No. 47 Books for the Developing

Countries Asia Africa

C 0 a 0 c

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Unesco

This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Division of Free Flow of Information. Unless otherwise stated, the reports may be reproduced in full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports and papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publications or from the Division of Free Flow of Information, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, P a r i ~ - 7 ~ .

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION Number

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14 15 16 17

18 19

20 21

f S 24 25 26 27 28 23 30 31

32 33 34 35 36

37 38 39 40

41 42 4 3 44 45

Paper /or Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing -1929-1951 Trends. March 1954 (out of print). Paper /or Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts o/ Demand in 1955. 1960 and 1965. April 1954 (out of print). Tentative International Bibliography o/ Works Dealing with Press Problems (I 900-1 952). September 1954 (out of print). Catalogues o/ Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F). Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0.40 ; 2/- (Stg.) ; 1 F). Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Communities . July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.) ; 0,50 F). International Rules /or the Cataloguing o/ Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 (out of print). A Manual /or Evaluators o/ Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40'; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F).(out of print). List of Films Recommended /or Children and Adolescents up to 16 Years Following Selection made in 22 Countries. June 1956 (out of print). Catalogue o/ 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print). Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography o/ Books and Articles on Mass Communication Published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1 ; 5,'- (Stg.) ; 2,50 F). Periodicals for N e w Literates: Editorial Methods. June 1957 ($0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.) ; 1,50 F). Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F). Periodicals for N e w Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1 ; 5/- (Stg.) ; 3 F). Adult Education Croups and Audio-visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.); 2 F). The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.) ; 2 F). Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development. 1959 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 F). Film Programmes /or the Young. 1959 (out of print). Film-making on a L o w Budget. 1960 (out of print). Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). The Influence o/ the Cinema on Children and Adolescents. A n Annotated International Bibliography. 1961 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F). Film and Television in the Sewice of Opera and Ballet and o/ Museums. 1961 (out of print). Mass Media in the Developing Countries. A Unesco Report to the United Nations. 1961 ($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.) ; 1,75 F). Film Production by International Co-operation. 1961 ($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.) ; 1,75 F). World Film Directory. Agencies Concernedwith Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films. 1962($1; 5/-(Stg.);3,50 F). Methods of Encouraging the Production and Distribution o/ Short Films /or Theatrical Use. 1962. ($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.) ; 1,75 F). Developing Information Media in Africa. Press, Radio, Film, Television. 1962 ($1; 5/- (Scg.) ; 3,50 F). Social Education through Television, 1963 ($0.50 ; 2/ 6 (stg.) ; 1,75). The Teaching Film in Primary Education, 1963 (81 ; 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F). Study of the Establishment of National Centres /or Cataloguing o/ Films and Television Programmes , 2/ 6 (stg.) ; 1,75 F)(out of print) Space Communicalion and the Mass Media. Screen education.Teaching a critical approach to cinema and television 1964 ($1.00: 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F. The Effects of Television on Children and Adolescents, 1964 L80.75; 4/3scg.); 3F). Selected List o/ Catalogues for Short Films and Filmstrips. 1963 Edition. 1965 ($0.75; 4/- (stg.); 3F). Professional Training in lournalism. 1965 ($0.75 ; 4/- (stg.) ; 3 F).

1963 ($0.50 ;

1964 ($0.50; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 F).-..

46 Rural Mimeo Newspapers. 1965 ($0.75 ; 4/- (stg.) ; 3 F). -

Printed in France MC.65.XVII.47 A

Ptinted in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Place de FontTy, P m k 7 e 0 UNESCO 1965

v Books for the Developing

Countries, Asia Africa - The production and flow of books in South East Asia, by Om Prakash, - The production and flow of books in Africa ~

by Clifford M. Fyle ,

Unesco

FOREWORD

The production of books in the developing countries falls far short of their peoples' requirements. Yet present needs, already acute, will expand greatly in the years ahead with the spread of literacy and in- creases in population and per capita income.

The paucity of reading materials in the developing countries moreover prevails at a time when advances in printing and publishing have made it possible to produce low-priced, good quality books in hundreds of millions of copies. The book has genuinely become a means of 'mass communication ", capable of promoting education on a scale commensurate with the requirements of economic and social progress. However, these potentialities are far from being realized. The countries of Asia and Africa, with few

exceptions, suffer from shortages of all the components that make up a domestic book publishing industry, from paper and machinery to the various human skills required. In addition, the flow of books in these regions is hindered by a mass of obstacles, ranging from tariff and currency restrictions to inadequate copyright protection, from a dearth of translation facilities to costly and inadequate distributing services.

Unesco commissioned two experts to survey the relevant problems in Asia and Africa and to make recom- mendations. The report on Asia was prepared by Mr. Om Prakash, Managing Director of Rajkamal Rakashan Private Ltd. (book publishers), N e w Delhi, India, and that on Africa by Mr. Clifford N. Fyle, of the Ministry of Education, Freetown, Sierra Leone. It is as independent experts that the two authors here examine the issues. Unesco does not assume responsibility for opinions expressed.

This publication appears at a time when there is a new impetus in Unesco's work for book development. The General Conference at the end of 1964 called for a co-ordinated programme to promote the production and distribution of books in the developing countries. This programme is to be drawn up o n the basis of a series of meetings in the developing regions, the first of which, for Asia, is to be held in 1966.

It is hoped that the present publication, in highlighting the problems of book development in Asia and Africa, will serve to spur the programme o f remedial action.

C O N T E N T S

Foreword ...............................................................

THE PR O D U C T I O N AND FLOW OF B O O K S IN SOUTH E A S T ASIA .............

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I1 .

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IV .

V .

Introduction .......................................................

Publishing .........................................................

Distribution ........................................................

Export and Import Difficulties .......................................

Paper and Paper-backs .............................................

Co-operative Planning and Production ................................

THE PRODUCTION AND FLOW OF B O O K S IN AFRICA ......................

Introduction ........................................................

I . Publishing .........................................................

I1 . Printing ...........................................................

111 . Supply of Paper and Other Materials ..................................

IV . Distribution ........................................................

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THE PRODUCTION AND FLOW OF BOOKS IN SOUTH E A S T ASIA

by

Om Prakash

INTRODUCTION

Over 800 million people, or one quarter of the world's inhabitants, live in South East Asia.(l) Yet of 400,000 titles of books produced throughout the world in 1962, only 20,000 or one fortieth of the total were published in this region.

Asia as a whole is in an undeveloped stage. is further illustrated by the data available for in- dividual countries. While twelve countries to- gether publishthree-quarters of the world's books, only one of them - India - is in South East Asia. Book production in other countries of the region is very limited, as indicated below:

It is evident that book publishing in South East This

Number of titles

Afghanistan Burma Cambodia Ceylon Indonesia Iran Malaya Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet -Nam (Republic of)

60 6 03 230

1,969 86 9 56 9 33 8 153 237

1,397 1,515

Moreover, the above figures only partially il- lust rate the underdevelopment of book publishing in South East Asia. In general, the average number of printed copies of each book title is smaller in the developing than in the developed countries. Al- though complete data on copies of books printed in South East Asia are not available, it would appear that the region' s share of copies of books is even smaller than that of titles.

The productton of translations is similarly limited. produced in 1962, only 1,455, or 4.470 of the total, were published in South East Asia. (3)

South East Asia's r81e in the international book trade further illustrates the embryonic state of its publishing industry. Although there is a substantial volume of exports of books from Indo- nesia, India and the Philippines to the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States, respec- tively, book exports from the greater part of the region are negligible.

Of a world total of 32,787 translations

In contrast, imports of

books, periodicals and other printed matter m a y represent almost one per cent of a country's total imports, as indicated below:

of total imports (by value) in 1960 -1 96 1

Malaya Indonesia Burma Thailand Pakistan

0.98 0.75 0.74 0.65 0.22

Finally, the position of newspaper and peri- odical publishing in South East Asia is comparable to that of book publishing. copies of daily newspapers are sold per 1,000 peo- ple in the United Kingdom and 323 in the United States. In contrast, less than one copy per 1,000 people is sold in Laos; 1 to 10 copies in Afgani- stan, Cambodia and Pakistan; 10 to 20 in Burma, India, Indonesia, Iran and the Philippines; less than 30 in the Republic of Viet-Nam; and less than 70 in Malaysia.

A n average of 506

Barriers to book production

Underdevelopment of book publishing in South East Asia results from a host of restrictive elements, ranging from factors which directly limit the book market, such as shortages of paper and equipment to handicaps of a more general nature, such as low purchasing power and poor transport facili- ties.

tion of reading materials is, doubtless, the high average level of illiteracy in the region. shown below, however, illiteracy rates vary wide- ly between individual countries:

The biggest single obstacle to a wider circula-

A s

?I) Comprises the following countries: Afghani- stan, Burma, Cambodia, Ceylon, India, In- donesia, Iran, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Paki- stan, Philippines, Thailand, and Republic of Viet -Nam . Figures apply to the years 1959-1963. (2)

(3) Index Translationum, sixteenth edition.

