NO. 33 z OCTOBER 2008 z ISSN 0859-9742 · 2017. 11. 28. · Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter...

NO. 33 OCTOBER 2008 ISSN 0859-9742

Featuring

October 2008 Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 332

DISCLAIMER. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO and SEANAFE concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delineation of its frontiers or boundaries. The viewsexpressed in this publication are those of the contributing authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of theeditor(s) of FAO and SEANAFE.

OUR ADDRESS. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Website: http://www.fao.org and http://www.fao.or.th; E-mail [email protected]; SEANAFE c/o World AgroforestryCentre (ICRAF)-Southeast Asia Regional office, PO Box 61, Bogor 16001, Indonesia; Website: http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/networks/Seanafe/Index.asp; E-mail [email protected]

PRODUCTION. Patrick B. Durst, Akiko Inoguchi, Lutgarda L. Tolentino and Rowena D. Cabahug (EditorialConsultants); Leah P. Arboleda (Editor); Perseveranda G. Tubig and Reinelen M. Reyes (Production Assistants)

COVER PHOTO. A research initiative in Prey Veng Province, Cambodia explores the integration of Leucaenaleucocephala and other multipurpose trees in the rice fields, home gardens and livestock raising of farmers. Findingsshow that multipurpose trees help diversify traditional agroforestry practices in Cambodia, thereby improving andmaximizing farm productivity, and producing various products and services that provide for the basic needs of thefarmer and his family. (see story on page 12).

PRINTER. Thammada Press Co. Ltd., 86 Soi 501/1 Charansanitwong Road, Bangplad, Bangkok 10700 Thailand

Dear readersWe bring you the last issue ofAPANews for 2008 with a veryinteresting line-up of articles foragroforestry research, promotion anddevelopment, and education andtraining. Asia-Pacific is indeedwell-represented as we featurearticles from Cambodia, India,Indonesia, the Philippines, Sudan andthe US.

The article from Cambodia discussesthe findings of a research thatintegrates multipurpose tree species(MPTS) in the country’s farmingsystems. Read more on the productsand services that could be obtainedby integrating MPTS in homegardens, rice fields and livestockraising.

An article from India, meanwhile,discusses the capability ofagroforestry systems to thrive inrainfed, semi-arid, sub-tropicalregions by presenting the costs andreturns of various combinations oftrees and understorey crops. Find outhow agroforestry was able to adapt tothe conditions of this region.

In Indonesia, meanwhile, a researchexplored the impacts of alley croppingon the productivity of former pumice-mined lands. The findings of this

research attest to the capability ofagroforestry in rehabilitatingpreviously mined areas.

Our first contribution from Sudanpresents the findings of a researchthat explored the capability ofagroforestry to cope and/orrehabilitate areas suffering fromdesertification.

Desertification is considered aserious threat to land productivity asit destroys biological resources, thusmaking the land conditions similar tothat of a desert. Read more on thefindings of a series of experimentsimplemented in a span of three years.

A very significant article from the USdiscusses the role of windbreaks insaving the agricultural sector inFlorida, especially the vegetable andcitrus farming industries. Find outmore about the benefits derived fromwindbreaks, the extent of theireffectiveness, and how they can beeffectively established. Variouslessons and insights can be gainedfrom this article which can be appliedin agroforestry farms.

In the field of agroforestry education,an article from the Philippineshighlights how a state university was

able to successfully build andstrengthen the entrepreneurial skillsof their agroforestry students/graduates. Their experiences mayinspire other schools that are offeringsimilar agroforestry entrepreneurshipprograms.

Also, find out the latest activities andinitiatives of the Southeast AsianNetwork for Agroforestry Education(SEANAFE) in our featuredSEANAFE News. This issuehighlights the results of the network’s16th Board meeting, the next batch ofMS Research Fellowship grantees,training initiatives, special projects bythe country networks, and thelaunching of the network’s forestrypolicy project, among other updates.

We continue to featureannouncements of upcoming events,relevant websites, and newinformation resources that may be ofuse in your various agroforestryinitiatives.

We hope you enjoy reading this issueas we have enjoyed producing it.Again, thank you to all thecontributors and we hope to receivemore interesting articles from you inthe future! – The Editors

Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 33 October 2008 3

AGROFORESTRY RESEARCH

Studying the potentialsof agroforestry in copingwith desertificationin Northern SudanHaider Shapo ([email protected])

The northern region of Sudan is viablefor producing a number of food cropssuch as wheat, faba bean, fruits andsome spices. However, desertificationis the greatest threat to thedevelopment of agriculture as itcauses the continuous reduction ofarable land. Desertification is thedestruction of the land’s biologicalresources which can ultimately lead todesert-like conditions.

Aside from desertification,encroachment is also threatening theagricultural resource base of the land,including the livelihood and survival ofthe people and their communities. Inseveral areas of the region, desertencroachments are threatening theNile course itself (Figure 1).

Trees and alley cropping

Trees are important in sustaining farmproductivity. They protect the crops,help improve the microclimate, andprovide local communities with variousproducts and services. However, landscarcity and the high cost of irrigationrestrict the plantation of pure treestands in Northern Sudan.There is also lack of short-term incentives for peoplewhile the trees are youngand not yet commerciallyviable. This situationdiscourages communityparticipation which is thebasis for ensuringsustainability andmanagement ofafforestation activities.

In contrast to pure treestands, the alley croppingsystem is considered analternative option that can

Fig. 1. Desert encroachmentthreatens the Nile course.

Fig. 2. Mesquite trees invade arable land

Continued on page 4

reconcile the needs of the farmers forcrops and trees. Alley croppingestablishes trees and shrubs ashedgerows with food crops cultivatedin the alleys between the hedgerows.This type of agroforestry system hasbeen proven to achieve high andsustainable production of food crops,and tree products and services, and atthe same time protect the landagainst desertification.

Identifying suitable tree species

Successful afforestation relies on thecareful selection of suitable treespecies. Mesquite (Prosopischilensis) was found to be the mostsuitable tree species for NorthernSudan. It is a fast-growing tree, hasthe ability for drought-nitrogen fixation,and provides fuelwood and fodder.

However, Sudanese farmers are waryof planting mesquite because it canspread rapidly and become a noxiousweed. It blocks irrigation canals andcompetes with the commerciallyviable crops (Figure 2). Once a weed,mesquite is difficult to eradicate.

The Agricultural ResearchCorporation (ARC) in Sudan identifiedsuitable tree species that possesssimilar desirable attributes as that ofmesquite but do not behave asweeds. The tree species identifiedwere two Australian acacias, namely:Acacia ampliceps and Acaciastenophylla. They are consideredmultipurpose, fast-growing andnitrogen-fixing trees. They arethornless and can produce fodder.

The two tree species were tested in acomparative study with Prosopischilensis (mesquite). Results showedthat A.ampliceps performed betterthan the other two species in termsof tree volume and biomassproduction (Figure 3).

A. ampliceps was found to bedrought-resistant and requiremoderate amounts of water. On theother hand, A. stenophylla provedsuperior to A. ampliceps in terms ofdrought-tolerance. It was able tosurvive the dry season of NorthernSudan which is more than sevenmonths. It has an open canopy andthe dried pods were found effective asinsect repellent. Thesecharacteristics proved that the twoAustralian acacia were successfulcandidates for integration inagroforestry farms established inharsh and dry conditions.

Moreover, the growth habit andmorphology of these two trees permitthe cultivation of understorey crops.


Studying the potentials...Continued from page 3

Fig. 4. A. ampliceps can be asubstitute for mesquite in terms ofbiomass production. Fig. 5. A. stenophylla has an open canopy and deep roots.

Fig. 3. The yields of A. amplicepsare higher as compared to A.stenophylla and P. chillensis.

The two species also produce highorganic matter.

In addition, the juvenile, air-dry leavesand leaf litter of Acacia ampliceps aregrazed by different animals. It has avery high potential for fodderproduction, especially during leanperiods of the year. However, as the

tree becomes older, animals find theleaves less palatable.

The two trees were then tested on thefield to gauge their adaptability andsuitability to different forms ofafforestation. ARC releasedA.ampliceps in 1998 for biomassproduction and as a substitute formesquite under irrigation (Figure 4).A. stenophylla was also released byARC in the same year for integrationin farms that have been established inareas suffering from drought andwater shortage (Figure 5).

Three-year series of experiments

To help cope with desertification, astudy was conducted between 1998and 2000 to determine the effect ofalley cropping on the productivity ofdifferent agricultural crops. Theexperiments also investigated thepotential of an alley cropping system(6-m wide) to exploit residual water inthe surface horizons and beyond therooting depth of the associated crops(Figure 6).

