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Gender Role Attitudes andWomen’s Labour Market Outcomes
Nicole Fortin
Department of Economics, UBC
and
Social Interactions, Identity and Well-Being Program
Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR)
Fortin - Toronto - November 20082
The Slowdown in the Economic Progress of Women ◦ Despite progress in women’s preparation for the labour
market◦ Despite progress in gender equality policies
Is the Persistence of Traditional Attitudes about Women’s Roles at Play? 1) Evidence from differences across OECD countries using
data from the World Value Surveys (1990,1995, 1999)
2) Evidence the evolution of these attitudes over the past 30 years in these attitudes in the United States
What about Women’s Subjective Well-Being?
Plan of the Presentation
Because women’s preparation for the labour market has seen a stupendous improvement, many expected that the gender pay gap would have closed by now
Broad Motivation
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Enrolments Degree Granted
Percentage of Women in University Enrolment and Degree Granted
Source: Statistics Canada
Among young adults, the proportion of women with a university degree has increased substantially
Source: Frenette and Coulombe (2007)
Women have also come a long way in terms of work ambition
Percentage of young adults who indicated that “Being successful at work” was ``very important" to them in life
1974 (20) 1982 (20) 1984 (20) 1992 (18)65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
U.S. Women U.S. Men
Year(Age)
But women’s have not closed the gap in terms of the importance of money
Percentage of young adults who indicated that “Having lots of money” was “very important" to them in life
1974 (20) 1982 (20) 1984 (20) 1992 (18)0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
U.S. Women U.S. Men
Year(Age)
Percentage of young adults (age 20 in 1974) who indicated that the following values were “very important" in selecting a career
But other aspects of a job more important to women, such opportunities to be helpful and useful
helpful to others or useful to so-
ciety
work with people rather than things
chance to be a leader
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
U.S. Women U.S. Men
Percentage who mention that “Good hours” an important aspect of a job”
Or good hours
Source: World Value Surveys
1990 1990 1995 1999 1999U.S. Canada U.S. U.S. Canada
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Women Men
Starting in the mid-1990s, the gender convergence in pay began to slow down
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00 one year job tenure age 16-64
one year job tenure age 25-54
FTFY age 16-64
FTFY age 25-54
Female/Male Median Hourly Wage Ratio
Source: Fortin and Schirle (2006)
The gender convergence in pay has continue to slow down in the early 2000s
19761978
19801982
19841986
19881990
19921994
19961998
20002002
20042006
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
All Age Groups 25 to 34 years
Gender equality policies, such as Ontario and Quebec pay equity policies, may have provided modest improvements, but not long-lasting results…
19761978
19801982
19841986
19881990
19921994
19961998
20002002
20042006
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
Quebec Ontario British Columbia
Female-Male Earnings Ratio - Full-Time Workers
Source: Statistics Canada
Fortin - Toronto-13
The relatively meager efficacy of pay equity policies is not surprising to economists.◦ They have noted serious implementation issues
with a complex legislation (Baker and Fortin, 2004)
The policy tackles legitimate fairness issues only in the◦ “what you do” aspect of the gender pay gap, it
leaves untouched the effects of the other sources of the gender pay gap
Is it: Who you are, what you do, or where you work?
Fortin - Toronto-14
“where you work”: woman are more likely to work for small firms and for non-profit organizations
“who you are”: not only a woman, but also a “supportive wife”, a “soccer or hockey mom”, a “caregiver” to your elders
Is it: Who you are, what you do, or where you work?
Fortin - Toronto- November 200815
Economists have long argued that gender differences in labour market experience accounted for a large part of the gender pay gap.
For example, O’Neill and O’Neill (2005) find that half of the gender pay gap (in the U.S. circa 2000) can be traced back to life-time differences in labour market experience.◦ They find no significant gender pay gap among
childless women who never married…
Women’s Double Shift
Fortin - Toronto-16
Because of the double shift of home and workplace responsibilities, women may be less able or willing to put in the extra-effort at work that earn their male counterparts some extra money.◦ In fact, about two times more women than men
work part-time
Alternatively, employers anticipating this effect may practice some statistical discrimination and provide women with lower level of training for promotions.