5

Afghanistan Nepal

Iran

Indonesia Laos Pakistan Viet -Nam (Republic of)

70 of adult population illiterate

95 -99

85-89

80-84

India 70-74

Cambodia 65-69

Malaysia 50 -54

Burma 40-44

C e ylon Thailand

30-34

Philippines 25-29

Closely related to the high illiteracy rate, a low level of income constitutes another major bar- rier to increased reading. While low-cost paper- backs may offer a means of extending book sales, per capita income in the region is in fact so limit- ed as to affect the purchase of even the cheapest books. Of the South East Asian countries, only Ceylon, Iran, Malaysia andthe Philippines can claim an income of $101-300 per capita. All the other countries fall within the less than $100 range. An intensifying factor is that average family income in urban areas often considerably exceeds that in rural districts. Also, wealth in many cases is concentrated in a small sector of society.

of reading materials arises from the region's de- teriorating terms of trade. Suffering from a defi- cit in export over import earnings, nearly all South East Asian countries are finding it increas- ingly difficult to import the materials and equip- ment they need for their national development efforts.

A third major obstacle to increased production

Paper and equipment

Printing paper looms large in these import require- ments. paper for books amount's to no more than a frac- tion of a kilogram per inhabitant throughout the region, domestic production does not even meet this limited demand. Nor is there any likelihood that reliance on imports of these commodities can be reduced in the foreseeable future. efforts to develop paper production are being made and certain countries have extensive fibre resour- ces, industrializationas a whole can onlytake place slowlyand against a formidable array of difficulties.

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Although consumption of newsprint and

While

Of the three newsprint producers in the region - India, Pakistan and Cambodia - India's production covers only 20 per cent of its own de- mand, and only Pakistan has an export surplus (some 15,000 tons in 1963). stantial South East Asian producer of printing paper other than newsprint and writing paper but, here again, consumption of this material (234,400 tons in 1962) leaves no surplus for export. Nor does any other country in the region export these grades of paper.

In contrast with the discouraging outlook for the development of paper making in South East Asia, a huge increase in demand is foreseen. On the basis solely of population growth andper capita income in the Far East, the demand for newsprint in that region, excluding mainland China, is ex- pected to rise from 672,000 tons in 1955 to 2,920,000 tons in 1975. The demand for other printing paper and writing paper is expected to increase from 796,000 to 3,145,000 tons in the same period. (l)

a powerful incentive to the demand for printed matter. In countries where illiteracy is very prevalent, its reduction by one per cent is estima- ted to have the same impact on the demand for printing paper as a 5 per cent increase in purchas- ing power. If literacy were to triple in 20 years in the developing countries of Africa and Asia, ex- cluding mainland China, the demand for all types of printing and writing paper would be raised from 732,000 tons in 1955 to some 4,400,000 tons in 1975 .(2)

reading materials in South East Asia will clearly need to take into account the trade issues involved. This is all the more so because printing facilities in the region are grossly inadequate and will need to be expanded considerably as part of any devel- opment programme in book publishing. Equip- ment in many cases is worn out or outmoded, and new type faces need to be developed. Composing and binding are mostly done by hand and conse- quently are slow and of poor quality. Few items of equipment are manufactured within the region, and problems of purchasing and importing remain to be solved.

India is the only sub-

Moreover, the reduction of illiteracy acts as

A major effort to promote the production of

Scope of the study

To gather information for this study. a question- naire was sent to a number of governmental and other organizations in various South East Asian countries. The questionnaire was divided into eight sections covering tariff and trade restric- tions: excise duties and taxes; postal and railway

(1) World Demand for Paper to 1975, FAO, 1961 (2) The Place of Paper in Development and

Foreign Aid, by the Institute for International Economic Studies, University of Stockholm (with assistance from Unesco and FAO), 1963.

rates; paper; copyright laws and royalities; printing, publishing and distribution; training of authors, artists and printers; and co-operative planning and publishing.

In the introduction to the questionnaire, the author pointed out that obstacles to the flow of books in Asia existed in many forms. They in- clude tariff and trade obstacles, high postal and freight charges on packages of books, currency re- strictions and import duties on paper and board required for book production. difficulties arising from copyright laws or from cumbersome procedures affecting the payment of royalities to foreign authors. arose from adverse conditions of the book trade in Asian countries such as inadequate publishing and distribution techniques and a dearth of qualified authors, artists and printers. In addition, there were few modern printing units capable of produc- ing books in quantity and at moderate cost for countries with large populations. tries capital resources of publishers were limited and there was a dearth of booksellers and news- agents to help promote book distribution. absence of large -scale wholesalers, co-operative distribution agencies had yet to be developed. Other countries imposed purchase or sale taxes on reading materials or on raw materials required to produce them. print might not be readily available or its use might be restricted through import regulations or high costs.

to look into possible means of making scientific and technical books available to the peoples of Asia in their own languages. For example, could arrangements be made with foreign publishers to import such books with regionallanguage texts over- printed on their main, illustrated pages? Alterna- tively, could illustrated pages be imported for subsequent overprinting of Asian texts? publishers' co-operatives be set up, with the as- sistance of Asian governments or international or- ganizations, in order to establish large printing units for the planning and production of scientific and technical books? tions be encouraged to organize chains of co-opera- tive distribution centres to help publishers make books available throughout their countries?

Detailed replies to the questionnaire were re- ceived from 13 organizations in the following I coun- tries: Burma (l), Ceylon (4), India (l), Indonesia (l), Iran (l), Pakistan (4) and Singapore (I). These came from official and non-official sources. The former included the Officer on Special Duty (Libra- ries), Education Directorate, Dacca (Pakistan); Director, Department of Cultural Relations, Vazarat Fehrang, Teheran (Iran); The Commission- er, Official Language Affairs, Publications Section, Colombo (Ceylon); and the General Secretary of the National Book Trust of Ceylon, Colombo (Ceylon).

sociations also co-operated by sending in replies.

They also included

Other obstacles

In some coun-

In the

For low-priced paper-backs, news-

It would also be helpful, the author suggested,

Could

Could Asian trade organiza-

Leading publishers, booksellers and library as -

For information about conditions in other countries, the author consulted publications is- sued by Unesco. Conditions in some of the South East Asian countries have prevented any systema- tic attempt being made to compile or furnish sta- tistical data on the book trade. representative of one South East Asian country in fact stated that none of the information requested was available,

The statistical information included in this study was derived from Unesco publications ex- cept in a limited number of cases where data were obtained through the questionnaire.

The New Delhi

I. PUBLISHING

Readers and publishers

Book publishing in South East Asia is in its initial stages of development. the printed word has not had a very long history, and the wide use of books for education is of com- paratively recent origin. Many of the books pub- lished in Asian countries in the past were of reli- gious interest. tact with Western culture, steps were taken to modernize education by establishing syllabi and curricula and by prescribing textbooks. With the achievement of independence by various countries, plans to raise levels of literacy and education were launched with a great sense of urgency.

However, it must be noted that the demand for books at prices which the Asian peoples can afford has not been adequately met. Low levels of literacy and of purchasing power, coupled with the absence of wide reading habits, continue to limit the production and distribution of reading ma- terials. specially suited for children and new literates are far fewer than those engaged in the publication of educational books, including textbooks. In the edu- cational field, too, many countries continue to rely on imports or on local branches of foreign publish- ing houses. In several Asian countries, European languages introduced by the former European pow- ers are still used as media for advanced instruction.

There are general publishers of more than 50 years' standing in Ceylon, Burma, Pakistan and India. exclusively engaged in publishing religious books; some used to publish works on mythology and as- trology as well.

In most of the region,

As these countries came into con-

Publishers of general books and books

In their early years, they were almost

Professional Associations

The undeveloped state of publishing in South East Asia is evident from the fact that publishing and bookselling activities are largely conducted by sin- gle establishments. A large majority of book- sellers publish books and most of the publishers act as booksellers, Specialization in these distinct activities will take time to develop. In most

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countries, separate professional associations of publishers and booksellers either do not exist or are not adequately representative. Most profes- sional organizations are combined associations of publishers and booksellers.

A limited number of South East Asian coun- tries have publishers' associations. In Burma there is the Burma Publishers' Association (Ran- goon); In Indonesia, the Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia (Djakarta); in Iran, the Iranian Publishers' and Booksellers Association (Teheran); In Pakistan, the Pakistan Publishers' and Booksellers Asso- ciation (Lahore); in India, the book trade main- tains the Federation of Publishers' andBooksellers' Associations in India (Bombay); and a number of loosely organized publishers' and booksellers' as - sociations in the various language areas.

Number of publishers

The number of regular book publishers in the re- gion is not available and would be difficult to esti- mate. Many countries have no means of counting the publishers or booksellers. According to the replies to the questionnaire, Ceylon has some 15 publishers, eight of which publish educational books and books for children and new literates. In Indonesia, the estimated number of publishers is 420; 290 are engaged in general publishing, 80 in educational publishing and 50 in publishing for children and new literates. Iran has some 120 publishers; 105 are general and 10 educational, while 5 publish books for children and new literates

Regular publishing enterprises in Pakistan number between 30 and 40. However, the total number of publishers m a y be between 200 and 250, half of them being solely engaged in educational work; some also publish books for children and new literates. India, with 13 recognized regional languages, has a large number of publishers. In the educational field, some of India' s publishing houses are about 100 years old. The All-India Hindi Publishers' Association, whose membership is open to publishers in Hindi, the country's pro- posed official language, has never had more than 70 members. However, the annual bibliography issued by the National Library, Calcutta, indicated that the total would be 339 if publishers of all kinds of books, including those having no back lists and those issuing a single book per year, are also in- cluded.