The study site was established at theHudieba Research Station (HRS),300 km north of Khartoum, Sudan(17.57’N and 33.8’ E). The site lieswithin the desert to semi-desertregions of Northern Sudan and has amean annual rainfall of 0-150 mm.The summer season wascharacterized by high solar radiation,air temperatures, and wind speed butwith low relative humidity. May andJune were the hottest months with amean daily maximum temperature of42oC. Such harsh conditions limitedthe people from venturing intosummer farming.

In addition, the soil in the study sitewas generally alkaline (pH 7.8–8.4).The soil was non-saline and non-sodic with very low organic carbon(less than 0.1%). The soil texture atthe top 30 cm of the soil was loamysand. The amount of clay was foundto increase (40%) with increasing soildepth (60–120 cm). The amount of CaCO3 also increased as soil depthincreased. The soil belonged to theAridisols order and had reasonablyhigh water-holding capacity.

Evaluating potentialsand performance

Three nitrogen-fixing trees were usedas hedgerows, namely: Acaciaampliceps, Acacia stenophylla andLeucaena leucocephala. Changes inthe alley cropping microclimate werequantified and analyzed in relation toplant responses and the growth of allsystem components. Abovegroundinteractions were also examined byinstalling a series of weather stationsin the different zones of the alleys,and establishing control plots formonitoring microclimatic changes.

Results revealed that substantialamounts of wind speed and radiationwere reduced. There were slightreductions in the air temperatures,and significant increases in therelative humidity and soil moisture inthe alleys. In addition, there werecomplex interactions and extensiveoverlaps between different climaticfactors, and efficient use of water bythe system itself.



Fig. 6. The potential of alley cropping using A. ampliceps is measured in terms of height,DBH, leaf litter, air-dried stems and branches.

Continued on page 6

During the winter seasons of 1999 to2000, the average yields of wheat,faba bean and common bean plantedin the alleys increased by 69 percent,15 percent and 10 percent,respectively.

During the autumn season of 2000,the yield of groundnut planted in theA. stenophylla and A.amplicepsalleys increased by 37.7 percent and19.6 percent, respectively. The yieldof sesame increased in theA. stenophylla alley (+40.3%), while itdecreased in the A. ampliceps alley(-51.5%).

During the summer of 2000, the yieldof carrot increased by 487 percent.Reduced solar energy during this timewas advantageous to off-seasoncrops. The yield of sweet pepper alsoincreased as it produced 5 833 kg perhectare of fresh fruit. In addition,results of the tree-water-useinteraction showed that the treespecies differed in their abilities toextract water from the different soilhorizons. This was due to thedifferences in the trees’ growth andcompetitive interactions. The

A. stenophylla tree, with its deeproots and open canopy, was found tobe capable of saving most of theirrigation water. The most water savedby A. stenophylla occurred in June.

Conclusions

The results of these researchesshowed that A. stenophylla can beintegrated in alley cropping systemsin Northern Sudan to combatdesertification. The behavioralcharacteristics and growth habits ofthis tree were found highly suitable inthe country’s harsh conditions.

A. stenophylla not only improvesmicroclimatic conditions but alsotransmits sufficient amounts of lightthrough its canopy to promote thegrowth of understorey crops. It canalso extract water from levels beyondthe root zone of agricultural crops(below 60-cm deep), thus utilizing thewater in the alley cropping systemefficiently. More importantly, it canhelp increase the yields of cropsunder semi-desert conditions. Thiscapability addresses the utmostconcern of the people in the country– survival. The author works at theAgricultural Research Corporation, Box126,Wad Medani, Sudan, Africa.

Using alley cropping torehabilitate reclaimedpumice-mined land in IndonesiaBudi Hadi Narendra ([email protected])

Pumice is a type of igneous rockwhich is formed when lava coolsquickly during eruptions. Pumicerocks are so light that they canactually float on water. They are oftenused as decorative stones inlandscaping, and as abrasives inpolish cleanser compounds and evensoaps.

Pumice mining and its impacts

People collect pumice throughsurface mining activities. Pumice

mining is traditionally done by diggingholes at 5-7 m deep. Miners createnew holes to dig if they cannot findpumice in previously dug holes. Thistype of mining causes the topsoil todrift, especially during the rainyseason (Figure 1).

Pumice is mined in hilly areas,particularly during the rainy season.Miners cut the slope and sweep awaythe material using irrigation water(Figure 2). Miners then trap andcollect the pumice. This practice

causes the loss of topsoil by waterflow. As a result, irrigation waterbecomes turbid.

The district of Lombok Timur in theeastern part of Lombok island isknown for its pumice mining.Production reached 7 568 982 m3

from the spread of Selong, Masbagik,Sikur, and Sukamulia sub-districts.

Pumice mining has reduced soilfertility and thereby limits the cropsthat can be planted. Moreover, thelow rainfall in the area furtherconstrains people from farmingreclaimed pumice-mined lands. Infact, reclamation of pumice-minedlands is very rarely done due to thelack of technology to effectivelyregain its productivity.



Fig.1. People mine pumice by diggingholes.

Fig.2. Mining of pumice is done by cuttingthe slope and using flowing irrigation water. Fig. 3. Layout and species composition of the trial plots.

Exploring the potentialof alley cropping

From 2004 to 2006, a research wasconducted to explore theeffectiveness of alley cropping inimproving the soil properties of areclaimed pumice-mined land in thedistrict of Lombok Timur. The trialused some leguminous tree speciesas hedgerows and manure asadditional input. Alley cropping waschosen for its ability to improve soilproperties, reduce chemical fertilizerinputs, and provide both short- andlong-term benefits.

Designing the trial

The reclaimed pumice-mined land hada Regosol soil type with 10 YR 3/3color, sandy loam with medium tocoarse texture, pH 6.8, and very loworganic matter (0.83%). The area islocated 100 m asl and has a 15-degree slope. Annual average rainfallis 519 mm per year (BRLKT WilayahVII 1987).

The trial used the completely nestedrandomized block design. Teak(Tectona grandis) and mangoes

(Mangifera indica) were used as themain trees of the system. Threeleguminous species were used astreatments – leucaena (Leucaenaleucocephala), sesbania (Sesbaniagrandiflora), and gliricidia (Gliricidiasepium). Each plot used centrosema(Centrosema pubescen) as covercrop during the dry season. Manure(4.4 kg/m2) was applied to all thecrops.

During the rainy season, centrosemawas replaced with groundnut andmaize. Teak and mangoes wereplanted using 3 m x 4 m spacing,while 3-m spacing was used betweenhedgerows. The legumes andhedgerows were planted 0.5 m apart(Figure 3).

Obtaining multiple benefits

High growth rate of species.Converting the reclaimed pumice-mined land into an alley croppingsystem was successful. Eachspecies showed very high survivalrates (>90%) six months afterplanting. All the seedlings of teak,leucaena and sesbania survived. Thehigh survival rate demonstrated thehigh adaptability of the species to thearea’s climate and soil conditions.Centrosema showed high growth rate– growing to 50-cm thick andcompletely covering the soil surface.Centrosema is a shade-tolerantspecies that grows well under densecanopy because of its deep rootingsystem (Figure 4).

High amounts of green manure.The prunings from the differentlegumes were weighed and used asgreen manure. Among the threeleguminous tree species, sesbaniahad the highest leaf weight(4.5 ton/ha) during the first year of thetrial. Gliricidia, meanwhile, had the

Using alley cropping...Continued from page 5

highest leaf weight (8.6 tons/ha)during the second year.

The total weight of all the pruningswas 41.4 tons per hectare and45.1 tons per hectare in the first andsecond year, respectively. It wasassumed that this amount contributes1 percent nitrogen and 0.1 percentphosphorous to the soil, similar tothat of 207 kg of urea fertilizer and22 kg of phosphate fertilizer,respectively.

High quality forage. Aside frombeing used as green manure, theprunings could also be used asforage. The dry leaves contained highprotein content of up to 27 percent.

In the trial, leucaena had the lowestdry weight (1.6 and 6.0 ton/ha) amongthe leguminous tree species.Leucaena has balanced amounts ofprotein, minerals, and amino acidsand is low in both crude fiber andtannin content. These characteristicsmake leucaena a high quality forage(Panjaitan 2004). Leucaena also hashigh coppicing ability and its woodcan be used as fuelwood.

During the dry season of the firstyear, centrosema supplied 31.5 tonsper hectare of fresh weight forage.This amount can support 35 youngcows for six months assuming that ayoung cow weighs 100 kg andconsumes fresh weight forage of asmuch as 5 percent of its body weightdaily.

In the second year, when sesbania,gliricidia and leucaena pruningsshowed increasing weight,centrosema slightly decreased to2.3 tons per hectare. This decrease inweight could be the result ofincreased shading due to the denser



canopies of the three leguminous treespecies in the second year.