Women’s Double Shift
Fortin - Toronto- November 200817
The debate now focuses on family-friendly policies both employer-provided and government supported◦ such as extended maternity leaves◦ subsidized child-care vs. child tax credit
At the center of that debate is the role or identity of women ◦ as childless career women ◦ as part-time/full-time “working (for pay) moms”◦ as stay-at-home moms, “volunteering moms”
More recently, family-friendly policies have being emphasized in the public debate
The gender convergence in labour force participation has also slowed down
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
Canadian Men Canadian Women American Men American Women
Labour Force Participation Rate 25 to 44 Year Olds
Source: Statistics Canada, LFS and U.S. BLS, March CPS
Fortin – Toronto- November 200819
In the United States, the leveling-off or slight retreat of women’s labour force participation has been described as “Opting Out” in the popular press and among sociologists
◦ The “Opting Out" phenomena is conceived as the labour market withdrawal of college-educated women when they have children,
◦ perhaps out of concern for the welfare of their offspring, and/or
◦ perhaps because of the stresses of living in two-earner families or succeeding in the labor market.
Are women ‘Opting Out’ of the labour force?
The differences across provinces in family-friendly policies may make a difference, but it does not seem to be the full story
Source: Statistics Canada, LFS
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
50.0%
55.0%
60.0%
65.0%
70.0%
75.0%
80.0%
85.0%
90.0%
95.0%
100.0%
Quebec Ontario British Columbia
Labour Force Participation Rates - Women 25 to 44 Year Olds
Fortin - Toronto- November 200821
While we might hope the more family-friendly Canadian policies may be at play in explaining the Canada-U.S. differences in the leveling-off of FLP, more conservative views among our southern neighbours may be part of the explanation
In Quebec, concerns about different views regarding gender equality have been on the agenda at the recent commission on the accommodation of minorities.
Is the persistence of traditional attitudes about women’s roles at play?
Fortin - Toronto- November 200822
I have studied the relationship between gender role attitudes and women’s labour market outcomes
1) Comparing differences in attitudes, both of women and of men, across OECD countries and over time (Fortin, 2005) using data from the World Value Surveys (1990,1995, 1999)
2) Following the evolution over the past 30 years in these attitudes in the United States using data from General Social Surveys (1977-2006)
Is the persistence of traditional attitudes about women’s roles at play?
Fortin - Toronto- November 200823
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
◦ “When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women”
Do you agree strongly, agree, disagree, or disagree strongly?
◦ “A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work”
◦ “Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay”
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions about gender role attitudes
Percentage who agree with the statement
“Scarce jobs should go to men first”
Source: World Value Surveys
1990 1990 1995 1999 1999U.S. Canada U.S. U.S. Canada
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Women Men
Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men First”
TK
ES
BEIE ITNL FRCH ATJPDEW
CAPT
UKUSIS
HU PLDKFINO
SECZDE
SK
TK
ES
PL
FI DE JPDEWUS AS CH
SENO
TK
ES
IE PTBE JPFR IT
HUUKNL CA PLGR
ATFI USSKCZIS
DKSE
.25
.5.7
51
Wo
me
n's
Em
plo
yme
nt
Ra
te
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men First
1990 1995
1999 Fitted values
Source: WVS
Percentage who strongly agree or agree with the statement
“A working mother can be a good mother”
Source: World Value Surveys
1990 1990 1995 1999 1999U.S. Canada U.S. U.S. Canada
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Women Men
Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “A working mother can be a good mother”
TK
ES
BEIEITNLFR
AT JPDEW
CAPT
UK USIS
HU DKFINO
SECZDE
SK
TK
ES
PL
FIDE JPDEWUSAS
SENO
TK
ES
PTBE JPFRIT
HUUKNLCAPL GR
FIUSSKCZ IS
DK SE
.25
.5.7
51
Wom
en's
Em
ploy
men
t Rat
e
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9Working Mom OK
1990 19951999 Fitted values
Source: WVS
Percentage who strongly agree or agree with the statement
“Being a housewife as fulfilling as working for pay”