Some years ago, the All-India Hindi Publish- ers' Association began registering Hindi book- sellers throughout the country. Some 1,800 were listed, although no exact definition of a bookseller was used. to be publishers also. only seasonal booksellers or occasional retailers selling books solely on order. They join profes- sional associations when it suits them and often allow their membership to lapse. In India, as well as in other South East Asian countries, pro- fessional associations in the various fields of the

A number of these booksellers claimed Another group consisted of

book trade are not yet strong enough to protect and support their members' interests.

Dearth of capital

Publishing is a relatively small and unprofitable bus - iness in most countries of South East Asia, and it has failed to attract capital. Scope for generalpublishing is extremelylimited. Recently, with theprogressive- ly wider use of national languages for instruction, there has been increased activity and investment in educational publishing. There are few large, well- organized publishing firms in the region which can match their counterparts in the West. The paucity of capital for publishing willpersist as long as the de- mand for generalbooks continues to be meagre. Such factors as literacy and educational campaigns, rais- ing of living standards and purchasing power, the cultivation of reading among the people who have traditionally depended upon the spoken word for enlightenment, greater availability of paper and better printing and other technical facilities will in time stimulate a wider demand for books and a greater flow of capital into book publishing.

Meanwhile, publishers will need to depend upon their own limited resources. In no South East Asian country will the banks lend funds with printed material as collateral. Loans from var- ious other sources are not as easily available to publishers as to other trades, with the result that their activities remain cramped. In many coun- tries of the region, government loans are avail- able to small industries, including the printing in- dustry. Such facilities are, however, denied to publishers.

Publishing is generally conducted by small units which are either owned individually or in partnership. The number of nationally based joint -stock companies, with larger capital resour- ces, is very limited.

Printing orders

First printing orders for general books in South East Asian countries provide a varying and inter- esting pattern. In this connexion, it should be noted that only a small percentage of books have a chance of being reprinted; most publications go through only the first edition. There are few books, except religious and traditional ones, which could be called 'I best -sellers" in the modern sense.

book in Singapore is 5,000 copies; in Ceylon, 2,000; in Burma, 3,000; in Indonesia, 5.000 to 10,000; in Iran, 1,000 to 10, 000; in Pakistan, 5,000; and in India, 1,000 to 3,000. For books for children and new literates, the first printing orders are for 5,000 copies in Singapore; 5,000 in Ceylon and Burma; 5,000 to 20,000 in Indonesia; 2,000 in Iran: 2,500 in Pakistan: and 2,000 to 10,000 in India. The largest first printing orders are given to educational books. They amount to

The average first printing order for a general

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20,000 in Singapore; 7,500 to 50,000 in Ceylon; 20,000 to 30,000 in Iran; and 5,000 to 100,000 and more in India: University textbooks are printed in editions of 2,000 in Burma, 3,000 to 5,000 in In- donesia and 2,500 to 5,000 in Pakistan.

Books for children and new literates

The average price of books for children and new literates varies between 50 cents to 2 rupees ($0.10 to $0.40) in Ceylon, 25 to 50 pyas ($0.05 to $0.10) in Burma, 5 to 100 rials ($0.07 to $1.40) in Iran, Rs. 1 to Rs. 2.50 ($0.20 to $0.50) in Pakistan, and 50 paisas to Rs. 5 ($0.10 to $1.00) in India. Considering the average capacity and inclination to buy books in these countries, such prices must be considered high. Until books are priced more cheaply and printed in much larger numbers, they will fail to be widely used in South East Asia.

ates are folk tales, stories, religious and moral instruction and biography and travel. The pub- lication of books on developments in science has been started recently.

Printing and bindinq

Subjects for books for children and new liter-

The printing of general books is mostly done by letter-press flat -bed machines in all South East Asian countries except Pakistan, where it is car- ried out by lithography. Offset printing is used to a limited extent for books for children and new literates in Indonesia, India, Iran and Pakistan. Litho printing is also used, largely because it is cheaper even though the results may not be as sat- isfactory. Letter-press printing does not lend it- self to speed and mass production. binding, cutting, stitching and stapling processes are done by hand. rapid, mechanical binding facilities, even for books intended for mass consumption.

Most book-

There are very few plants with

Scientific books

There is a dearth in all the South East Asian coun- tries of scientific books for children and new lit- erates, particularly in national languages. Owing to the lack of printing facilities, few translations of such books are published and attempts made in this field have not been very successful.

Translations

Some publishers in Ceylon, Indonesia and India conclude contracts with foreign authors and pub- lishers for the translation and publication of scientific books for children and new literates in national languages. publishers range from 5 to 15 percent. In addi- tion, local publishers must meet costs of trans- lation, the making of blocks and plates. Lump sum payments, in lieu of royalties calculated on

Royalties exacted by foreign

sales, are another means of obtaining foreign-held copyrights.

Authors and artists

The production of suitable reading material for mass consumption also suffers from the fact that many South East Asian authors do not write on scientific subjects in their national languages. Most of the authors have been educated in and are masters of foreign languages rather than national ones. region have failed to provide facilities for training authors to write on scientific subjects. author's knowledge, no scientific book by a South East Asian author has been translated into any other language of the region.

Underdevelopment of publishing is also illu- strated by the fact that few South East Asian pub- lishers employ editors to check manuscripts be - fore they are handed over to the printers, espe- cially texts on scientific subjects. There are no training facilities for editors in any country, nor are there any openings where they could gain ex- perience.

For the writing of scientific books for child- ren and new literates, publishers can do no more than commission authors who may be willing to venture into this field. Since few publishers have artists on their regular staff, illustrations are generally commissioned from free -lance workers.

Though there is no dearth of artists practis- ing commercial art and the fine arts in the region, their services have yet to be utilized for the pro- duction of books for mass consumption. artists have collections of reference works essen- tial for preparing illustrations for scientific books. There is a general lack of co-ordination between the artists, authors and publishers, a sina qua non for effective book production. Offset printing

If books for children and new literates are to be produced with colour illustrations and in large quantities, offset printing is necessary. Burma has no offset press establishment and Indonesia's government -owned offset facilities are not avail- able to private publishers. presses in Iran, Pakistan, India and Ceylon (which has about a dozen). However, most of them are fully occupied with printing jobs from non-pub- lisher clients who are in a positior. to pay high rates. The available offset facilities in countries of the region need a great deal of modernizing. In addition, printers in general depend on imports of chemicals, films and screens which are subject to high import duties and increase printing costs.

Subsidies for reading materials

The production of reading materials for mass con- sumption suffers many handicaps in South East Asia.

Governments and private agencies in the

T o the

Few

There are offset

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Some help, by way of subsidies or assured purchas- es, would be required to effect a break-through. Unesco, through its programme to stimulate the publication of reading materials in the region, has subsidized the production in certain Asian countries of selected titles in order to promote international understanding. have also subsidized certain publishers in Pakistan and certain other countries to this end, by meeting translation expenses and part of the promotional costs. Franklin Publications charge a small per- centage of royalties on books thus assisted.

Franklin Publications (U .S .A .)

11. DISTRIBUTION

H o w a I' Book" is defined

There is little agreement among countries of the region as to what constitutes a "book" , a 'I news- paper" or a " magazine" . Ceylon defines a book as I' any number of pages permanently bound be- tween two covers" ; this includes pamphlets, book- lets, magazines and periodicals. A book is " a work of 8 pages or more" in Indonesia. fines a book as '' any printed material, being bound or to be bound within the importing country" . The Philippine definition is a volume, with or without covers, consisting of more than 100 pages'' . This ambiguity creates continual complications, partic - ularly for book importing and exporting countries. In Pakistan and India, for example, I' activity books" have been subjected to heavy duties or other charges by the customs authorities, as the defini- tion of a 'I book" was not broad enough to include such publications. Profusely illustrated, loosely bound books have sometimes been classified as cal- endars. Unbound sheets with printed text have recently been granted importation as books into India, with a view to encouraging local binding in- dustry and saving foreign exchange. ted sheets, when imported for local over-printing of texts, are not yet classified as books.

Under the present definition of a book, colour printed sheets cannot be freely imported into Cey- lon, although I' charts for educational purposes can be freely imported" . Colour printed sheets would not be so classified. Their importation into Paki- stan and Burma is allowed only under special per- mit. sheets provided Indonesian texts are not printed on them.

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Materials, which exempts books from import duties, does not extend this privilege to printed material in the form of loose sheets or books in otherwise unfinish- ed form. Unesco' s definition of a " book" is a I' non-periodical publication containing 49 pages or more, not counting covers'' . This manifestly does not include books with fewer pages published for children and new literates.

Iran de-

Colour-prin-

Indonesia permits the importation of such

The Unesco Agreement of the Importation of

Unreliable distributing outlets

The distribution of books in South East Asia does not present a very happy picture either. from bookshops, other outlets are small book- stalls, pavement book-hawkers and the news- agents. not dependable outlets financially. have bank accounts, or the will or capacity to cater to intelligent demands. little interested in books unless they are low-pric- ed, fast -selling items such as paper-backs. gular investment in stocks of books is practised by the better type of bookshops and in most South East Asian countries these deal in imported books rath- er than in books published locally in the national language. Booksellers who stock books in nation- al languages prefer to deal in fast-selling educa- tional books. The distribution of general books faces great handicaps.

