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Leadership: Concepts and skills of leadership, Leadership andmanagerial roles, Leadership styles and effectiveness,Contemporary issues in leadership.

Motivation: Motivation concepts, Motives, Theories of motivationand their applications for behavioural change.

Team Building & Empowerment: Nature of effective groups,Team formation, making teams effective, Cross functional andself directed teams, empowerment.Conflict Resolution: Conflict definition; causes of organizational,group & role conflicts; conflict resolution and management

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Leadership means: style of a leader

Leader:

Individual who influences others towards a common larger goal

Characteristics:

Manager Leader

Administers Innovates

Maintains Develops

Focuses on systems & structure Focuses on people

Relies on control Inspires trust

Short term perspective Long term perspective

Asks how & when Asks what & why

Eyes on bottom line Eyes on horizon

Accepts status quo Challenges status quo

Does things right Does the right thing

The historically important studies on leadership1. The Iowa leadership studies:

a. The experiments were designed to examine patterns ofaggressive behaviour

b. Under authoritarian leadership, members were apathetic

c. The laissez faire leadership, produced more aggressiveacts

d. Under democratic leadershipi. Members behaviour fell between authoritarian &

laissez faire leadership styles2. The Ohio State of leadership studies

a. The following two dimensions of leadership emerged:i. Consideration

1. Means: mission / task or goal orientationii. Initiating structures

1. Concern for the welfare of the troops /recognition of individual needs & relationships

iii. The study shows how leaders carry out theirleadership function

iv. The study points out & emphasis the importance ofboth task & human dimensions

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3. The early Michigan leadership studiesa. If supervisors had a genuine concern for employees, the

production was highb. If supervisors were production centered, production was

lowc. Employee satisfaction was directly related to productivity

Traditional theories on leadership:1. Trait leadership

a. Leaders are born & not made2. Situational approach

a. Contingency theory of leadershipi. Leader viewed as a product of time & situationii. The person with a particular trait that a situation

requires will emerge as leaderb. Fiedler observed under favourable situation the task

directed leadership was most effectivec. Under unfavourable situation, authoritarian leadership

was most effectived. When the situation was in between favourable &

unfavourable, democratic leadership emerged3. Path-goal leadership theory

a. It attempts to explain the impact of leaders behaviour onsubordinates: motivation, satisfaction & performance

b. This gives rise to following leadership styles:i. Directive leadership

1. leaders gives direction2. subordinates knows what has to be done3. no participation of subordinates

ii. Supportive leadership1. leader approachable2. shows genuine concern for subordinates

iii. Participative leadership

1. leader asks for suggestions from subordinates2. but the decision making rests with the leader

iv. Achievement-oriented leadership1. leader sets challenging goals for subordinates2. shows confidence in them that they will attain

& perform well

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c. using one of the four styles contingent on the situationalfactors, the leader attempts to influence subordinatesperceptions & motivates them, which in turn leads to theirrole clarity, goal expectations, satisfaction & performance

Modern theoretical process of leadership

Includes:o Charismatic leadership theories

Individuals who by the force of their personalabilities are capable of having profound &extraordinary effects on followers

o Transformational

Are people oriented

While transactional leaders are task orientedo Social cognitive

Interaction style between leader & his subordinates

Their respective behaviours have a mutual impacton each other

The leader should believe that his employees willrise to occasion

o Substitutes

They are neutralizers that prevent leader frombehaving in certain way

These substitutes or neutralizers can be found insubordinate, task & in organization

Examples

Subordinate:o Works for satisfaction & not reward

Task:o Tasks are structured

Organization:o Cohesive work group

The theory tries to point out that some things arebeyond leaders control

Leaders do not have mystical powers over people.The situation plays a role

o Authentic

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The authentic leader is: confident, hopeful,optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral futureoriented, & develops associates

To be authentic,

The leader should be aware of his ownstrength & weakness, & regulate his ownbehaviour

The organizational environment should besupportive & conducive for development of theabove qualities

Leadership across cultures:o In a global economy, the key to making right choices

comes from having qualities like personal values, themanagers background [upbringing] & interpersonal skills

Great leaders: styles, activities & skills

Leadership styles:o The Tannenbaum & Schmidt continuum of leadership

behaviour

Could be either boss centered or people centered

Boss centered People centered

Theory X Theory Y

Autocratic Democratic

Production centered Employee centeredClose General

Initiating structure Consideration

Task directed Human relations

Directive Supportive / Participative

o Range of behaviour of a leader:

