoebarsing, Smolders et al. Nature (2005)
25)
Biogeoc
20
m-2
d-1
)
+ Sphagnum
chemical W
at
15(µm
ol
ter-managem10is
sion
ment &
Appli5C
H 4 e
m
ied Research0
C
h on Ecosyste
00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
1
emsCH4 concentration acrotelm (µmol l-1)
25
+ Sphagnum20
m-2 d
-1) + Sphagnum
- Sphagnum
BIOG
EOCH
E
15(µm
ol EMICAL W
ATE
10
mis
sion
ER-MAN
AGEM
5CH 4
em
MEN
T & A
PPL
0
5 LIED R
ESEARC00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
CH O
N ECO
SY
CH4 concentration acrotelm (µmol l-1)
YSTEMS
Spontaneous development of floating rafts
BargerveenBargerveen
Maria Peel
Haaksbergerveen
800Buoyant
600
800
l l-1
)
Inundated
200
400
CH
4 (µm
ol
0
200
8 9 9 9 0 0
Nov-
98
Apr-
99
Juli-
99
okt-9
9
Apr-
00
jun-
00
y = 9355.4x-1.181115
-1) y 9355.4x
R2 = 0.7313
10ol g
-1 d
10
on (µ
m
5
rodu
ctio
0
C-p
r
0 2000 4000 6000 8000Lignin:P ratio
16d-1 )
y = 226.63x1.6204
R2 = 0.716512
14
16-1
DW
d
10
12
µmol
g-
6
8
ctio
n (µ
2
4
C p
rodu
0
2
0 0 05 0 1 0 15 0 2
C
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
pH/bulk density
Introduction of suitable substrates Introduction of suitable substrates with different amounts of lime added
BIOG
EOCH
EEMICAL W
ATEER-MAN
AGEMM
ENT &
APPL
4 l ti M i l
LIED R
ESEARC
4 locations: Mariapeel
Haaksbergerveen
CH O
N ECO
SY
Bargerveen
Tuspeel YSTEMS
Tuspeel
0 – 2 – 4 – 8 mg dolokal g-1 fresh peat
84 8 8
1600 MariapeelBargerveen
4
28
4
4
2
0
1200
mol
l-1
Tuspeel
Haaksbergervee
2
42
0400
800
[CH
4] µ
m
0
0
0
0
400
0%
75%
25%
03 4 5 6 7
pH
Black peat “Inundated”
Black peat “Dry”
Black peat “Waterlogged”
Inundation of desiccated sites with ‘white’ peat
Fochteloerveen
80feb-00
60
70eb 00
nov-00nov-01okt-02
40
50
ver (
%)
30
40
Cov
10
20
0
aeru
lea
tetr
alix
vulg
aris
phor
umgi
natu
m
phor
umst
ifoliu
m
hagn
umpi
llosu
m
hagn
umus
p/re
c
wat
er
olin
iar)
Mol
inia
ca
Eric
a
Cal
luna
v
Erio vag
Erio
pan
gus
Sph
pap
Sph cu
Ope
n (w
ith M
olit
ter
ConclusionsIntroduction of species and compartimentation may be required
Redevelopment of Sphagnum carpet depends on abundance and establishment of Sphagnum spec. and fluctuations of water levels.
Waterlogging/Shallow inundation(< 30 )
Growth of Sphagnum cuspidatum may result in floating raft formation only when coloration of the water is not to high and if
Black peat
(< 30 cm)
Introduction of species may be
Floating raft formation may occur if adequate substrate becomes buoyant (depends on substrate
coloration of the water is not to high and if inorganic carbon fluxes are sufficiently high
Deep inundation(>> 30 cm)
required
Introduction of species may be y ( p
qualities).
Bog remnant
(>> 30 cm)
No development of Sphagnum carpets due t it bl diti
required
Introduction of substrate and to unsuitable conditions species may be required
White peat/acrotelm
Shallowinundation
Swelling of peat surface Sphagnum species show a rapid horizontal expansion when conditions become wetter
Introduction of species may be requiredbecome wetter.