Apart

The latter are poorly organized and are F e w of them

Newsagents are

Re-

Inadequate services

Outlets for books in Pakistan and India provide in- adequate services for both publishers and custom- ers. In addition, they are unevenly distributed. The diffusion of books also suffers from the lack of organized, well-stocked wholesale bookshops. In the absence of adequate help in distribution from such wholesalers as do exist, publishers are un- willing to grant sufficient discounts to meet the ex- penses incurred by wholesalers in organizing and conducting their business. When, as a result, publishers try to act as booksellers themselves, they fail to do justice either to publishing or book- selling. vicious circle.

The whole procedure thus moves in a

Unsatisfactory conditions

Book trade interests in Singapore consider that the nature, utility and number of outlets for books is most unsatisfactory, and that training for those who are in or m a y wish to enter the trade is acute- ly needed. Publishers in Ceylon maintain that much improvement in the book-trade is required. They also believe that better distribution of books depends on an increase in popular purchasing pow- er and the cultivation of reading habits. The need for improvement is felt in almost all countries of the region.

Unhealthy competition

One factor hindering growth of the book-trade in all countries of South East Asia is widespread price- cutting and cut -throat competition. The published price of a book does not mean much, since a buyer can haggle to obtain a rebate on its face value. In the absence of a strong demand for books, a pub- lisher or bookseller has little inclination to hold

10

on to a book rather than sell it at the cut price of- fered. publisher to grant a higher discount so that after he has allowed a discount to his retail buyer, he will still have some margin left for himself. The result is that, even though the bookseller may be getting a fairly high discount on the published price of a book, he does not have enough margin to meet the expenses or make a profit. Bookselling re- mains a very unlucrative business which fails to give the support expected of it by the publishing in- dustry. Moreover, it has as a consequence failed to attract capital and talent.

The bookseller continually presses the

Net book agreement

Attempts have been made in Indonesia, Pakistan and India to enforce a net book agreement under which a book must be sold at its published price. A resolution of the Pakistan Publishers' and Book- sellers' Association to this effect was more flouted than followed. The All-India Hindi Publishers' Association in India was able to enforce such an agreement for a couple of years. discounts which could be given to libraries and government departments were fixed at 121/2 per cent and 20 per cent respectively. The agree- ment, however, broke down because of the tend- ency among some publishers and booksellers to attract the purchasers' patronage. Higher dis- counts were offered, first surreptitiously and then openly. The attempt to ensure that booksellers keep the margin due to them did not succeed be- cause of their anxiety to sell books at competitive discounts even though the profit was negligible.

ment can be found in the various financial regula- tions requiring government departments and libra- ries receiving government aid to call for quotations for all expenditures over specified amounts. In India, the amount is Rs. 20.00 ($4.00). These regulations make no distinction between the differ- ent kinds of commodities and services required by the recipient of aid, nor do they take into account the fact that books are commodities whose prices are permanently fixed and are not subject to fluc- tuation. The price of a book includes specified shares for all who participate in its production - the author, the publisher and the bookseller. When quotations are called for, publishers and booksellers offer competing bids, thus depriving each other of the fixed share of the returns. This unhealthy pressure on the book trade, which is particularly prevalent in India and Pakistan, would not have developed if there had been a sizable reading public interested in purchasing individual copies of books.

The maximum

A major obstacle to enforcing a net book agree-

Trade discount

O n books of fiction, the trade discount allowed by publishers ranges from 25 to 30 per cent in In- donesia; 25 to 40 per cent in India; 30 per cent in

Iran; 30 to 40 per cent in Burma and Ceylon; 331/3 per cent in Singapore; and 33l/3 to 40 per cent in Pakistan. O n books for children and new literates, discounts generally fall below these levels in Ceylon, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, Singa- pore and Burma. They are higher in India. The discount on educational books ranges between 15 to 25 per cent in all South East Asian countries except Indonesia, where it varies between 15 and 35 per cent.

Copyright laws

Some countries of South East Asia, such as Iran, have no comprehensive copyright laws. Existing laws governing the relationship between an author and his publisher are in many cases neither clear- ly defined nor effective. In 1957 and 1962 respec- tively India and Pakistan recodified and re-enacted their copyright laws and brought them in line with those of the developed countries of the world. Not many countries of the region are

Convention. Copyright laws in Burma, Pakistan, Ceylon

and India give protection to the published works of an author for 50 years after his death. In Indo- nesia, this right, in the original or the translation of a work, is an abiding and permanent one, ex- cept for Dutch authors whose books lose copyright protection after 7 years from the date of publica- tion. unchanged since they were enacted in Ceylon (1911), Burma (1912) and Indonesia (1917) Lnd are more or less a continuation of the relevant British and Dutch laws.

arties to the Universal Copyright Convention (17 or the Berne

Copyright laws have remained more or less

Clearing foreign held copyrights

Publishers in Ceylon, Indonesia, Pakistan and India must undergo many vexatious procedures be - fore they can undertake to have books by foreign authors translated. After receiving clearance from the foreign author or publisher, as the case may be, they must obtain the approval of the ap- propriate authorities for the terms of the agree- ments proposed. ers find it difficult or impossible to remit the royalties due abroad. ments must be approved not only by the Ministry of Finance through the State Bank but also by the Ministry of Education. In Indonesia, approval must be sought for each title to be translated and published.

opposite extreme. tended to foreign authors, and their books can be freely translated.

Without prior approval, publish-

In Pakistan such agree-

Burma and Iran., on the other hand, are at the No copyright protection is ex-

(1) South East Asian countries parties to the Universal Convention are Cambodia, India, Laos, Pakistan and Philippines.

11

Remittance of royalties

The remittance of royalties is subject to strict governmental control in most South East Asian countries and to substantial income-tax deductions. In Ceylon, the Commissioner of Inland Revenue must certify to the Controller of Exchange that such tax deductions have been made before a pub- lisher can remit royalties to a foreign copyright- holder. from an individual's royalties and 69.1 per cent from those of a publishing house. The deduction is nearly 30 per cent in Pakistan and 49 per cent in India. The Indian deduction consists of 25 per cent as income tax on income, 5 per cent as sur- charge on this income tax, a further 15 per cent as special surcharge on the same tax, and an addition- al 19 per cent as super tax on income.

The tax deductions are 33l/3 per cent

Problems of Copyright -holders

A s earnings from the publication of translated books in most South East Asian countries are meagre, many western authors and publishers are reluctant to assign translation rights to publishers of this region. much lower than the original publications, though editions are small and must carry the additional burden of translation. lisher has no recourse when an Asian publisher de- faults in the payment of royalties. legal channels is not only costly but extremely dif- ficult due to the distances involved. Western pub- lishers consequently tend to demand heavy advan- ces on royalties which South East Asian publishers find it difficult to pay.

Internal dispatch

Pressed as they are for funds for their many- sided development programme, most South East Asian governments have been unable to grant as liberal concessions for the internal dispatch of books by post as Unesco considers desirable. Con- cessions previously granted have in fact been with- drawn or reduced in Pakistan, India and various other countries. Postal departments have a ten- dency to regard themselves as purely commercial undertakings and are wary of inroads on their re- venues. In countries where, because of inade- quate railway transport, the postal services are the only means of reaching distant towns and vil- lages, high rates have severely limited the circu- lation of books. countries of the region grant some semblance of postal concessions for books, these concessions are in general too limited to effectively promote the distribution of books by the post.

Prices of translated books are

In addition, a foreign pub-

Recourse to

Although it is true that nearly all

Maximum weights

The maximum weight of parcels of books is neces- sarily limited. In Pakistan, the maximum is 10 lbs

and in Iran 2 kilogrammes. m u m for a parcel of books dispatched internally is 5 kilos and for one sent abroad 2 kilos.

These limitations could be eliminated if a system of mailing books by bulk post in bags were introduced. No South East Asian country at pre- sent extends this facility for internal dispatches.

In India, the maxi-

Postal and railway charges

Postal charges are approximately 10 per cent of the price of a book in Iran and Pakistan and from 15 to 20 per cent in India. If books must be sent by registered mail, the overhead costs become prohibitive. Books most in demand by the aver- age reader are those which cost less. Should a reader in India wish to receive a book on a cash- on-delivery basis, the overhead costs for a pub- lication priced at one rupee, including postal and compulsory registration charges, will amount to nearly a rupee, ($0.20), i.e. 100 per cent on the original price.

The railways also do not give very favourable treatment to the transmission of parcels of books. In almost every South East Asian country there is a strong case for considerable reductions in rail- way freight, which do not reflect the importance attached to books and the stress laid upon their wide distribution by Unesco. These have, on the other hand, tended to increase. Freight rates for consignments of books in India, for example, have been recently increased.

111. EXPORT AND IMPORT DIFFICULTIES

In most South East Asian countries licences must be obtained for the import of books. Singapore are exceptions. priced at Rs. 150.00 ($30.00) can be imported for personal use without a licence. hand, in India even non-commercial institutions such as universities and established libraries must apply to obtain a licence for books which they m a y decide to import themselves. restriction on the import of books from hard cur- rency countries is comparatively stringent, and in Indonesia an importer must obtain government ap- proval for each title if foreign exchange is to be officially provided.