High crop harvests. In the rainyseason, groundnut and maize wereplanted in the alleys between theleguminous trees. These speciesreplaced centrosema as the covercrop (Figure 5).

Groundnut and maize harvests wereweighed (Table 1). Results showedthat groundnut obtained the highestweight (1.3 ton/ha) when planted inthe alleys between the sesbaniahedgerows. Meanwhile, maizeobtained the highest weight (2.5 tonsper hectare) when planted in betweenthe leucaena hedgerows.

These results were obtained aftermanure and green manure wereapplied. According to Purwono (2005),successive planting of groundnut andmaize can obtain harvests of1.2-2 tons per hectare and 2 tons perhectare, respectively.

The growth of teak and mangoes,meanwhile, did not show significantchanges in their normal growth rate.

Fig. 4. Centrosema (Centrosema pubescen)under the seedlings of gliricidia (Gliricidiasepium) and teak (Tectona grandis).

Fig. 5. Groundnut and maize are planted inthe alleys between the sesbaniahedgerows.

Improved soil properties. Two yearsafter establishing the alley croppingsystem, soil analysis revealedincreased organic matter, totalnitrogen, and available phosphorous,potassium, calcium and magnesiumin the soil. The increased soil organicmatter also improved soil structure,porosity, permeability, cationexchange capacity, and water-holdingcapacity.

These results showed that alleycropping, with leguminous trees ashedgerows, has the ability to improvethe soil properties of former pumice-mined lands. Improved soil propertiespave the way for increased landproductivity and consequently providelocal people with alternative sourcesof livelihood. More importantly, the trialdemonstrated the capability of thealley cropping system to rehabilitatelands whose resources have beendepleted by mining. The author is aresearcher at the Mataram Forestry ResearchInstitute, Jalan Dharma Bakti no. 7 DesaLangko, Kecamatan Lingsar, Lombok Barat -NTB – Indonesia.

References: 1) BRLKT Wilayah VII. 1987.Rencana Teknik Lapangan Rehabilitasi Lahandan Konservasi Tanah Sub DAS Menanga.Mataram.; 2) Panjaitan, T. S. 2004.

Sustaining farm productivitythrough windbreaksBijay Tamang ([email protected]), Michael G. Andreu and Donald L. Rockwood

Windbreaks are vertical structuresthat impede wind flow. They can beliving or non-living based on thematerial used.

Living windbreaks consist of plants(usually trees), whereas non-livingwindbreaks are often structures madefrom a variety of non-living materialsincluding metal and plastic cloth.Both types of windbreaks canpotentially provide the samefunctions, but while living windbreakstake longer to establish, they arecomparatively cheaper than non-livingwindbreaks.

Aside from impeding wind flow,windbreaks offer other benefits. If well-designed and appropriatelypositioned, windbreaks can increasecrop and livestock production, reducesoil erosion, improve microclimates,increase irrigation efficiency, controlthe spread of pathogens, reduceenergy cost, and serve as wildlifehabitat and buffer strips (both forwater quality and pesticide drift). Theycan also act as screens againstundesirable sights and add aestheticvalue to the landscape. Windbreakscan generate most of these benefitssimply by reducing wind speed thusmodifying the microclimate.

Challenges to Florida’svegetable and citrus farming

Vegetables and citrus are the majorfarm products of Florida. As of 2006,both products were exported to otherstates in the US and to as many as140 countries. Recently, however, theindustry is suffering from adverseconditions and diseases especiallyamong citrus species.

One element that contributes toadverse farming environments is wind.Regular sea breeze as well asseasonal wind events, associatedwith tropical storms and hurricanes,often cause soil erosion. As a result,large amounts of nutrients are lostalong with the eroded soil.

Soil erosion is one of the majoragricultural problems around theworld that depletes soil fertility in the

Continued on page 8


Mengenal Potensi Lamtoro Hibrida F1 (KX2)sebagai Sumber Pakan Ternak. BPTP NTB,Mataram; 3) Purwono. 2005. BertanamJagung Unggul. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta.


topsoil. Studies show that the nutrientlevel in wind-transported soil is higherthan in the remaining topsoil (Nuberg1998 and Sudmeyer and Scott 2002).In the long term, erosion of nutrient-rich soil particles will seriously depletesoil fertility and increase productioncost. Large soil particles, such assand, carried by winds, also causephysical abrasions to vegetables andfruits, thereby reducing their quality.

Aside from destructive winds and soilerosion, diseases are also threateningFlorida’s citrus industry. Wind and rainsplashes disperse citrus canker withinthe grove and between groves(Gottwald et al. 1992, and Grahamand Gottwald 1992). Citrus canker is adisease caused by bacteria thatspreads among citrus plants. Rainfacilitates canker spread as bacteriacan ooze onto the surface of theinfected leaves and fruits when cankerlesions are wet. The spread of cankerintensifies during events such ashurricanes.

Sustaining farm productivity...Continued from page 7

Citrus canker is one of the majordiseases that can be controlledthrough windbreaks. Windbreakshave been successfully applied tocontrol canker spread in Argentinasince the 1970s (Leite and Mohan1990). Research indicates thatwindbreaks reduce both temporal andspatial spread of canker moreeffectively than Copper (Cu)bactericide, a standard methodwidely used for canker control(Gottwald and Timmer 1995).

The spread of canker during the2004-2005 hurricane seasonsdamaged the citrus industry ofFlorida. Some experts have indicatedthat the industry may not return tothe production level prior to the 2004-2005 hurricane events due toextensive canker spread.

Windbreaks in Florida

Sustained high-speed winds, frequenthurricanes and increasing cankerincidences have encouraged theestablishment of windbreaks inFlorida. Efforts are underway toestablish windbreaks using fast-growing evergreen species for year-round protection. Citrus growers arenow particularly showing interest inwindbreak establishment.

A recent study evaluated cadaghi(Corymbia torelliana) windbreaks atthe C&B Farms near Clewiston, andeastern redcedar (Juniperusvirginiana) windbreaks at theSouthwest Florida Research andEducation Center (SWFREC),University of Florida in Immokalee.C&B Farms have establishedcadaghi windbreaks at various ages.The oldest cadaghi windbreak wasestablished in 1988. It is now 18 m(59 ft) tall (Figure 1). Its porosity isapproximately 20 percent. Theredcedar windbreak planted in thesame year is seven meters (23 ft) talland has a porosity of approximately17 percent (Figure 2). From thisstudy, researchers identified themost important variables thatmodified microclimates aroundwindbreaks.

Microclimate modificationby windbreaks

Results indicated that wind speedreduction in the protected areasvaried depending on tree porosity anddistance from windbreaks. Figure 3compares relative wind speedsdepending on the direction of the wind(when wind direction was nearlyperpendicular or parallel to thewindbreak) in the protected areabehind the dense eastern redcedarwindbreak, at the same location asthat of Figure 2. The windbreak wasmost effective when wind directionwas nearly perpendicular to thewindbreak. Its effectivenessdecreased as the wind approached aparallel direction to the windbreak.Regardless of wind direction, thelowest wind speeds recorded were ata distance of two times the height ofthe windbreak (2H). Beyond thatpoint, wind speed graduallyincreased. At a distance of 14H, windspeed behind the windbreak waslower than the wind speed in the openarea. This was most pronouncedwhen wind direction was nearlyperpendicular (56% versus 92%) tothe windbreak.

In contrast to the dense redcedarwindbreak, Figure 4 illustrates relativewind speeds in the protected areabehind a relatively porous cadaghiwindbreak. Like the redcedarwindbreak, lower wind speeds wereobserved behind the cadaghiwindbreak at closer distances (2Hand 6H), when wind direction wasnearly perpendicular to the windbreak.Wind speed gradually increased up to14H and decreased again at 16H as itapproached the second windbreak.Maximum wind speed reduction in theprotected area was approximately72 percent of the open wind speedversus 97 percent behind the densewindbreak when the wind was nearlyperpendicular. However, in bothcases, relative wind speed neverexceeded 60 percent at even thefarthest distance recorded.

Compared to wind speed, the changein temperature in the protected areawas insignificant. Figure 5 compares

Fig. 2. A single row of 20-year-old easternredcedar windbreak at the Southwest FloridaResearch and Education Center (SWFREC),Immokalee, Florida (with 17% porosity).

Fig. 1. A single row of 20-year-old cadaghiwindbreak at C&B Farms near Clewiston,Florida (with 20% porosity).



the relative temperatures in theprotected area during normal weatherconditions. Under normal weatherconditions, temperatures at twodistances (2H and 16H) from thewindbreak were similar in theprotected area. This suggests thatthe daytime temperature was slightlywarmer throughout the protected areathan in the open area (the flat linerepresents control temperature).However, reduction of wind speed andthe upward transfer of heat from thesurface increased the nighttimetemperature by a few degrees.