Source: World Value Surveys
1990 1990 1995 1999 1999U.S. Canada U.S. U.S. Canada
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Women Men
Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay”
TK
ES
BE IEIT NL FRAT JP
DEWCAPT UK US
ISHUDK
FI NOSE
CZDESK
TK
ES
PL
FIDE JPDEW USAS
SENO
TK
ES
PTBE JPFRIT
HU UKNL CAPLGR
FI USSK CZIS
DKSE
.25
.5.7
51
Wom
en's
Em
ploy
men
t Rat
e
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9Being a Housewife Fulfilling
1990 19951999 Fitted values
Source: WVS
Fortin - Toronto- November 200830
Accounting for a complete host of factors, that include women’s education, volunteering activities, competitiveness, public expenditures on child care, the following effects stand out:
“Scarce jobs should to the men first” is the attitude that more robustly negatively associated with women’s employment rates ◦ It is stronger using lagged values◦ Men’s attitudes still very significant
These views are however softening among recent cohorts.
Do gender roles attitudes help account for differences in women’s employment rates across countries?
Fortin - Toronto- November 200831
The enduring perceptions of women’s main role as homemakers could also be implicated in the recent slowdown of the gender convergence in pay.
Finally, the unavoidable clash between family values and equalitarian views, that takes the form of an inner conflict for many women─ the so-called mother’s guilt─, is another obstacle in the path towards greater gender equality in the labour market.
Do gender roles attitudes help account for differences in women’s employment rates across countries?
Can the evolution of gender role attitudes over time help explain the evolution of women’s labour force participation?
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
American Women
Labour Force Participation Rate 25 to 44 Year Olds
Source: U.S. BLS, March CPS
Average agreement with the statement :“It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.”
1977
1978
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1993
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
American Women 18-65 year oldsSource: US-GSS
Average agreement with the statement :“It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.”
1977
1978
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1993
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Baby-boomers Generation X
Source: US-GSS
Average agreement with the statement :“A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work.”
1977
1978
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1993
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
American Women 18-65 year olds
Source: US-GSS
Average agreement with the statement :“A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work.”
1977
1978
1980
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1993
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Baby-Boomers Generation X
Source: US-GSS
Fortin - Toronto- November 200839
How have these changes in labour market outcomes affected women’s well-being?
Many social scientists, and some economists, attempt to answer these types of questions using subjective measure of well-being, life-satisfaction or happiness.
Women’s Subjective Well-Being
Fortin - Toronto- November 200840
While not an ideal measure, the GSS asks:
◦ “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days. Would you say that you are: Very happy, pretty happy or not too happy?”
U.S. General Social Surveys: Question about Subjective Well-Being
Gender Convergence in Happiness among Labor Force Participants
1972
1974
1976
1978
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1993
1996
2000
2004
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Women Very happy Men Very happyWomen Not too happy Men Not too happy
Source: US-GSS
Source: Stevenson and Wolfers, 2008
Fortin - Toronto-November 200843
At the beginning of the 21st century, more than 30 years after the beginning of the 1960’s Women Liberation Movement, the secular decline in traditional gender roles attitudes seems to have bottomed out.
Will the myth of “having it all”, both career and family, turned out to be a generational phenomenon?
Has it actually mostly mesmerized the pioneering boomer generation for whom it was largely an untested experience?
Has the reality of the “double shift” rung closer to home and felt less attractive to recent generations?
Conclusions
Thank you!