Iran and In Pakistan books

On the other

In Burma,

Licensing of imports

In almost all parts of the region, systems for ob- taining import licences are cumbersome and com- plicated by excessive red tape. Applications for licences in most cases are entertained only from established book importers; new-comers are dis- couraged or licences refused outright. Pakistani importers are granted annual quotas based on their import records for the period 1952-1955, while for importers in India the period is 1955- 1959. To obtain import quotas, importers in

12

Pakistan must produce shipping documents as evi- dence, while in India, they are required to furnish payment certificates from banks. applications for additional licences over the basic quotas m a y be submitted when 75 per cent of the licences obtained have been exhausted; in India the level is set at 60 per cent. For the period 1962-1963, India reduced book quotas to 75 per cent of the previous licences as a means of con- serving foreign exchange.

Books prohibited or restricted

In Pakistan,

Apart from tariff and trade obstacles, there are restrictions on the content of books imported in most South East Asian countries. Even in the free port of Singapore, literature described as " yellow" or 'I pro-communist" cannot be impor- ted. Ceylon; publications like Lady Chatterlev' s Lover, The Naked and the Dead, and Racing News are in- cluded in this category. scene" books as well as books printed in Burmese outside the country. In Indonesia, every book being imported must first be approved by the au- thorities. munist" and " anti-religious" books or those in- jurious to the '' moral code'' . I' obscene" or " anti-Pakistan" books m a y be im- ported. Reimportation of " pornographic" books and books I' questioning India's sovereignty over her territories" are banned by India, while Paki- stan restricts books with maps showing a I' parti- cular territory" as part of India.

In Pakistan, licences carry the restriction that only 10 per cent of their value m a y be utilized for the import of fiction and general books. In India, books of fiction worth more than 50 per cent of the face value of import licences cannot be imported. favour the importation of scientific, technical and reference books, rather than fiction, comics and various books of juvenile interest.

Import duties

Most South East Asian countries do not levy import duties on books. of fiction, travel, biographies and magazines are subject to a 25 per cent duty. In Pakistan, there is a 12 per cent sales tax on 'I cut-out'' books for children as well as special charges if they have been imported as I' books" and not " toys" . In India, children' s I' colour -books" are excluded from the definition of books for importingpurposes .

" Obscene'' books cannot be imported in

Burma prohibits " ob-

Iran prohibits the importation of 'I c om-

In Pakistan, no

In most countries the authorities

In Indonesia, however, books

Restrictions on new enterprises

A s already mentioned, new enterprises cannot easily become importers of books in many coun- tries of South East Asia. In Burma, they must first register as importers. In Indonesia, they must, in addition, deposit a large s u m at a bank

as surety. In Pakistan, new enterprises were permitted to apply for licences from the period 1961-1962 and were required to register with the income tax authorities. N o new enterprises in India can become importers of books for trading purposes.

Export obstacles

The export of books is similarly hampered by many restrictions. State banks in most of the countries freely approve book exports, but appli- cations must first be submitted through the ex- porters' bankers. This process includes filling forms, producing proof of having received orders and assuring cash-on-delivery if payment in ad- vance has not been received. Indian post offices will return any parcel of books if it does not car- ry a particular P . P. form authorizing the export of books exceeding Rs. 50 ($10.00) in value. Burma, each book parcel must be presented at a post office with an exchange declaration form. In Ceylon, an exchange permit is necessary for the export of books exceeding Rs.50 ($10.00) in value.

ficult because of currency inflation and the mark- ed imbalance between the official and the free market rates of exchange of the rupiah. In Paki- stan and India, exports of books are encouraged by the authorities but are subject to many restric- tive regulations. In Pakistan, advance payment must have been received or an irrevocable letter of credit must have been opened in favour of the exporter: alternatively, payment must be made by the indent agent on the presentation of the bill at a bank or post office. stan, India, Burma, Ceylon and Indonesia must be informed of each export transaction being con- ducted.

In

The export of books from Indonesia is dif-

State banks of Paki-

Taxes on books

Most of the States of India imposed a sales tax on all except religious books until a few years ago. This tax was removed on the persistent demand of many local, regional and national book-trade organizations. countries, books are liable to an indirect tax in the form of excise duties and purchase or sales taxes on paper.

In various other South East Asian

Taxes and excise duties on paper

A 12 per cent purchase tax is imposed on paper in Pakistan. Various Indian States impose sales taxes, varying between 4 per cent and 7 per cent on better quality printing paper. In addition, an excise duty of 22 nP ($0.04) per Kg. is imposed on printing paper of domestic manufacture as well as a duty of 50 nP. ($0.10) per Kg. on printing paper with a rag content of over 50 per cent. In Ceylon, the excise duty on paper varies from 5 per

13

cent to 10 per cent. newsprint and other printing paper. a 20 per cent duty is imposed on printing paper.

A provision of the Sales Tax Act, 1954, of Bombay (now Maharashtra) entitled a publisher to the refund of sales tax paid on paper for book man- ufacture. The sales tax on books was abolished in 1958. However, the new Sales Tax Act of 1959 provides that taxes can be refunded only on the purchase of raw materials used in manufactur- ing taxable goods. tially increase the cost of books published in South East Asia.

Price fluctuations

Burma also levies duties on In Indonesia,

Such taxes on paper substan-

Retail prices of printing paper and newsprint in most countries of the region have tended to rise since 1959. per has increased by 30 per cent and of newsprint by 150 per cent. Burma records a rise of 50 per cent to 80 per cent for printing paper. Inflation in Indonesia caused paper prices to soar 360 per cent between 1959 and 1961. has been limited to between 10 and 20 per cent. In Pakistan, prices of newsprint and printing pa- per have been high throughout the past decade.

In Ceylon, the price of printing pa-

In Iran, theincrease

IV . PAPER AND PAPER-BACKS

Availability of paper

National development programmes of South East Asian governments provide for large -scale liter- acy and educational campaigns which have stimu- lated a rapid rise in the demand for paper.

The availability of paper has not, however, kept pace with demand, and publishers have not consequently been able to meet their needs, in quantity and quality, at economic prices. lon, increases in printing paper costs have also been due to rises in prices of raw materials as well as higher wages, duties and taxes. quantity of newsprint is manufactured locally. import of printing paper similar to that locally pro- duced is banned, however insufficient in quantity or unsatisfactory in quality the domestic product may be. Publishers feel that costs of imported printing paper, after paying for freight and duties, could still be much lower. In Burma, prices of paper tend to increase whenever the issue of im- port licences is delayed by red tape. The avail- ability of paper in Indonesia is unsatisfactory, un- certain and irregular e faced by Pakistani publishers.

Although a number of South East Asian coun- tries are planning to be independent in supplying newsprint and other printing paper, they have far to go in achieving this aim. No country in Asia except Japan produces sufficient printing paper to meet its requirements. Burma and Iran as yet have no paper mills, while Ceylon produces only a

In Cey-

A small The

Similar difficulties are

negligible quantity of newsprint. stan each have only one newsprint plant. Years of effort and liberal allocations of foreign ex- change are needed to set up new paper mills. The foreign exchange problem cannot be easily solved in these countries, which do not produce sufficient commodities for profitable export. Meanwhile, with the spread of literacy and the rise in living standards, the demand for paper continues to grow.

Prices at which publishers can obtain locally produced paper vary greatly from country to coun- try. According to representative publishers, the prices are high and they prevent publishers from selling books at costs which the people can afford. While there are no quantitative restrictions on purchases of domestic paper by publishers, its availability is often uncertain and costs continue to rise.

India and Paki-

Costs of production materials

The consensus among publishers in Ceylon, Burma, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan and India is that without appreciable improvement in the sup- ply of paper, prices of books cannot be reduced. This obstacle severely hampers the publication of low-cost books for children and new literates, now greatly in demand in countries of the region. Due to the high cost of materials needed in book production, prices of books are generally prohibi- tive for general readers. As a result only small editions are published: this again affects the pricing of books.

Low-cost paper-backs

The developing countries of South East Asia could benefit greatly from the 'I paper-back revolution'' which has so markedly affected the book-trade in Western countries such as the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Prospects for the publication of paper-backs in the region are not yet encouraging, however. The number of publishers engaged in publishing paper -backs is small, as are the number of copies and titles they issue.

duce paper-backs, the initial printing order be- ing 5,000 copies per title. gin publishing paper-backs . of publishers are now producing paper-backs, with the first printing order limited to 5,000 copies. Two publishers in Indonesia and four in Iran are engaged in paper-back production with their first editions averaging 10,000 copies each. In Paki- stan, publishers have not yet taken to paper-backs seriously. One or two publishers have tried to establish themselves in this field but their first printing orders do not exceed 4,000 copies. In India, a number of publishers have successfully undertaken paper-back publishing in Hindi and var- ious other languages, though business now seems to be slowing down because of a heavy percentage

In Singapore, six publishers at present pro-

Ceylon has yet to be- In Burma a number

14

of unsold returns from the newstands. Publishers in Hindi have had good sales results, with first printing orders varying between 5,000 and 25,000 copies. a tendency to decline recently.

Print orders for first editions have shown

Newsprint restrictions

Most of the successful paper-back publishers in the West use newsprint. of domestic newsprint in South East Asia, the authorities severely restrict its use for paper- backs, Good quality newsprint which could be used for books is mostly imported and can be ob- tained only in limited quantities by special permit and import licence. Import and excise duties on newsprint increase the cost of paper-backs. Small printing orders are another major cause of high prices. er in the United States, for example, which pro- duces 25 and 35 cent "pocket-books" , the price of paper-backs in India, Pakistan and Indonesia should be no more than a quarter of a rupee ($0.05), whereas the actual cost is one rupee. Paper-backs in South East Asia cannot, in fact, be considered as 'I low-cost" . They have appear- ed io be cheap to the buyer only because in the usual hard-bound editions of 1,000 to 3,000 copies he has been purchasing similar titles at about three rupees per copy.