Cold fronts during winter months areassociated with severe weatherconditions. Temperatures can drop byseveral degrees (often below freezing)within an hour. Cold fronts also bringstrong wind gusts. Figure 6 comparesthe relative temperatures in theprotected area during cold fronts.

During cold fronts, the diurnaltemperature behind the windbreakappeared to be slightly highercompared to normal days. Nighttimetemperature was found to be a few

degrees higher on calm nights. Thetemperature on windy nights appearsto be lower near the windbreak.

Effectiveness of windbreaks

The effectiveness of windbreaksdepends on several major variables:wind direction and windbreak porosity,height, and length. Windbreakeffectiveness gradually decreases aswind changes from a perpendicular toa parallel direction (Figure 3) to thewindbreak. Windbreaks should thusbe planted perpendicular to theprevailing wind.

Dense windbreaks are more effectivethan porous windbreaks. For thisreason, it is often desirable to plantevergreen species with longer crownsfor year-round protection. Windbreakheight and length determine the areaprotected by the windbreak. As a lowpressure zone develops behind thewindbreak, air is pulled in from theends. Windbreaks should thus belonger than the actual area requiringprotection.


Fig. 4. Relative wind speed at various distancesfrom the windbreak at C&B Farms near Clewistonat 6 pm on 3 January 2008 when wind directionwas nearly perpendicular to the windbreak.

Fig. 3. Comparison of relative wind speeds atvarious distances from the windbreak at SWFREC,Immokalee, Florida on 21 January 2008.

Fig. 5. Relative temperature at the distance of twotimes the height of the windbreak (2H, red line) and16H (blue line) and the associated wind speed.

Fig. 6. Relative temperature at the distance of two times theheight of the windbreak (2H, red line) and 14H (blue line) andthe associated wind speed (black line) at SWFREC,Immokalee, Florida on 27-29 January 2008 during cold fronts.

It is often difficult to obtain all thesevariables in a single row of windbreakgrowers. Hence, it is better toconsider the use of multiple species,such as cadaghi and redcedar, inpaired rows. In this case, the shorterspecies (redcedar) should be theouter row while the taller speciesmake up the inner row. This improveswindbreak effectiveness; however,additional space and resources willbe required. Bijay Tamang and DonaldL. Rockwood work at SFRC, University ofFlorida, PO Box 110410, Gainesvielle, FL32611. Michael G. Andreu works at the SFRC,University of Florida, Gulf Coast REC - PlantCity, 1200 N. Park Road, Plant City, FL 33563.

References: 1) Gottwald, T. R. and L. W.Timmer. 1995. The efficacy of windbreaks inreducing the spread of citrus canker causedby Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 72(3):194-201; 2)Gottwald, T. R., J. H. Graham and D. S. Egel.1992. Analysis of foci of infection of Asiaticcitrus canker in a Florida citrus orchard.Plant Diseases 76:386-396; 3) Graham, J. H.and T. R. Gottwald. 1992. Researchperspectives on eradication of citrus bacterialdiseases in Florida. Plant Diseases 75:1193-1200; 4) Leite, R. P., Jr. and S. K. Mohan.1990. Integrated management of citrusbacterial canker caused by Xanthomonas

campestris pv. citri inthe State of Parana,Brazil. Crop Protection9:3-7; 5) Nuberg, I. K.1998. Effect of shelteron temperate crops: areview to defineresearch for Australianconditions. AgroforestrySystems 41:3-34; 6)Sudmeyer, R.A. and P.R. Scott. 2002.Characterization of awindbreak system on thesouth cost of WesternAustralia. 1.Microclimate and winderosion. AustralianJournal of Experimental

Agriculture 42:703- 715.


Gaining profits fromagroforestry in the rainfed,semi-arid, sub-tropicsof central IndiaA. S. Gill ([email protected]) and R. A. Singh

Researches attest to the capability ofagroforestry systems to improve theyields of both the tree and theunderstorey crop components.However, very little data is availableon agroforestry systems that areproductive in rainfed, semi-arid andsub-tropical areas. Most often,conditions in these areas are notconducive to agriculture.

In semi-arid and sub-tropical areas,the average rainfall is 900 mm andevaporation is at 1 800 mm. Growingcrops under rainfed conditions islimited only to one season (rainy orwinter) and depends on soil type.Venturing into agriculture is very riskydue to the low and erratic rainfall,poor soil fertility and low water-holding capacity of the soil. Suchareas also experience drought andfloods at least once every three tofour years.

From 1998 to 2005, an appliedresearch project was conducted atthe central farm of the IndianGrassland and Fodder ResearchInstitute, Jhansi, in central India. The

research site is considered a semi-arid, sub tropical area. The researchaimed to study the productivity of thetree species, with and without cropsin the interspaces, under rainfed,semi-arid conditions.

Various combinations of trees andunderstorey crops were established.The four tree species used wereAlbizia lebbek, Azadirachta indica,Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia nilotica.Barley and chickpea (Cicer arietinum)were established as understoreycrops.

A total of 14 treatments wereestablished in a replicatedrandomized block design.

The treatments were as follows:

1. Albizia lebbek without anyintercrop;

2. Albizia lebbek with barley as theintercrop;

3. Albizia lebbek with chickpea asthe intercrop;

4. Azadirachta indica without anyintercrop;

5. Azadirachta indica with barley asthe intercrop;

6. Azadirachta indica with chickpeaas the intercrop;

7. Dalbergia sissoo without anyintercrop;

8. Dalbergia sissoo with barley asthe intercrop;

9. Dalbergia sissoo with chickpeaas the intercrop;

10. Acacia nilotica without anyintercrop;

11. Acacia nilotica with barley as theintercrop;

12. Acacia nilotica with chickpea asthe intercrop;

13. Barley only (without trees); and14. Chickpea only (without trees).

The tree saplings were planted duringthe monsoon season of 1998 using6-m x 12-m spacing. The understoreycrops were introduced during thewinter seasons of 1999 to2000.During the rainy seasons of 2004 and2005, fodder cowpea was introducedas an understorey crop followingbarley and chickpea. Fodder cowpeawas used as a common treatment inall the plots, including the soleplanting of trees.

After 2000, the trees were pruned to50 percent of their height to providesufficient light to the understoreycrops. Pruning was done every Juneand October. The prunings were usedas forage and fuelwood. They werealso recorded as products from thetree component of the agroforestrysystem.

The cost and net returns for eachtreatment were estimated each yearfrom 1999 to 2004 (Table 1). The totalcosts and net returns during thesame duration were also estimated(Table 2).

Table 1 shows that planting solelytrees was the least costly. Asexpected, the data showed low netbenefit returns (NBR). In the first twoyears (1999-2000 and 2000-2001), thenet benefit returns were higher in thetreatments of Dalbergia with chickpeain the interspaces. In subsequentyears, higher net benefit returns wererecorded from the sole planting of

Fig. 1. The net returns ofDalbergia sissoo with chickpeaas intercrop are measuredduring a five-year period.



chickpea. In the tree-cropcombination, the Dalbergia withchickpea treatment maintained highnet benefit returns from 1998 to 2005,except in 2002 to 2003 when theAlbizia and chickpea treatmentobtained the highest net benefitreturns.

Meanwhile, Table 2 shows that thesole planting of chickpea recorded themaximum cost (Rs 55 952 orUS$1 166) and net benefit returns(Rs 62 622 or US$1 305). Profit wasobtained at only Rs 6 670 (US$139).

Dalbergia with chickpea as anunderstorey crop obtained the highestprofit at Rs 13 183 (US$275) duringthe five-year period.

The estimated data (Table 2) clearlyindicates that treatments withchickpea (Cicer arietinum) obtainprofits. Hence, growing Dalbergiasissoo as the tree component andcultivating chickpea in the interspacesis a profitable venture in rainfed, semi-arid and sub-tropical areas. Theseresults are supported by the findingsof Korwar et al. (2006) for the work

done under rainfed and semi-aridconditions where economic analysesfound agroforestry systems superiorto monocrop systems. Dr. Gill isEx. Principal Scientist while Dr. Singh isEx. Senior Scientist at the Indian Grasslandand Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi (UP)-284003, India.

Reference: Korwar, G.R., G.Pratibha, V.Raviand D. Palani Kumar (2006). Performance ofcastor (Ricinus communis) and green gram(Vigna radiata) in agro forestry system in semiarid tropics. Indian J. Agronomy 51(2): 112-115.


Table 1. Costs and net returns (NR) of the different treatments.