Makes decisions & announces

Sells decision

Presents ideas & invites suggestion Presents tentative decisions, subject to change

Presents problems. Get suggestions,& makesdecisions

Defines limit, asks group to make decision

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Permits subordinates to function within definedboundaries

o The Blake & Mouton managerial grid

It represents varying combination of concern forpeople & task

1:1: low concern for people & low concern for task

1:9: low concern for task & high concern for people

9:9: high concern for people & high concern for task

9:1: high concern for task & low concern for people

5:5: middle of the road

1:9 9:91:1 9:1

o Hersey & Blanchards approach

Identifies two major styles:

Task styleso Roles are defined

o Task w.r.t.: What / When / How is told in

advance

Relationship styles

o Leader has close relationship withmembers

o Communication is open

o Psychological support

Taking a contingency approach to recognize situationalvariables; Hersey & Blanchard incorporated the maturity of thefollowers into the model. The level of maturity is defined by thefollowing criteria:

o Degree of achievement motivation

o Willingness to take on responsibility

o Amount of education & / or experience

The key for leadership effectiveness in this model is to matchup the situation with the appropriate style. The following are thebasic four styles:

o Telling style

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High Task, Low on Relationshipo Selling style

High Task & High Relationshipo Participating style

Low on Task; High Relationshipo Delegating style

Low on Task, Low Relationship

Todays Leadership Styles:o Blake Mouton managerial grid & Hersey & Blanchards

are still relevant in todays contexto Jim Collins: 5 Leadership Style:

The essence of level 5 leadership is, having anambition for the cause of the work, the outcome, the

company, the organization: above self. And at thesame time, having the ferocious, frightening,terrifying wilfulness to act on that ambition

o Leadership researchers House & Podsakoff behaviours &

approaches of great leaders based on charismatic &transformational theories came out with behaviours &approaches of great leaders:

Vision

Passion & self-sacrifice

Confidence, determination & persistence Image building

Role modelling

External representation

Expectations of & confidence in followers

Selective motive arousal

Frame alignment [alignment of goals / ideologies /activities]

Inspirational communication

The roles & activities of leadership

Mintzberg proposes the following managerial roles:o Interpersonal roles

Figurehead

Motivator

Liaison

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o Informational roles

Monitor

Disseminator

spokesman

o Decision roles Entrepreneur

Disturbance handler

Resource allocator

NegotiatorActivities of successful & effective leaders

The time spent by above managers in the activities engaged by them:

types of

managers

traditional

management

communication people

management

networking

average 32% 29% 20% 19%

successful 13% 28% 11% 48%

effective 19% 44% 26% 11%

Managers need to develop their people skills if they are to be effective

Leadership skills:

Cultural flexibility

Communication skills HRD skills

Creativity

Self-management of learning

According to Whetten & Cameron , a leader should haveo Personal skills

Consists of:

Developing self awarenesso Determining values & priorities

o Identifying cognitive styleo Assessing attitude toward change

Solving problems creativelyo Using the rational approach

o Using the creative approach

o Fostering innovations in others

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Managing stresso Coping with stressors

o Managing time

o Delegating

o Interpersonal skills

Consists of:

Communicating supportivelyo Coaching

o

Counsellingo Listening

Gaining power & influence:o Gaining power

o Exercising influence

o Empowering others

Motivating otherso Diagnosing poor performance

o Creating a motivating environment

o Rewarding accomplishments Managing conflict

o Identifying causes

o Selecting appropriate strategies

o Resolving confrontations

Leadership skills & career development program

Three primary areas to be developed:o Knowledge

o Trust

o Power Leadership can be taught

1. Comment: Men make better leaders thanwomen

2. How do you build trust?

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3. Do you think trust evolves out of anindividuals personal characteristics or out ofspecific situations? Explain

4. What kind of activities should you as a studentpursues that might lead to the perception thathe / she is a charismatic leader? In pursuingthose activities, what might the student do toenhance this perception of being charismatic?

MOTIVATIONMeaning

It is a process.

Starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need

That activates a behaviour or drive

That is aimed to at a goal or incentive

Primary motives:

includes:o Hunger

o Thirst

o Sleep

o Avoidance of pain

o Sex

o Maternal concern

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Two criteria must be met in order for a motive to be included inthe primary classification

o Unlearned

o Physiological

Since people have the same physiological makeup, they willessentially have the same primary needs

General motives

The curiosity, manipulation & activity motives

If the above motives are not expressed in an organizationpeople may not be motivated

Affection motive is closely associated with primary motive

Secondary motives:

Are closely tied to the learning concepts

A motive must be learned in order to be included in secondaryclassification

It includes:o Power

o Achievement

o Affiliation

In the study of OB, following motives are also included insecondary motives:

o Security

o Status

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motives

Extrinsic:o Extrinsic motives are tangible & visible to others

o They are distributed by other people

o Extrinsic motives include rewards & avoidance of

punishment. Extrinsic rewards are contingency based

Intrinsic:o Are internally generated

o Includes feelings of responsibility, achievement,

accomplishmento Performing meaningful work has been associated with

intrinsic motion

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Work motivation approaches:

Consists ofo Content theories

Includes;

Scientific management

Human relations

Maslow

Herzberg

Alderfer

Process theorieso Includes:

Lewin & Tolman

Vroom Porter & Lawler

Lawler

Contemporary theorieso Festinger & Homans

o Adams

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

He identified following needs:

o Physiological Corresponds to basic needs, viz. food, clothing &

shelter

Taken care by pay packeto Safety

Includes both emotional & physical safety

Loss of employment

Injury to any part of the body

Taken by care by various social legislation

o Social Corresponds to affection & affiliation needs

Being member of a team

o Esteem

Need for power, achievement & status

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Titles, symbolso Self-actualization

Realizing ones potential

Personal growth

According to him, once the lower needs are fulfilled, then theindividual moves to the next level

Herzbergs two factor theory

Hygiene factors includes:o Companys policy & administration

o Supervision

o Salary

o Interpersonal relations

o Working conditions

Motivator factors: includes:o Achievement

o Recognition

o Work itself

o Responsibility

o Advancement

Alderfers ERG theory

He identified three core needs

o Existence Relates to physiological well being

o Relatedness

Relates to social relationshipo Growth

Relates to personal development

According to him an individual can be at the same time at twolevels

Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation: It is built around the concept of valence, instrumentality &

expectancy

Valence means the strength of an individuals preference. Thevalue which an individual puts to the outcome

Expectancy means the probability that a particular action oreffort will lead to the particular outcome

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Instrumentality means the degree to which the effort should beput to accomplish the outcome

The Porter-Lawler model

It consists of the following steps:

o Value of reward

o Perceived effort

o Efforts

o Abilities

o Role perceptions

o Performance

o Rewards [intrinsic & extrinsic]

o Perceived equitable rewards

o Satisfaction Equity theory of work motivation

o Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of

his / her outcome to inputs & the ratio of a relevant othersoutcomes to inputs are unequal

o Both the inputs & the outputs of the person & the other

are based on the persons perceptionso Outcomes consists of rewards [both intrinsic & extrinsic]

Motivation across cultures The following factors contribute to the motivational differences

across culture:

The roles of religion

The role of uncertainty avoidance

The role of power distance

1. What is the role of self-efficacy in goalsetting?

2. Explain the formula: Performance = f[A X M XO] & give an example

3. Can an individual be too motivated so that hisperformance declines as result of excessiveeffort? Discuss

4. Performance cant measure, so any effort tolink pay with performance is a fantasy.

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Differences in performance are caused by thesystem, which means the organization endsup rewarding the circumstances.

TEAMThe nature of groups:

If a group exists in an organization, its members:o Are motivated to join

o Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people

o Contribute in various amounts to the group processes [i.e.

some people contribute more time or energy to the groupthan do others]

o Reach agreements & have disagreements through

various forms of interaction

Group dynamics describes how a group should be organized &conducted

Stages in group formation:

Formingo There is uncertainty & even confusion

o Members are not sure about the purpose, structure, task

or leadership of the group

Stormingo It is characterized by conflict & confrontation

o Atmosphere is emotionally charged, for there is

considerable disagreement & conflict among themembers about roles & duties

Normingo Cooperation & collaboration sets in.

o Have we feeling with a high cohesion, group identity &

camaraderie

Performingo Group is fully functioningo Devoted to effectively accomplishing the tasks agreed

upon.

Adjourningo It represents the end of the group

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Types of group

Small & large groups

Primary & secondary groups

Coalitions

Membership & Reference groupso Example of membership: crafts union

o Example of reference group: individual like to belong. or

become member of a prestigious social groups

In & out groupso In groups are those who have or share the dominant

valueso Out groups are those on the outside looking in.