Because of the shortage

In comparison to average purchasing pow-

Other price factors

Another major cost factor in the paper-back field is the cover, which is generally printed in several colours and is varnish-coated. This is in imita- tion of what is done in the West and is based on the theory that it is the colourful, attractive cover which sells a paper-back. sectional thread-stitching with pasted cover; the spine gluing methods used in the West are not fol- lowed. the import of special binding machines which can considerably reduce production costs. back editions in South East Asia are not very large, authors are not generally inclined to lower their royalty percentages or permit inclusion of their books in paper-back editions. Publishers in India have been paying authors a royalty of 5 to 6l/4 per cent on paper-backs. Foreign authors and pub- lishers oppose reductions in their royalties when their books are produced as paper-backs in Asia, and forget that Asian publishers must bear heavy translation costs as well.

Binding is the usual

Governments do not help by restricting

A s paper-

V . CO-OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PRODUCTION

The difficulties involved in producing well-design- ed books, particularly scientific books, for chil- dren and new literates in South East Asia cannot be easily overcome if left to individual effort. Most

publishers of the region recognize that, wherever possible, co-operative effort should be undertaken to promote the mass production of reading mater- ials for children and new literates. Better qual- ity will thus be assured and costs reduced. Suit- able subjects for co-operatively produced books could include elementary science, public health, and Asian folklore, philosophy, flora and fauna. Such books could become an instrument for better understanding among South East Asian countries.

Variety of languages

In Ceylon there are two languages, Singhala and Tamil, in which such books could be produced. Suitable languages in Indonesia are Bhasa Indone- sia and Malay. Both use the same script and are very similar except for differences in spelling. The Governments of Indonesia and Malaysia have made efforts to standardize spellings on a State level. Other Indonesian languages include Jav- anese, Madurese and Sudanese, but there is little demand for books in them. In Pakistan, books in Urdu andBengali are required while in India books must be produced in Hindi, Urdu, Kashmiri, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Oriya, As- samese, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. In Burma only one language (Burmese) is requirzd for books and in Iran only Farsi. In Cambodia, Philippines and Laos books must be produced in Khmer, Tagalog and Laotian, respectively.

Ceylon, Pakistan, Philippines, India and Malaysia also use books in English to some extent, All scripts employed in South East Asia are non- ideographic and, with the exception of Farsi, Pushtu, Kashmiri and Urdu, are written and prin- ted from left to right.

Multilinmal publishing

A few publishers in Ceylon, Indonesia and India already publish a limited number of books in more than one language. In India certain titles have been published in all the languages of the country. These initiatives were taken by the publishers con- cerned in compliance with requirements of the Government of India for certain specified books. Further possible action in this field was consider- ed at a Unesco-sponsored seminar held in B o m - bay in 1954 under the aegis of the Indian Govern- ment. Publishers in the various Indian languages discussed the possibilities of multilingual publish - ing on a co-operative basis and concluded that the production of well-illustrated, well-designed books would be greatly facilitated if they were jointly planned, with costs and responsibilities equitably shared. However, the ideas discussed at Bombay were not pursued.

Production problems

In the co-operative planning and production of books in South East Asia, a major difficulty is the

15

preparation of illustrations, since the artist must in some way reconcile the different types of cos- tumes and facial contours to be found in the region. This question of diversity would not arise in the case of scientific books, and for various other subjects it might in fact be turned to advantage. A book on I t Children of Asia" , for example, could benefit greatly from this rich and colourful diver- sity.

in the region derives from the multiplicity of South East Asian scripts. Urdu, Kashmiri and Pashtu, which are written from right to left, illustrations for plates for off- set printing could be set and printed at one centre.

Another problem of co-operative publishing

In the case of Farsi,

Regional initiative required

Unless some initiative is jointly taken by govern- ments of the region, publishers do not feel that they will be able to organize co-operative publish- ing on their own either within their own countries or with publishers of other South East Asian coun- tries.

In the absence of modern equipment for the mass production of books at low cost, a number of regional co-operative printing units might be set up in South East Asia. Co-operative effort would need to be undertaken at the following ZWO levels: (1) bringing together of publishers who would agree to plan and publish books for distribution in their own countries and abroad; they would also need to agree to take their share of colour-printed sheets, supply translations in their own languages, of common texts, and after these texts have been printed, bind and distribute them; and (2) setting up co-operative printing units at a number of centres in South East Asia.

Co-operative printing units

The establishment of such printing units would need the assistance of long-term loans at nominal rates of interest. Such loans, which might be made from international sources, could be extend- ed after a certain minimum of share capital has been raised by interested printers and publishers, and the governments of the countries concerned have invested twice the amount raised by the prin- ters and publishers. A n international loan might be five times the total capital thus raised for each unit.

A fully qualified printer would be placed in charge of each unit. include representatives of the publishing and print - ing trades and the government concerned.

following cent res : 1. Djakarta: for Bhasa Indonesia (Indonesia) and

Malay (Malaysia); 2. Karachi: for Farsi (Iran), Urdu (Pakistan),

Kashmiri and Pashtu (Afghanistan); 3. Delhi: for Hindi, Punjabi, Gujerati and

Its board of directors might

Regional printing units might be set up at the

Marathi (India);

Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada (India);

5. Calcutta: for Bengali (India and Pakistan), Oriya and Assamese (India);

6. Colombo: for Singhala (Ceylon) and English (Ceylon, Pakistan, India, Malay- sia and Philippines );

4. Madras: for Tamil (Ceylon and India),

7. Rangoon: for Burmese. Although these units would not need to be very

large, they should be able to cope with work from publishers pooling their resources for the produc- tion of books for children and new literates.

The funds available for each unit, in the form of share capital and international loan, might total $189,000. Out of this sum, printers and publishers might contribute $10,500 and the gov- ernments concerned $2 1,000. The international loan would be about $157,500. Equipment for the units should be similar and include two offset printing machines of double-demy size, one auto- matic cylinder printing machine of the same size, a complete processing department with camera, arc lamps, screens and other processing equip- ment. equipment to be imported, while the locally raised capital could be set apart for establishment of the unit and its working operations.

The international loan could cover the

Credit facilities

Joint efforts to promote book-buying in the coun- tries of South East Asia might be made by govern- ments in co-operation with publishers' and book- sellers' associations. Unesco might support these efforts.

Governments of the region might recognize publishing as an industry and extend to publishers credit facilities and other kinds of assistance which are normally granted to industrial under- takings. ing to their organization, capacity, past perform- ance and publishing programmes. Loans might be granted to them for specific publishing under- takings which governments m a y find desirable to promote in the national interest.

Most governments of South East Asia extend grants-in-aid to libraries in their countries. If part of this aid were to take the form of scientific books produced in the region, the publication of such books would be greatly stimulated.

Governments should extend to publishers who have their own printing departments facilities for importing printing and binding machines. These machines should be suitable for the production of scientific books for children and new literates and of low-cost paper-backs.

al seminars where, under expert guidance, pub- lishers, authors, artists, booksellers and print- ers c,ould meet to discuss their common problems. Separate discussions among authors and/or

Publishers might be classified accord-

Unesco might more frequently sponsor region-

16

publishers are less fruitful than joint meetings of all parties concerned in the production of books.

scientific books in national languages by (i) sub- sidizing their production with a view to reducing costs; and (ii) purchasing copies of such books when published.

to include (i) books for children and new literates, which often have less than 49 pages, (ii) children's books known as sheets which are to be bound in the importing coun- try, and (iv) sheets which carry only printed col- our illustrations and on which texts are to be print- ed in the importing countries.

Governments might promote the publication of

The definition of a book" might be revised

activity" books, (iii) printed

Distribution

The Governments of South East Asia might consid- er abandoning the quotation" or 'I tender'' system for the purchase of books by official departments and State-aided libraries and institutions since it gives rise to unhealthy trade practices, impedes the growth of bookselling services, and thus affects publishing as well. Government and publishers' and/ or booksellers' associations might come to some understanding regarding the standard rebates that m a y be allowed to recognized departmental or institutional and library buyers of books.

sional associations might be promoted through seminars organized with government support, gov- ernments might officially recognize such associa- tions.

ganize wholesale bookselling centres on a co- operative basis. granted loans and other assistance to promote the wider distribution of books.

The establishment and development of profes-

Publishers and booksellers might jointly or-

Such co-operatives might be

Copyright laws and royalties

Governments of South East Asia which have not yet done so might consider adhering to the Univer- sal Copyright Convention. They might also bring their copyright laws into line with those of the de- veloped countries.

of foreign authors and publishers might be sub- stantially reduced and, if possible, standardized in countries of the region. a minor source of national revenue but a m g o r obstacle to the granting of copyrights from abroad

copyright -holders and for remittance of their earnings might be simplified.

International aid might be granted for the establishment of an international copyright clear - ance bureau for the region. Such a bureau could help greatly in promoting translations of scientific and other books into South East Asian languages. The bureau might induce foreign authors and pub-

Income-tax deductions from royalty earnings

These deductions are

Procedures for signing agreements with foreign

lishers to accept reduced royalties or outright payments as a means of assisting book production in the developing countries.