Treatments

Cost* US$ NR* US$ Cost* US$ NR* US$ Cost* US$ NR* US$ Cost* US$ NR* US$ Cost*

1. Albizia lebbek without any intercrop 3297 69 424 9 2712 57 1201 25 2545 53 953 20 2383 50 746 16 1500

2. Albizia lebbek with barley as intercrop 8475 177 4739 99 7114 148 5726 119 8100 169 5316 111 6339 132 4927 103 5441

3. Albizia lebbek with chickpea as intercrop 10240 213 11591 241 10732 224 11747 245 8858 185 10146 211 7261 151 8752 182 6314

4. Azadirachta indica without any intercrop 3366 70 579 12 2712 57 1108 23 2543 53 948 20 2378 50 809 17 1500

5. Azadirachta indica with barley as intercrop 8518 177 6266 131 7445 155 7125 148 6325 132 5229 109 5358 112 3655 76 5465

6. Azadirachta indica with chickpea as intercrop 10308 215 12606 263 10823 225 10677 222 8357 174 9653 201 6292 131 8725 182 6287

7. Dalbergia sissoo without any intercrop 3671 76 2290 48 3344 70 2852 59 2852 59 1944 41 2458 51 1196 25 1616

8. Dalbergia sissoo with barley as intercrop 6046 126 7165 149 7976 166 6307 131 6553 137 4640 97 5341 111 3256 68 4496

9. Dalbergia sissoo with chickpea as intercrop 13324 278 15353 320 11435 238 16288 339 8627 180 11996 250 6286 131 8433 176 6343

10. Acacia nilotica without any intercrop 3539 74 2364 49 3691 77 2961 62 2958 62 1512 32 2340 49 339 7 1443

11. Acacia nilotica with barley as intercrop 9532 199 8739 182 8135 169 5259 110 6603 138 4713 98 5305 111 2316 48 5517

12. Acacia nilotica with chickpea as the intercrop 11563 241 14342 299 11379 237 11936 249 8593 179 9519 198 6259 130 7481 156 6275

13. Barley only (without trees) 9444 197 2729 57 8583 179 2296 48 8584 179 2296 48 8813 184 13137 274 7584

14. Chickpea only (without trees) 10837 226 5985 125 12838 267 15196 317 12839 267 15196 317 9834 205 10279 214 9604

*1US$ = Rs 48.00

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003

Table 2. Costs and net benefit returns (NBR) of the different treatments.

Treatments Total Cost US$ Total Net Returns US$ + (gain)/ US$(1999-2004)* (1999-2004)* (loss)*

1. Albizia lebbek without any intercrop 12437 259 4319 90 -8118 -169

2. Albizia lebbek with barley as intercrop 35469 739 24402 508 -11067 -231

3. Albizia lebbek with chickpea as intercrop 43405 904 48934 1019 5529 115

4. Azadirachta indica without any intercrop 12499 260 4366 91 -8133 -169

5. Azadirachta indica with barley as intercrop 33111 690 26300 548 -6811 -142

6. Azadirachta indica with chickpea as intercrop 42067 876 48673 1014 6606 138

7. Dalbergia sissoo without any intercrop 13941 290 10267 214 -3674 -77

8. Dalbergia sissoo with barley as intercrop 30412 634 26844 559 -3568 -74

9. Dalbergia sissoo with chickpea as intercrop 46015 959 59198 1233 13183 275

10. Acacia nilotica without any intercrop 13891 289 7597 158 -6374 -133

11. Acacia nilotica with barley as intercrop 35092 731 25383 529 -9709 -202

12. Acacia nilotica with chickpea as the intercrop 44069 918 49054 1022 4895 102

13. Barley only (without trees) 43008 896 27099 565 -15909 -331

14. Chickpea only (without trees) 55952 1166 62622 1305 6670 139

*1US$ = Rs 48.00


Exploring opportunities forintegrating multipurpose treeson farms in Cambodia

Agriculture is vitally important for theCambodian economy. It employsaround 77 percent of the country’slabor force. The majority of farmingoperations are small family farms,with the average farm ranging fromone to two hectares (McKenney andProm 2002). The farming systems onthe central plains of Cambodia arebased primarily on rice production,with secondary crops of fruit trees,cashews and vegetables grown inhome gardens.

Rice is the most importantagricultural crop in Cambodia. Mucheffort has gone into improving riceproduction in the country followingyears of war (Nesbitt 2003). Theseefforts have been generally successfulas Cambodia now experiences asmall rice surplus. Despite this, manyCambodian families still faceproblems on food insecurity andmalnutrition.

It is becoming increasingly clear thatCambodian agriculture needs to bediversified and farm productivityincreased to create more employmentopportunities. At the same time, thereis a need to ensure a diverse and

Luke Simmons ([email protected]) andIan Nuberg ([email protected])

Cambodianfarmers collectLeucaenaleucocephalaseeds and plantthem in theirrice fields andhome gardens,or integratethem withlivestockraising.

nutritious food supply. Agroforestrysystems that integrate trees on farmsfor improved production and provisionof environmental benefits are viableoptions for farming families.

Building on traditionalagroforestry practices

There are a number of traditionalagroforestry practices that exist inCambodia, with many farmers alreadygrowing a range of trees on theirfarms. However, these trees are oftenneither integrated with the other farmcomponents nor are they beingeffectively managed. Moreover, someof the important agroforestry treespecies, such as Leucaenaleucocephala, Flemingia macrophyllaand Gliricidia sepium, are not widelygrown by Cambodian farmers.

Research was conducted among 30farmers from two communes in PreyVeng Province to determine theopportunities of integratingmultipurpose trees into Cambodianfarming systems. Multipurpose treesinclude shrubs, palms and others thatoffer multiple products and services

when grown as part of an integratedfarming system.

Initial findings showed the interest offarmers in growing multipurpose treeson their farms once they understoodthe full range of benefits that thesetrees could provide (Nuberg andSimmons 2004).

Table 1 lists the important treespecies that may be integrated inagroforestry farms. Although notexhaustive, the list serves to illustratesome of the hundreds of species thatcould be grown more widely onCambodian farms.

Integrating multipurposetrees in rice fields

Small banks separate individual ricefields on the central plains ofCambodia. Forest trees (mostlyDipterocarpus spp.), old fruit trees(mostly Mangifera indica), and palms(Borassus flabellifer and Cocosnucifera) still grow on some of thesebanks. Many more of these palmsand other multipurpose trees (Acaciaauriculiformis, Ceiba pentandra,Feronia limonia, Peltophorumpterocarpum, Sadaricum koetjapeand Tamarindus indica) could beplanted on these banks and evenalong the boundaries of rice fields toprovide varied products such as fruits,fiber, timber, fuelwood and palmsugar. They may even provideadditional services such as shade,shelter and erosion control.

Borassusflabellifer isintegrated inrice fields assource of fruits,palm sugar,palm wine,fiber, fuelwoodand timber.

AGROFORESTRY PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT


In addition, these multipurpose treescan rehabilitate the poor soils andeven encourage farmers to refrainfrom using expensive fertilizers.Shelterbelts and hedgerows ofnitrogen-fixing trees (Flemingiamacrophylla, Gliricidia sepium andLeucaena leucocephala) could beplanted on these banks to enrich soilnutrients. Some species, such asCrotalaria juncea and Sesbaniarostrata, can be grown directly on therice fields and ploughed into the soilas green manure.

Adding multipurpose treesin home gardens

Home gardens in Cambodia vary interms of appearance and utility. Theyrange from relatively simple systems,with a few species planted, tocomplex multistoried systems, withmany species planted. Sizes rangefrom 0.1 ha to 1 ha (Simmons 2003).Most gardens have at least a few fruittrees and palms, while others have acomplex mix of palms, fruit trees,perennial and annual food crops,herbs and spices.

The most commonly grown trees andpalms in home gardens are coconut(Cocos nucifera), betel palm (Arecacatechu), mango (Magnifera indica),papaya (Carica papaya), cashew(Anacardium occidentale), guava(Psidium guajava) and jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus).

Most Cambodian home gardens canintegrate many fruit trees and palms,arranged in a multilayered gardensystem, to make maximum use ofspace. Nitrogen-fixing trees (Gliricidiasepium, Leucaena leucocephala andSesbania grandiflorus) could also beincorporated into home gardens aslive fences or interplanted with otherspecies. They provide nitrogen andmulch for soil improvement andsupport of vines. Live fences could bean alternative to the construction offences around home gardens andhouses. Building these live fencesevery few years, however, requiresmuch labor and timber resources.