Formal & informal groups

Factors that increase & decrease group cohesiveness:Factors that increase groupcohesiveness

Factors that decreases groupcohesiveness

Agreement on group goals Disagreement on group goals

Frequency interaction Large group size

Personal attractiveness Unpleasant experiences

Intergroup competition Intragroup competition

Favourable evaluation Domination by one or moremembers

Group / Team effectiveness

The following are the ways to enhance the satisfaction &performance of the group:

o Organize work around intact groups

o Having groups charged with selection, training &

rewarding of memberso Using groups to enforce strong norms for behaviour

o Distributing resources on a group rather than an individual

basiso Allowing & perhaps even promoting intergroup rivalry so

as to build within group solidarity

The following factors play a major role in determining groupeffectiveness:

o Task interdependence

How closely group members work together

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o Outcome interdependence

How group performance is rewardedo Potency

Members belief that the group can be effective

To assess group / team effectiveness, first determine thecriteria

Effective groups are characterized as being dependable,making reliable connections between the parts & targeting thedirection & goals of the organization

The dynamics of informal groups:

Formal groups have official prescribed goals & relationships,whereas the informal one does not

Both formal & informal coexist & are inseparable.

Norms & roles in informal groups:

Norms are the ought of behaviour. They are prescriptions foracceptable behaviour determined by the group.

Norms will be strongly enforced by work groups if they:o Aid in group survival & provisions of benefits

o Simplify or make predictable the behaviour expected of

group memberso Help the group avoid embarrassing interpersonal

problemso Express the central values or goals of the group & clarify

what is distinctive about the groups identity A role consists of a pattern of norms. A role is a position that

can be acted out by an individual. The content of a given role isprescribed by the prevailing norms

Role can be defined as a position that has expectations,evolving from established norms

The informal roles wield considerable power In organizations &

are recognized by effective managers

The informal organization:

Benefits of informal organizationo Makes for a more effective total system

o Lightens the workload on management

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o Fills in gaps in managers abilities

o Provides a safety valve for employees emotions

o Improves communication

The dysfunctions of groups & teams: Norm violation

o Results in antisocial behaviour

o If members are chronically exposed to antisocial

behaviours, are more likely to engage in them, resulting indissatisfaction

Role ambiguityo Occurs when the individual employee is unclear about

what is he supposed to be doing

Conflict

o Occurs when an individual is asked to performing tasks or

perform those tasks that are in conflicts with his ownpersonal value system

Groupthinko Results from the pressure on the individual members to

conform & reach consensus

Risky shifto A group may make more risky decision than the individual

members would on their own Social loafingo In a group some members do not contribute & the entire

workload falls on the rest of the group members.

TEAMS IN THE MODERN WORKPLACE: Difference between team & group

Work groups Factors Work teams

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Share information Goal Collectiveperformance

Neutral [sometimesnegative]

Synergy Positive

Individual Accountability Individual & mutualSupplementary Skills Complementary

Types of Teams Problem-solving

o Members are from same departments

o Meet at regular intervals to make the department effective

/ efficient Self managed

o Operate as profit centers

Cross-functionalo Members from different functionso Meet regularly to make the organization effective /

efficient Virtual

o Members physically dispersed

o Work to achieve common goal through computer

How to make team teams more effective?

Through

o Tem building To build a team, we require time & training

Monitor & evaluate on a continuous basis thefollowing key areas:

Teams mission

Goal achievements

Feelings of empowerment

Communications

Roles & norms that are positive

o Collaboration Process of collaboration involves learning how-to

improve interpersonal interactions in group settingswhile committing to a common agenda

o Leadership

Traits of a leader

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Be fair / decisive / trustworthy

Take the blame & give the credit to otherso Understanding cultural issues

Selection of team members with common cultural

backgrounds Respect local laws

Creating effective teams

the model consists of following four categories:o work design: includes: autonomy / skill variety / task

identity / task significanceo composition: includes: competence / attitude

o context: includes: leadership

o process: includes: common purpose / team efficacy /conflict

Turning individuals into team players:

focus ono communicate openly & honestly,

o resolving conflicts

o cultureo

1. How can management invigorate stagnant teams?

2. Dont teams create conflict? Isnt conflict bad? Why then, would

management support the concept of teams?

3. How do you think member expectations might affect team

performance?

4. Under what conditions will challenge of creating team players

be greatest?