Scientific texts

International grants might be made to art schools, publishers' associations and individual publishers and artists for the establishment of small refer- ence libraries containing scientific books and en- cyclopaedias. $1,000 for art schools and publisher s' associations and $500 for individual publishers and artists.

Courses m a y be organized in art schools in the region to instruct students in the illustration of books, particularly scientific publications, for children and new literates.

The maximum grant might be

Postal and rail facilities

South East Asian Governments might apply pro- visions of the Universal Postal Convention, which permit the mailing of books at half the ordinary rate for printed matter. need to be greatly reduced so that books can reach readers in remote areas inaccessible to railways and lacking bookshops or newsagents.

Governments might provide facilities for ex- empting the bulk mailing of books from current weight restrictions and at rates lower than those for individual parcels.

Postal administrations might also make ar- rangements whereby they would accept from pur- chasers full pre-payment for books.

Postal rates for books

Import and export facilities

Governments which have not yet applied the Unesco Agreement on the Importation of Educa- tional, Scientific and Cultural Materials might con- sider doing so. The Agreement might be broaden - ed to cover illustration sheets imported by pub- lishers for over-printing of texts in national lan- guages.

export permits for books might be simplified.

liberally for the importation of printing paper.

Procedures for issuing import licences and

Publishers might be granted licences more

Duties and other taxes

Governments might waive import duties and other taxes levied on paper and board required for the production of books.

Paper and paper-backs

The use of newsprint, whether imported or local- ly produced, should be freely permitted for the production of low-cost paper-backs.

production of paper-backs might be waived. Import duties on newsprint to be used in the

The importation of binding machinery which

17

glues pages to the spine of a book should be per- mitted so as to lower the cost of binding paper- backs.

International loans

International loans might be granted to help the establishment of small but up-to-date offset print- ing units by South East Asian publishers and print - ers, provided governments of the region are pre- pared to invest money in such units.

Unesco might help to organize meetings of publishers of different countries and different languages of the region with the object of promot- ing co-operative printing and publishing. Groups of publishers thus formed might be encouraged to undertake the joint planning of manuscripts and art work and the joint printing of illustrations.

list of manuscripts which could be prepared for co-operative publication in South East Asia.

Unesco might help to draw up a preliminary

18

INTRODUCTION

THE PRODUCTION AND FLOW OF BOOKS IN AFRICA

by

Clifford N. Fyle

The developing countries of Africa face political, sociological and economic difficulties of a gigantic nature. They have problems of creating national awareness among groups of people who had pre- viously little affinity with each other, of ensuring reasonable health and living standards and of cop- ing with the difficulties which arise in societies changing from an agricultural to a more industrial way of life; they have problems of financing new industries and other development projects out of limited national resources: they have problems of promoting internal and external trade and of ensur- ing adequate utilization of their natural and human resources, upon which a country's prosperity is based.

Vital to the solution of these problems is the rapid expansion and improvement of each country' s educational system. More schools, colleges and universities and teachers, as well as a broad in- tensification of effort to promote literacy, are needed to provide the skilled manpower and liter- ate public essential to national development. And these are never easy to provide.

Such education for development is largely functional. There is also cultural education, the development in each person of those cultural and spiritual values which make for true civilization. In practice the cultural and functional aspects of education are seldom treated separately, and per- haps rightly so. However, it may be useful to draw such a distinction between them, if only to help us keep our aims clearly in view. A civil- ized country may be defined as one which, because of the skilled manpower and literate public which its system of education has helped to produce, has been able to raise economic and technical develop- ment to such a level that its people are free in mind and body and have leisure to appreciate and enjoy cultural interests.

flow of books of all kinds, from class readers and literacy primers to scholarly works and treatises on the fine arts. But everywhere in Africa books are in short supply.

Scope of the study

Except where otherwise stated, the word 'I Africa" , as used in this study, refers to 42 of the countries of the continent - Algeria, Basutoland, Bechuana- land, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic,

Basic to all aspects of education is the free

Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Democratic Republic), Dahomey, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Re'union, Rwanda, Sene al, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South- ern Rhodesia(?). Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, United Arab Republic, United Republic of Tanzania, Upper Volta and Zambia(l).

population of some 244 million. study discusses their problems in the field of book production and distribution and attempts to sug- gest ways of solving them.

questionnaires were sent to Unesco and other United Nations agencies, to ministeries of educa- tion, customs, income tax and other governmental departments, and to publishers and booksellers in the 42 countries covered in the study. Detailed replies were received for the following 25 coun- tries: Bechuanaland, Burundi, Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville), Dahomey, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Nigeria, Sene- gal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Southern Rhodesia, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia. A reply in general terms was received for Mauritania.

In a few cases the author was able to collect information and observe local conditions at first hand. But by and large the study is based on in- formation obtained from questionnaires and supple- mentary statements, from Unesco and FAO docu- ments, from the Unesco Regional Centre for Edu- cation in Africa and from various other sources. Owing to difficulties in postal and other means of communication, the information is of necessity in- complete in places, but is nevertheless sufficient to give a fair picture of book trade problems in Africa. Centre for Education was invaluable, especially during the early stages of the study.

These countries together have an estimated The present

In order to collect information for the study,

Assistance given by the Unesco Regional

(1) During the period of this study, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved. The three countries of Malawi (formerly Nyasa- land), Southern Rhodesia and Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) are therefore treated sep- ately here.

19

I. PUBLISHING literates are the most urgently needed types of books in Africa. in the study to define the needs for all cate- gories of books including these. T o do this a comparison was made between types of books issued to readers by the Ghana Library Board in 1961-1962(2), published in the UAR during the same period, and books and pamphlets- published in six other African countries in which some publish- ing, though limited, is conducted.(3) The comparison is as follows (numbers in brackets show priorities as indicated by total volume of books or books and pamphlets). (See table on page 21).

cause the categories are not exact. the Ghana Library Board refers to 'I children' s books" , I' social science" and " fine arts" while the source for six countries refers to I' education- al textbooks and primers'' , lists various social science classifications which are here grouped together and has a separate category for ''music, entertainment, games of thought, chance games'' . In addition, the category here referred to as 'I fiction and general'' is made up largely of fic- tion in the case of Ghana, whereas in the other lists, fiction as a category does not appear at all.

The category " fiction and general'' m a y be discounted since it is too crude to be useful here. One m a y also discount the category I' religion" . Its high incidence in the third list is explainedby the fact that religious books have been the main- stay of publishing in most countries south of the Sahara, while the UAR presumably publishes re- ligious books not specifically for African coun- tries but for the Arab world in general.

Despite the inexactness of the comparisons, certain conclusions m a y be drawn. the importance attached to books for schools and for new literates, it is not surprising that chil- dren' s books are in great demand. in all the basic and applied sciences and in his- tory and geography. of the UAR the study of languages is becoming important, due to the need to solve problems of multilingualism which affect many African coun- tries. but very little in the fine arts, philosophy or psychology.

However, it appeared necessary

books and pamphlets

The correlation below is rather crude be- For example,

In view of

So are books

Except perhaps in the case

Some interest is shown in literature,!

The reading public

A prerequisite for any publishing industry is an appreciable number of consumers of books. In many African countries the absence of a sufficient number of readers is a major obstacle to large- scale publishing, if not to publishing generally. Their total populations in general are small. Some 10 countries have between a quarter of a million and a million inhabitants: 17 countries have be- tween one million and 5 million; and the remain- ing 16 have populations of over 5 million. largest of these by far are Nigeria and the United Arab Republic, which together account for about a third of the total for all 42 countries. while half of the countries surveyed might possibly support a flourishing publishing industry on the strength of their population, the remaining coun- tries will necessarily be limited to a few publish- ers each. And in the six countries with no more than 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants, a publisher m a y be able to maintain only a struggling busin- ess, even though he m a y be the sole publisher in the country.

But this visualizes a situation where every- one can read and is therefore a potential user of books. This, we know, is far from the case. The number of adult literates is small in all Afri- can countries. largely of the school population, and even this is only a fraction of what it should be. In Sierra Leone, for example, the potential school-going population between the ages of 5 and 12 years was estimeted in 1962 at 430,000; but the number of children between these ages actually attending school was only 103,000, or less than 25 per cent.(l) advanced of African countries in education.

educational development, including the introduc- tion of free or compulsory primary education in some countries and the expansion, in others, of the number of schools and universities as well as improvement in the quality of education. Liter- acy programmes are being instituted or rapidly expanded. Ghana, for example, plans to eradi- cate illiteracy within 10 years; the Sudan seeks to have 200,000 new literates within the next 5 years; and Libya is preparing to launch a mass literacy drive.

Thus, when asked how the',lack of a reading public compared with high production costs or inadequate distribution facilities as obstacles to book publishing, only 10 of the 20 countries who replied regarded it as the greatest obstacle. A few years ago many of the answers would have certainly been different.

The

Thus,

The reading public consists

And Sierra Leone is not among the least

However, rapid strides are being made in

Priorities in book needs

School-books and primers or readers for new

Report of the Ministry of Education, Sierra Leone, 1962-1963 - Government Printer, Sierra Leone Report of the Ghana Library Board, 196 1-1 962 Information from Unesco Questionnaire ST/Q/61 - Production of Books and Pamph- lets in 1962. The six countries weredam- eroon, the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (in federation), Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Zanzibar (before becoming part of the United Republic of Tanzania).