Continued on page 14

Table 1. Some important multipurpose trees for integration in Cambodian farming systems

Scientific name English common name

Khmer common name

Products Services

Acacia auriculiformis Australian wattle plai cherng * timber * controls erosion* fuelwood* charcoal* paper pulp* tannin * acts as nitrogen-

fixing crop* improves the soil

Albizia saman raintree ampel barang * edible pods* fodder from pods* fuelwood* timber

* improves the soil

Borassus flabellifer sugar palm tenout * fruit* palm sugar* palm wine* fiber* fuelwood* timber

Cajanus cajun pigeon pea sondaik ankrea * edible seeds and pods * controls erosion* fodder from leaves* pods and seeds* fuelwood

* improves the soilCeiba pentandra kapok, cotton tree kow * fiber for pillows * serves as live fence

* oil seed* fodder from seed cake* timber

Crotalaria juncea sun hemp kak tung * fiber for twine* fiber for canvas* fiber for paper * improves the soil

* serves as cover crop

Dipterocarpus alatus hairy-leafed apitong chhour teal tuk * timber * improves the soil* resin

Feronia limonia wood apple khut * fruit * serves as live fence* fodder* fuelwood* timber* resin

Flemingia macrophylla large-leaf flemingia (unknown) * fodder * controls erosion* fuelwood

* serves as live fence

* improves the soil

Gliricidia sepium gliricidia (unknown) * edible flowers * controls erosion* fodder for ruminants* fuelwood


* improves the soilJatropha curcas physic nut lahong khwong * oil seed for bio-diesel * controls erosion

* dye * serves as live fence

Leucaena leucocephala leucaena kanthum theet * fodder * controls erosion* fuelwood* paper pulp


* provides construction materials for shade and shelter

* provides construction materials for shade and shelter* acts as nitrogen-fixing crop

* serves as ornamental crop

* can be used as intercrop* serves as ornamental crop



* acts as nitrogen-fixing tree

* may be planted as field boundaries

* acts as nitrogen-fixing tree

* can be used as intercrop

* may be planted as field boundaries* serves as ornamental crop


* acts as nitrogen-fixing crop






Table 1. (Continued…)

Scientific name English common name

Khmer common name

Products Services

Morus alba white mulberry darm moan * fruit* fodder* fuelwood* timber * improves the soil* tannin

Peltophorum pterocarpum

golden flame trasake * fodder

* fuelwood* timber* dye

* improves the soil

Pithecellobium dulce Manila tamarind ampel tuk * fruit* fodder


Sadaricum koetjape santol komping riech * fruit * controls erosion* timber

Sesbania grandiflora sesbania ankir dai

* fodder

* improves the soil* serves as live fence

Sesbania rostrata rostrata senow * edible leaf meal* fodder* light fuel * improves the soil

Tamarindus indica tamarind ampel chew * fruit* edible young leaves* fodder* fuelwood* timber* tannin* dye






* edible leaves, seeds, pods and flowers









* provides construction materials for shade and shelter* may be planted on field boundaries

Exploring opportunities for...Continued from page 13

The use of multipurpose trees as livefences not only reduces the laborinput for building fences but alsoconserves forest resources. Theyprovide additional products such asmulch, fodder, fuelwood, timber,stuffing fiber (Ceiba pentandra), oilseed for bio-diesel production(Jatropha curacus). They provideservices such as shade, shelter andbarriers to livestock. The live fencescan also be used as windbreaks,particularly if Acacia auriculiformis,Albizia saman, Pithecellobium dulceand Tamarindus indica are plantedalong roadways. These trees controldust and provide shade, particularlyduring the dry season.

Combining the planting ofmultipurpose trees withlivestock raising

Aside from cultivating crops,Cambodian farmers also raise avariety of animals not only for food butalso for on-farm power and addedincome. Fodder trees and shrubs(Cajanus Cajun, Flemingiamacrophylla, Leucaena leucocephala,Morus alba and Sesbaniagrandiflorus) may thus be grown aslive fences around home gardens,animal pens and rice fields. Theyprovide protein-rich fodder forlivestock, particularly during the dryseason when feed is scarce. Many ofthese species also fix nitrogen andprovide fuelwood or timber for smallconstruction works.

Identifying gaps and future actions

The integration of multipurpose treeson Cambodian farms is a viable optionfor improving agricultural productivityand ensuring a diverse and nutritiousfood supply for a growing population.

The range of tree species found inCambodia is very similar to thosefound in Vietnam and Thailand.However, the agricultural extensionservices in Cambodia have only beenestablished relatively recently.There is still very little research andminimal extension efforts onagroforestry being conducted in thecountry. As such, there is still a lackof models for agroforestry systemsthat are based on local research anddevelopment.

Agricultural organizations shouldimplement initiatives to introducefarmers to the benefits of integratingmultipurpose trees on their farms.Collaboration with other agencies todevelop demonstration sites ofsystems and practices that realizethe benefits of integrating these treeson farms is encouraged.

On the positive side, there has beensome planting of Acaciaauriculiformis along roadsides toprotect against erosion and flooding.There have also been some fuelwoodand timber plantations developed overthe last 10 to 15 years. Theseinitiatives provide valuable seedsources and show farmers thatplanting trees is easy to do.

The development of smallholderfuelwood systems is an area thatneeds more attention. In most ruralareas, and even in many of the cities,the demand for fuelwood and charcoalfor cooking is high. Given theextensive deforestation in Cambodiaduring the 1990s, there are variouspotentials and opportunities indeveloping tree plantations to producecharcoal. Community forestryschemes have been popular withdonors and NGOs. Some farmers,however, are hesitant to work togetherwith the other participants on theseschemes.



In some areas, it may be moreappropriate to develop fuelwoodplantations that are privately run byfarmers.

Cambodian organizations that areinterested in undertaking initiatives onagroforestry development couldexamine agroforestry models thathave been developed by neighboringcountries and adapt these models tolocal conditions. The CambodianAgricultural Research andDevelopment Institute (CARDI) startedsome experimentation with anintegrated livestock-rice-fishpondsystem. This system is similar to theVAC system from neighboringVietnam. This type of research anddevelopment on the integration offarming systems applicable tosmallholders needs to be given ahigher priority. Luke Simmons is aconsultant on sustainable agriculture andnatural resource management in SoutheastAsia. Dr Ian Nuberg is a senior lecturer inagroforestry at the School of Agriculture,Food and Wine, University of Adelaide.

References: 1) Agroforestree Database, WorldAgroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. URL:http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft.asp; 2) McKenney, B. and Prom.T. 2002. Natural resources and rurallivelihoods in Cambodia: a baselineassessment. Cambodian DevelopmentResource Institute, Phnom Penh, WorkingPaper No. 23, 116 pages; 3) Nesbitt, H. 2003.Developing sustainable rice productionsystems in Cambodia: An Australiancontribution, In “Solutions for a betterenvironment”. Proceedings of the 11thAustralian Agronomy Conference, 2-6February 2003, Geelong, Victoria. AustralianSociety of Agronomy; 4) Nuberg I.K andSimmons, L. 2004. Agroforestry systemsdevelopment in Eastern Cambodia, In“Working Together for Sustainable LanduseSystems”. Book of Abstracts for the 1st WorldCongress of Agroforestry, 27 June – 2 July2004, Orlando, Florida; 5) Simmons, L.2003. Agroforestry practice in Cheach andKrabou communes in southeastern Cambodia,Honours thesis, University of Adelaide.

Recognizing the role ofentrepreneurship in the promotion ofagroforestry education in Mindanao,Philippines, the Misamis OrientalState College of Agriculture andTechnology (MOSCAT), through itsInstitute of Agriculture-AgroforestryDepartment, applied for fundingsupport from the Department ofScience and Technology (DOST).Application was channeled throughDOST’s Technology Application andPromotion Institute (TAPI)-Scienceand Technology Enterprise AssistanceMechanism (STEAM).

In April 2003, TAPI agreed to fund fiveagricultural production projectsamounting to Php 417 000 ($10 171).The projects were under the DOST-Academe Technology-BasedEnterprise Development (DATBED)program and the Small EnterpriseTechnology Upgrading Program(SETUP).

The DATBED and SETUP programs

The DATBED program aims to buildthe entrepreneurial skills of students,young professionals and even out-of-school youth by helping themestablish income-generating projectsfor their schools or organizations(Office of the President 2007).

Meanwhile, SETUP aims to promotethe technology application/upgradingof small- and medium-sizedenterprises (SMEs). SETUP isenvisioned to enhance thedevelopment of five industries, namely:food processing; furniture making;production of fashion accessories;production of gifts, toys andhouseware; development of livelihoodprojects from marine and aquaticresources; and horticulture initiatives(DOST 2003).

Encouraging studentcompetencies in agroforestryentrepreneurshipRichmund A. Palma ([email protected])

According to Dr. Estrella Alabastro,DOST Secretary, “After graduation,the students who were involved [inthese programs] would no longerhave the need to seek employmentbecause they already have [theirown] businesses to run.”