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CONFLICTS

Characteristics of the term conflict: Misunderstanding over an issue, because of differences in

perception Can be

o Functional: improves performance

o Dysfunctional: hinders performance

Levels of conflict:o Intra-individual

o Interpersonalo Intergroup

o organizational

Intra-individual:o Forms of conflict in terms of:

o Frustration

o Goals

o Roles

Conflicts due to frustration

When motivated drive is blocked, before a person reaches adesired goal

The barrier may be overt [outward / physical] or covert [inward /mental]

Expressed in the form of defence mechanism, like:o Aggression

Depends upon the perception of being victimized byothers

o Withdrawal

Because of motivational problemso Fixation

Rules become end in themselves

Expressed as irrational bureaucratic behaviouro Compromise

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Where motivated goals cannot be achieved, &fulfilment is sought outside the job

Goal conflict:

Occurs when the goal has both positive & negative features ortwo or more competing goals clash

Types of goal conflicto Approach-approach conflict

Individual is motivated to approach two or positivebut mutually exclusive goals

o Approach-avoidance conflict

Individual is motivated to approach a goal & at thesame time he is motivated to avoid it

The single goal contains both positive & negativecharacteristics for the individual

o Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Individual is motivate to avoid two or more negativebut mutually exclusive goals

Role conflict & ambiguity

There are three major types of role conflict:o Person & the role

Clash between my expectations & role expectationso Intrarole conflict

Contradictory expectations about how a given roleshould be played

o Interrole conflict

Differing requirements of two or more roles thatmust be played at the same time

Ambiguity::o When expectation are mot stated

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Interactive conflict

Refers to interpersonal conflict

Cause is attributed to personality or defect in other person

Four major sources:o Personal differences

No two people are alike.

Hence becomes source of conflicto Information deficiency

Cause is due to communicationo Role incompatibility

For example production manager & sales managershave both have interdependent functions. Howeverthe role of production manager is to cut costs, whilesales manger has the role of increasing roles

through increased sales,. The sales manager may make delivery promises to

customers that are incompatible with the lowinventory levels maintained by production manager

o Environmental stress

Environment is stressful

For example: scarce or shrinking resources,downsizing

The dynamics of individual interacting with one another is as

follows:o Forcing

Assertive / uncooperativeo Accommodating

Unassertive / cooperativeo Avoiding

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Uncooperative / unassertiveo Compromising

Between assertiveness & cooperativenesso Collaborative

Cooperative / assertive

Intergroup behaviour & conflict Occurs when whenever when individuals belonging to one

group interact, collectively or individually with another group orits members

Reasons for intergroup conflicto Competition for resources

o Task interdependence

o Jurisdictional ambiguity

o Status struggle

The effects of stress & intraindividual conflict

Conflicts results in stress.

Stress affects performance

The effect of stress can be seeno Physically

Immunity reduces

Heart problems

Tension / headaches / back pain

Constipation / ulcer / diabeticso Psychologically

Anger

Anxiety

Depression

Nervousness

Irritability

Tension

Boredom

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o Behaviourally

Undereating / overeating

Sleeplessness

Increased smoking / drinking

Drug abuse

Coping strategies for stress & conflict

Individual coping strategieso Exercise

o Relaxation

o Time management

o Socialization

Organizational coping strategieso Be proactive

o Improved personnel selection & job placement

o

Realistic goal settingo Increased employee involvement

o Improved organizational communication

o Establishment of corporate wellness programs [employee

physical & mental conditions]

Negotiation skills: going beyond conflict management

Take integrative approach that uses problem-solvingtechniques to find win-win outcomes

It is based on a collaborative strategy

This approach is also called as principled negotiation ornegotiation based on merits

There are four elements in this approach to negotiation:o People

Separate people from problemo Interest

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Focus on interest & not positionso Options

Generate variety of options, before deciding what todo

o Criteria Result should be based on some objective

standards

The integrative approach requires the effective negotiator touse skills like:

o Establishing Superordinate goals

o Separating people from problem

o Focusing on interest rather than positions

o Inventing options for mutual gain

o Using objective criteria For effective negotiations the techniques have been grouped

into degrees of risk which is as followso Low risk negotiation techniques

Flattery

Addressing easy point

Silence

Make counteroffer

Gain sympathy

o High risk negotiation techniques Unexpected temper loss

High balling [ gain concessions based on trust]

Boulwarism [take it or leave it]

Waiting until the last moment [when deadline isnear, make a reasonable but favourable offer,leaving the opponent little choice but to accept]

The outcome of negotiation should be win: win

1. Under what conditions might conflict be beneficial to a group?2. How could a manager stimulate conflict in his department?3. How do men & women differ if at all in their approaches to

negotiation?4. Why isnt integrative bargaining more widely practised in

organization?

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