Fortin - Toronto- November 200845
Women’s have come a long way in terms in work ambition
Fortin - Toronto-November 200846
Gender Differences in Work Values
Source: Stevenson and Wolfers, 2008
Fortin - Toronto- November 200848
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions on Gender Role Attitudes
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? 1990-1997
1999-2001
Agree Neither Disagree DK
V128 V78 When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women
1 2 3 4
V129 When jobs are scarce, people should be forced to retire early
1 2 3 4
V130 V79 When jobs are scarce, employers should give priority to [BRITISH] people over immigrants
1 2 3 4
For each of the following statements I read out, can you tell me how much you agree with each. Do you agree strongly, agree, disagree, or disagree strongly? 1990-1997
1999-2001
Agree strongly
Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
DK
V113 One of my main goals in life has been to make my parents proud
1 2 3 4 9
V114 I make a lot of effort to live up to what my friends expect
1 2 3 4 9
V98 V115 A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work
1 2 3 4 9
V99 V116 Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay
1 2 3 4 9
V100 V117 Both the husband and wife should contribute to household income
1 2 3 4 9
V101 V118 On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do
1 2 3 4 9
V103 V119 A university education is more important for a boy than for a girl
1 2 3 4 9
Fortin - Toronto-49
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions on Work Values
Here are some more aspects of a job that people say are important. Please look at them and tell me which ones you personally think are important in a job? (CODE ALL MENTIONED)
1990-1997
1999-2001
MENTIONED
NOT MENTIONED
V75 V86 Good pay 1 2 V76 V87 Not too much pressure 1 2 V77 V88 Good job security 1 2 V78 V89 A job respected by people in general 1 2 V79 V90 Good hours 1 2 V80 V91 An opportunity to use initiative 1 2 V81 V92 Generous holidays 1 2 V82 V93 A job in which you feel you can achieve something 1 2 V83 V94 A responsible job 1 2 V84 V95 A job that is interesting 1 2 V85 V96 A job that meets one's abilities 1 2 EVS C024 A useful job to society 1 2 C025 Meeting people 1 2
V128 1990-97 V144 1999-2001
Competition is good. It Competition is harmful. It stimulates people to work hard brings out the worst in people and develop new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 DK=99
Fortin – Toronto- November 200850
Determinants of Women’s Employment Rates Across CountriesSource: Fortin (2005)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Averages by country Women’s Men’s Women’s Women’s Gender role attitudes: Lagged2 Scarce jobs should go -0.764 -0.546 -0.498 -0.909 to men first (-4.17) (-3.25) (-2.41) (-5.86) Being a housewife -0.109 -0.232 -0.042 -0.204 fulfilling (-1.08) (-2.07) (-0.26) (-1.26) Competition is OK 0.493 0.893 0.471 0.304 (1.79) (2.74) (1.98) (0.74) Volunteer in organizations with leader building skills 0.371 0.195 0.347 0.054 (1.85) (1.35) (2.03) (0.21) religious and cultural -0.359 -0.347 -0.320 -0.261 (-1.55) (-1.41) (-1.60) (-1.26) Log of public expenditures 0.115 0.047 on child care1 (7.50) (2.38) Time trend -0.002 -0.006 0.000 0.004 0.000 0.007
(-0.40) (-1.58) (-0.09) (1.22) (0.00) (0.84)
Adjusted-R square 0.221 0.674 0.652 0.675 0.791 0.830
No. observations 50 50 50 42 42 21
No. countries 26 26 26 21 21 16
Notes: Women’s education level are included in all regressions. The women’s
employment rates by country are reported in Table A1. T-values in parentheses are from robust clustering by country.
Fortin - Toronto-November 200851
Fortin, N.M. “The Gender Wage Gap among Young Adults in the United States: The Importance of Money vs. People,” Journal of Human Resources, 43 (Fall 2008): 886-920.
Fortin, N.M. “Gender Role Attitudes and Women’s Labour Market Outcomes Across OECD countries.” Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 21, No. 3 (November 2005): 416-438.
Fortin, N.M. “Gender Role Attitudes and Women’s Labor Market Participation: Opting-Out and The Persistent Appeal of Housewifery,” Working Paper, University of British Columbia, January 2008.
Bibliography