The BAFT degree

For MOSCAT, the SETUP andDATBED programs aim to providecredit assistance to studentsgraduating with the Bachelor inAgroforestry Technology (BAFT)degree, and train them to engage inentrepreneurial activities.

The BAFT program aims to developprofessionals with generalcompetencies in carrying out thescience, art and business of adynamic and interactive process ofproduction, management andutilization of agroforestrycomponents. The agroforestrycomponents are established eitherzonally, mixed-simultaneously orsequentially on a piece of land toconserve resources and maintainsocio-economic productivity.

Established in 2006 by one of the student-recipients of the SETUP-DATBEDprograms, this 2-ha corn plantation is nowon its third cropping season and hasearned an income of PhP32 400 (almostUS$700).

AGROFORESTRY EDUCATION AND TRAINING



Specifically, the program aimed to:1) develop agroforestry graduates whohave the knowledge and skills inforestry and agricultural operations,management, and research in thepublic and private sector; 2) traincompetent agroforestry professionalswho can understand the dynamicsand interactive processes that exist inthe production, management andutilization of the agroforestrycomponents; 3) train students tobecome self-reliant and self-sufficientagroforestry entreprenuers; and4) provide the students with adequateprofessional training to develop workhabits, appreciate the dignity of labor,and become honest, constructive andcritical thinkers, aside from beingproficient and competentagroforesters.

A group of students tying tomato plants inone of the farms established through theSETUP-DATBED programs. This groupreceived Php 53 740 (US$1 115) loan fromthe program.

A group of students standing beside theirfattened cattle at MOSCAT’s AgroforestryField Laboratory. Cattle fattening is one ofthe enterprises supported by the SETUP-DATBED program.

The case of MOSCAT

With the approved funding support,MOSCAT implemented differentagricultural enterprises from April2003 to March 2005 through theefforts of the BAFT students. Thesewere the production of corn, sweetpotato, tomato and peanut, and theraising of Kabir chicken. Two newprojects were added in 2006,namely: cattle feedlot fattening andcarrot production.

From the funds provided, 7.5 percentwere released as loans to students forcorn production, 3.8 percent wereloaned for sweet potato production,45.5 percent were loaned for tomatoproduction, 5.6 percent were loanedfor peanut production, and37.6 percent were loaned for theraising of Kabir chicken. Cattle feedlotfattening and carrot production werealso allotted funds from the project.

There were 65 BAFT students whobenefitted from the SETUP andDATBED funding support from April2003 to December 2006. Forty-four(65%) of them had already graduated.

Graduate students who arebeneficiaries of the program wereencouraged to apply for loans underStage II. The College nominates thegraduate students to DOST Region 10based on the merit of his/herfeasibility study and relevantdocuments. Stage II offers zeropercent interest with unlimited amountof financial support based on his/herfeasibility study.

Impacts of the programs to BAFT

The implementation of the SETUP andDATBED programs helped upgradeMOSCAT’s BAFT curriculum. Onesubject (Practicums 5 and 7) wassplit into two units of summer classand two units of class in the firstsemester. This enabled the student-beneficiaries to prepare the landduring summer for the seasonalplanting of agricultural crops.

Encouraging student...Continued from page 15

The two programs also strengthenedMOSCAT’s accreditation to theAgency of Chartered Colleges andUniversities in the Philippines, Inc,(AACCUP). Three areas wereenhanced by the two programs,namely: curriculum and instruction,student support, and extension andcommunity involvement. The BAFTprogram thus gained the highestpercentage rating among other sevendegree programs offered by MOSCATthat were submitted for accreditationlast July 2005.

Impacts of the programsto the students

For the students, the DATBED andSETUP programs reduced theirdifficulties in finding funds to financetheir micro-projects. At the sametime, they were able to develop a highsense of responsibility and ownershipfor the project. This wasdemonstrated in their resourcefulnessto find ways in solving everydayproblems and challenges.

Through experiential learning, thestudents proved their capabilities asinnovative farmer-entrepreneurs. Theyapplied their technical skills inagricultural crop production andlivestock raising on the farm, andlearned how to handle large-scaleagricultural crop production. Theypracticed their entrepreneurial skillsin terms of transacting businesseswith banks, applying for loans,managing cash flow, applyingbookkeeping and accounting, andbudgeting.

The students also acquired timemanagement skills as they balancedtheir full academic loads with farmmaintenance, and businesstransactions. More importantly, theylearned to consult with experts,through their technical advisers, justas farmers consult with scientistsand extension agents regardingproblems on their farms.

AGROFORESTRY EDUCATION AND TRAINING


Impacts of the programsto MOSCAT

DATBED and SETUP strengthenedthe linkages and extension programsof MOSCAT, especially with DOST.The funds helped finance micro-projects which generated income forthe College.

Through the two programs, BAFTstudents were able to apply what theyhave learned, and showcase theirentrepreneurial competencies.

More importantly, the two programsdemonstrated the success ofMOSCAT’s BAFT curriculum andproved that entrepreneurship is arelevant skill needed to successfully

Kasetsart University is hostingFORTROP II (17-20 November 2008),an international conferencecommemorating the 72nd anniversaryof forestry education in Thailand.FORTROP II will be held at theConvention Center, KU GoldenJubilee Building, Kasetsart University,Bangkok, Thailand.

FORTROP II will focus on the differentways for researchers, technicalprofessionals, and other stakeholdersto actively share technologies andexperiences so that tropical forestresources are used in a sustainablemanner, and discuss the changesthat affect the future of tropicalforests.

Ten technical sessions will be held toaddress the theme “Tropical forestrychange in a changing world.” Theseare:

1. Tropical forests and climatechange;

2. GIS/GPS/RS: applications innatural resources andenvironmental management;

3. International long-term ecologicalresearch;

Kasetsart University hostsFORTROP II

4. Dry forest ecology andconservation;

5. Mangrove and wetlandecosystems;

6. Commercial plantation forestry;7. Urban forestry and urban

greening;8. Trends and issues in community

forestry;9. Protected areas and sustainable

tourism;10. Forest products and bio-based

material; and the11. ASEAN Forestry Student

Association (AFSA).

Technical visits will also be held tocover conservation centers,plantations, agricultural projects,national parks, mangrove forests,beach forests, orchards and varioustourist attractions.

For more information, contactFORTROP II Secretariat, Faculty ofForestry, Kasetsart University, 50Phaholyothin Road, Chatuchak,Bangkok 10900, Thailand, Tel (662)579 0170, Fax (662) 561 4246, E-mail: [email protected] orvisit http://www.forest.ku.ac.th/fortrop2008.

Journals forsharingagroforestryinformationand knowledgeWith the increasing initiatives onagroforestry research, there is a needto look for ways to exchangeinformation and knowledge amongscientists, researchers, practitionersand even students.

The following peer-reviewed scientificjournals are good avenues forinformation and knowledge sharing onoriginal agroforestry research andother relevant initiatives:

Agroforestry systems

This is a peer-reviewed, internationalscientific journal that presents resultsof original research, critical reviews,short communications (initialresearch results), book reviews andother professional information on thebiophysical and socioeconomicaspects of agroforestry. Scope oftopics may cover fundamental orapplied investigations, and researchmethodologies and techniques. Italso includes articles that focus onanalytical descriptions of rarelystudied but promising agroforestryand other integrated systems thatinvolve trees, crops and livestock.Editors encourage articles thatprovide new insights or significantcontributions to the knowledge base,particularly those that are relevant toa broader context instead of thosethat are specific only to a particularlocation. For more information, visithttp://www.springer.com/life+sci/forestry/journal/10457


INFORMATION SOURCES

implement agroforestry farms andprojects. The author is on the faculty ofMisamis Oriental State College of Agricultureand Technology, Claveria, Misamis Oriental,Philippines.

References: 1) Department of Science andTechnology (2003). The Small EnterpriseTechnology Upgrading Program (SETUP).URL: http://setup.dost.gov.ph/intro.php.(Retrieved 27 February 2008).; 2) Office ofthe President (2007). From job seekers toemployers: DOST – ARMM promotesentrepreneurship among youths. URL: http://www.op.gov.ph/news.asp?newsid=18581.(Retrieved 27 February 2008; 3) Palma, R.A.(2008). MOSCAT Small EnterpriseTechnology Upgrading Program – DOST –Academe Technology – Based EnterpriseDevelopment Program AccomplishmentReport as of December 2007. A TerminalReport submitted to the TechnologyApplication and Promotion Institute.


Journals for agroforestry...Continued from page 17

International forestry review (IFR)

IFR is a peer-reviewed scientificjournal that publishes papers,comments and book reviews oninternational forest science, policy,management and conservation. It ispublished four times a year (March,June, September and December) withspecific themes per issue. It has animpact factor of 0.924 as published inthe Journal Citation Reports 2006 byThomson Scientific. For moreinformation, visit http://www.cfa-international.org/IFR.html#info.

New forests

This international journal publishesfindings of original research onafforestation and reforestation.Articles focus on the reproduction oftrees and forests that originate fromseeds, seedlings or coppice forresource protection, timber production

and agroforestry. Topics coversilviculture, plant physiology,genetics, biotechnology, ecology,economics, protection, and themanagement of all stages ofafforestation and reforestation. Formore information, visit http://www.springer.com/life+sci/forestry/journal/10457.

Small-scale forestry

This journal presents ongoingresearch results and other efforts onthe management of small-scale, non-industrial, private forest woodlots.This journal is published by theInternational Union of ForestResearch Organizations (IUFRO) topromote information exchange on theeconomic and policy issues as wellas the technical aspects of small-scale forestry. For more information,visit http://www.springer.com/life+sci/forestry/journal/10457. Compiled by

Leah P. Arboleda

The following publications have beenresearched from the websites ofSpringer Publications, CABIInternational, and Earth Print:

Forestry and climate change

Edited by P. H. Freer-Smith, M. S. J.Broadmeadow and J. M. Lynch ofForest Research, UK, this bookexplores how forests interact with thephysical and natural world, and that ofhumans as climate changes. Climatechange is one of the greatestchallenges being faced todaybecause of its adverse impacts tosocieties and the scale ofinternational cooperation needed toconfront it. Central to this challengeis the role of forests. This bookdiscusses how the world’s forestscan be managed to help mitigateclimate change and maximize theeconomic and non-market benefitsthat they can provide. For moreinformation, visit http://www.cabi.org/.

New publications for the agroforestersIndigenous fruit trees in thetropics: domestication,commercialization and utilization

This study presents the results of acomprehensive research on thebiology, ecology and social impactsof indigenous fruit trees on ruralpopulations, including new conceptsand approaches that have evolved.The information presented highlightsthe need to domesticate variousindigenous fruit trees to promotesustainable agriculture and improvethe viability of rural livelihoods indeveloping countries. The indigenousfruit trees can be cultivated andowned by smallholder farmers. Theycan also be combined with cashcrops in multifunctional and integratedfarming systems. The cash cropsprovide food and immediate income,while the fruit trees also provide foodand at the same time promote theeconomic growth of the farmer andhis family.

This book has been edited by F. K.Akinnefesi, O.C. Ajayi and G. Sileshiof the World Agroforestry Centre,Malawi; R. B. Leakey of James CookUniversity, Australia; Z. Tchoundjeu ofthe World Agroforestry Centre,Cameroon; P. Matacala of the WorldAgroforestry Centre, Mozambique;and F. R. Kwesiga of the Forum forAgricultural Research in Africa(FARA), Ghana. For more information,visit http://www.cabi.org/.

Lessons from forestdecentralization

Written by Carol J. Pierce Colfer,Ganga Ram Dahal and DorisCapistrano, this book presents theresearch findings on decentralizationin Asia-Pacific countries, and relevantlessons from other regions. It coversdecentralization issues in forestrywith clear lessons for policy, socialequity, forest management, research,development and conservation inforested areas across the globe fromthe tropics to temperate regions.

INFORMATION SOURCES

Environmental management

This journal presents the works ofacademic researchers andprofessionals outside universities,including those of business,government, research organizationsand public interest groups. It offersresearch and opinions on the use andconservation of natural resources andthe protection of habitats and controlof hazards. Article contributions coverbiology, botany, climatology, ecology,ecological economics, environmentalengineering, fisheries, environmentallaw, forest sciences, geology,information science, public affairs,zoology, and other areas. For moreinformation, visit http://www.springer.com/life+sci/forestry/journal/10457.


This book highlights the rights, roles,responsibilities, organization,capacity-building, infrastructure andlegal aspects of decentralization. Itdiscusses many controversial issuesand provides recommendations thataddress the challenges of financing orreinvesting on sustainable forestmanagement under decentralizedgovernance. For more information,visit: http://www.earthprint.com/.

Managing forest ecosystems: thechallenge of climate change

Edited by F. Bravo, V. LeMay, R.Jandl and K.V. Gadow, this bookdiscusses the latest scientificevidence on the relationships betweenclimate, forest resources and forestmanagement practices around theworld. It presents an in-depth analysisof the biological and economicimpacts of climate change, includingforest responses to climate change,monitoring and modeling changes,economic and managementimplications, and carbonsequestration under specificmanagement systems. For moreinformation, visit http://www.springer.com/.

Sustainable farmlandmanagement: newtransdisciplinary approaches

This book examines the relationshipbetween sustainability and farmlandmanagement according to differenttemporal, spatial and productioncontexts. The main contents includesustainability and farmlandmanagement, information andknowledge for sustainable farmlandmanagement, ethical production andprotection, multifunctionality andsustainable farmland management,systems for sustainable farmlandmanagement, and scales ofsustainable farmland management.For more information, visit http://www.cabi.org/. Compiled by

Leah P. Arboleda

Useful websites and links

FAO World AgriculturalInformation Centre (WAICENT)http://www.fao.org/waicent/promotion/promotion_en.asp

The Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nationsestablished WAICENT for effectiveagricultural information management

WEBSITES

and dissemination. It provides accessto the accumulated knowledge andexpertise of FAO. It improves thecapacities of decision-makers,professionals and the public to obtainand use information that are essentialin achieving sustainable agriculturedevelopment and helping to combathunger.

The Earth Portalhttp://www.earthportal.org/

The Earth Portal is a comprehensiveresource for timely, objective, and freescience-based information about theenvironment.

The website features Earth Portal’sthree components:

Encyclopedia of the Earth;Earth Forum; andEarthNews.

Call for contributionsWe are inviting contributions for the34th and 35th issues of the Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter(APANews) on or before 5 Januaryand 18 May 2009, respectively.

Let us help you share the relevantprograms and projects that you aredoing in the areas of agroforestryresearch, promotion anddevelopment, and education andtraining.

Contributions for agroforestryresearch may contain results ofshort- and long-term studies onagroforestry.

Contributions for agroforestrypromotion and development maycontain information on variousextension services aimed atpromoting and developingagroforestry among communities.

Contributions for agroforestryeducation and training may contain

announcements on conferences,symposiums, training opportunitiesand other news on the various effortsbeing made toward generating moreagroforestry professionals andpractitioners, and providing venues forinterpersonal sharing of agroforestryinformation, and networkingopportunities.

We will also help you announce newinformation sources and usefulwebsites.

For several years now, APANews hascontinued to reach out to people fromvarious sectors. We are thusrequesting interested contributors toadopt the simple, straightforward andpopular style in writing the articlesinstead of that used in journals. Byadopting the popular writing style,your articles can help farmers,development agents, researchers,practitioners and other interestedindividuals in coping with thechallenges of promoting and

developing agroforestry in theirrespective countries, and at any levelof project or research implementation.

FAO and IAF editors would like toaccommodate as many articles aspossible in every issue. Hence, kindlylimit your contributions to 1 000 to1 500 words, and include good-qualityphotographs (scanned at 300 dpi) thatare properly labeled and referred to inthe text. Please don’t forget toinclude your complete contactdetails, especially your E-mailaddress, should the readers havequestions, clarifications or requestsfor further information.

Kindly send contributions throughE-mail as attachments or via snailmail in diskettes/CD-ROM or printedform to the FAO/RAP Office or to theUPLB Institute of Agroforestry, 2/FTamesis Hall, College of Forestry andNatural Resources, UP Los Baños,PO Box 35023, College, 4031Laguna, Philippines; Fax +63 495363809; [email protected],[email protected],[email protected].

Useful websites...Trees for the Futurehttp://www.treesftf.org/about/sustain.htm

Trees for the Future aims to helppeople in developing countriesimprove their rural livelihoods throughthe introduction of environmentallysustainable land managementprojects, with focus on beneficial treeplanting. Beneficial trees minimizesoil erosion, supply forage for animalsand provide fuelwood. The website isconsidered an agroforestry resourcecenter as it provides technicalknowledge on agroforestry andsustainable development, along withinformation on planting materials.

Useful links

Agricultural Research forDeveloping Countries (CIRAD)*http://www.cirad.fr/en/index.php

Australian Forestshttp://www.australianforests.org.au/index.htm

Eldis*http://www.eldis.org/

International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development (ICIMOD)http://www.icimod.org/home/

Technical Centre for Agriculturaland Rural Cooperation ACP-EU*http://www.cta.int/

World Bank AgriculturalInvestment Sourcebook*http://www-esd.worldbank.org/ais/

Wild Thyme Farmhttp://www.wildthymefarm.com/index.html. Compiled by

Leah P. Arboleda

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