20

Books issued by Ghana

Library Board

Books and pamphlets Books and pamphlets published in published in

U AR six other countries

Children' s books and educational books

Fiction and general

Basic and applied sciences

History, geography, biography

Social sciences

Languages

Literature

Fine arts

Religion

Philosophy and psychology

330,444

197,187

119,554

61,116

43,473

33,266

17,682

16,245

7,367

5,308

741

227

194

374

757

36

465

29

2 16

69

In general, the priorities are,what would be expected in countries which are trying urgently to develop economically and socially. Initial inter - est is also being shown in studies which do not contribute directly to economic development. A s a Nigerian bookseller observed in the case of his country, I' to a large extent Nigeria is at present only interested in books which help a student to get ahead (textbooks, private study etc .), although this is gradually changing as a middle class be- gins to emerge ."

H o w needs are met

Except in the case of the UAR, most of Africa's limited publishing activity is directed to the pro- duction of pamphlets rather than of books. A s the result of an attempt to determine the actual extent of publishing activityin Africa, information was re- ceivedfor 25 countries (all ofthose listed on page 19, column 2, paragraph 3, except what was formerly Tanganyika). lishing is conducted. One country produces all of the primary school books it uses; 10 countries publish varying percentages, and 14 depend en- tirely on imports. One country produces most of the secondary school books it uses, five publish a few of them and 19 countries import all of them. Nine countries produce all of the books in local languages which they use for literacy campaigns, though in some cases such books are very limited in number; four countries publish some of these books and five import all of them.

In 8 of these countries no book pub-

The remaining

seven countries have no books in local languages of any kind. tions of a few other types of books, such as novels (Dahomey) or political books (Guinea). For other categories, every country depends on im- ports.

Ten countries produce small edi-

The case for African publishing

There is no reason, at first hand, why African countries should not continue to depend on imports for their books. If freight charges can be kept to a minimum, say 3 to 5 per cent, and if there is an effective distribution system which ensures that books and information about books reach readers when and where needed, the physical fact of having books published abroad would make no difference to the reader. But in planning for the free flow of information and knowledge within and between countries, it is apparent that, in the long run, each country' s book industry, or as much of it as possible, should preferably be indigenous from the start. There are reasons of long-term econ- omy, industrial expansion (book production, after all, is an industry), and of national pride. In ad- dition, educational and psychological factors must be considered. A local writer, artist or editor should be more responsive than a foreign one to the influences ofhis community, its ways of think- ing and feeling and its outlook in general. H e should understand more clearly what types of books his people need and the best way of presenting material in them. Given the proper training and

21

experience, an African publisher and his staff should, therefore, produce better books for their country and about their country, generally speak- ing, than any one else could.

books, such as books and primers for adult liter- ates and some types of primary textbooks, cannot be economically produced by foreign publishers especially for one country in particular if its pop- ulation is small. Most of the African countries have small populations, as already noted. Only local production provides the answer in this in- stance.

Another reason is that certain classes of

Commercial and State publishing

Some countries, such as Ghana and Guinea, are beginning to incline towards State publishing. Ghana plans to set up a State Publishing House for the production of school books and other publica- tions. the Imprimerie Nationale in Conakry, which pro- duces political books published under government auspices. notably that of centralization for lower-cost pro- duction. may be desirable, especially for countries like Guinea with limited populations.

In general, however, it would seem desirable that as much of a country's publishing as possible should be in the hands of commercial publishers, especially in the case of larger countries. It is to the reader' s advantage that a commercial pub- lisher faces competition, makes a careful study of the reader' s needs and has a real interest in seeing that books are as well written and as at- tractively produced as possible. reader has more than one book on a particular subject to choose from and thus perhaps has an opportunity of considering more than one view- point. publisher, with his virtual monopoly of all or of certain types of books, does not necessarily offer. Another consideration is that commercial publish- ing has been established in Africa over the years, although mainly through foreign publishing houses. And, as one publisher observed, it m a y be a back- ward step to substitute the idea, " The government (or some centralized body) will give you all the books they believe you need. Those are the ones you must use" , for the principle " Let publishers produce all the books they can and let people have the ones they chose" .

Commercial firms should as far as possible be financed, and therefore controlled locally, and should use local m e n and materials. How- ever, there should be opportunities for foreign publishing businesses to establish themselves in a country. This could be facilitakd through the establishment of Afro-foreign publishing firms. Under this arrangement, foreign publishers would provide some of the needed capital and put at the disposal of African publishers the vast wealth of

22

Guinea has a large State printing press,

State publishing has its advantages,

F r o m this point of view State publishing

In addition, the

These are advantages which a centralized

their experience collected over the years. Afri- can countries would provide the rest of the capital and the manpower to be trained to run the firms. Various foreign companies who publish for Africa are now thinking along these lines. There is no reason why Afro-foreign publishing ventures should not be successful.

Books for adult literates and primary schools

African countries with populations of some three million or less (more than half the number of countries surveyed here) and perhaps even some of the slightly larger countries cannot rely on commercial publishers, local or foreign, to pro- duce primers and readers for literacy program- m e s at prices within the reach of the average user. The fact that each book m a y have to be produced in three or more local languages and perhaps with different scripts raises problems for the commercial publisher. fact that these local languages are usually of lim- ited diffusion necessitates small and therefore ex- pensive editions. This problem of small editions also affects the commercial production of school textbooks and readers, especially primary school books, which must be geared closely to the child' s immediate environment. Most primary school books now in use in these countries are produced for a wide region of which the countries m a y be a small part.

Wherever possible, publishers attempt to meet the special needs of small countries by pro- ducing special editions of school books. For financial reasons, however, they can make only minor alterations, whereas a wholesale rewriting of school books is really needed to suit local en- vironments and school systems, which often dif- fer considerably between African countries.

For small countries, the best solution to these problems seems to be centralized local pub- lishing. Some of these countries have conducted centralized publishing for literacy programmes for a number of years. For example, the Sierra Leone Provincial Literature Bureau, originally a small religious press run by a missionary body, developed by 1956 into a State-subsidized mass literacy publishing unit and now produces publi- cations in local languages throughout the country. The literature bureaux of Malawi, Southern Rhodesia and Zambia perform the same function to some extent. More recently the Liberian In- formation Service has published readers in local languages, and Guinea is planning similar publica- tions.

Other small African countries m a y consider setting up similar establishments. Although such establishments would have to be financed by the State completely or in part, they need not be State-owned. Sierra Leone' s Provincial Litera- ture Bureau is not.

In addition, the

Small countries wishing to set up such

establishments might study how existing centres are conducted. In the Sierra Leone bureau, for example, small local language editorial commit - tees work under the general manager who also serves as chief editor. The bureau commissions most of its manuscripts although it does use unso- licited ones occasionally. It operates its own small printing establishment and handles most of its national distribution.

of the Ministry of Education, Ethiopia, and the Publications Bureau of the Sudan are two estab- lished organizations in the larger African countries which publish primary school textbooks and read- ers. the smaller African countries. to be producing some school textbooks locally, and in Liberia the Division of Higher Education and Textbook Research, Department of Education, has set up a centre for this purpose.

Centralized publishing centres for schools operate in many countries outside Africa. The work of the oldest and one of the most efficient, the N e w Zealand Schools Publications Branch, has been described in a Unesco publication, (l) which the authorities in the smaller African countries might well study.

language and the schools publications centres as one establishment. This has apparently been al- ready done in the Sudan, where the Publications Bureau produces all of the country's books in lo- cal languages and over 90 per cent of the textbooks and readers for primary schools.

For the publishing of mass literacy books, even the larger African countries might well set up their own publications bureaux. paigns and, consequently, literacy publishing should be centrally planned and directed if illiter- acy is to be eradicated rapidly. For a number of years Ghana has maintained such a centralized bu- reau for publishing local language books and pri- mers. ceeded in reaching not only the larger language groups in Ghana but also some of the smaller ones. It also publishes some local language books for schools.

The Instructional Materials Production Centre

Organizations of this kind could be set up in Libya is reported

Some countries may prefer to merge the local

Literacy cam-

The Bureau of Ghana Languages has suc-

Local lanmage problem

A major problem derives from the multiplicity of local languages in many African countries. T o take three examples from West Africa, Nigeria has over 200 local languages and dialects and Ghana 56, while Sierra Leone with a population of only two million has 18. Countries with a multi- plicity of local languages cannot publish books in all of them; at present they publish in a few lan- guages of comparatively wide diffusion. Sierra Leone, for example, produces primers, readers and other literature in five of its 18 languages and primers only in two other languages. In view of Sierra Leone' s small population, it is doubtful

whether publication in addditional languages would be practicable.

School publications are less affected by a multiplicity of languages, tries, governments and educators have taken a firm line and adopted one or two local languages of widest diffusion for teaching purposes. the general local language problem m a y be resolv- ed by official action. The Ghana Government, it is understood, is promoting the adoption of a sin- gle language, Akan, for the whole country. ever, it is yet early to foresee whether this experi- ment will be followed by other African countries.

publishing, as distinct from the printing, of books. F e w publishers in any country print their own books; American publishers sometimes have their printing done in Japan, and British publishers have been known to print as far away as Hong Kong.

A country does not need to have complete printing facilities before it can embark on book publishing. ties would be an advantage, and, in general, there is a need for them in Africa. discussed in a later section.

In most African coun-

In time,

H o w -

This study has been concerned so far with the

However, the existence of such facili-

This problem is

Problem of Personnel

If any publishing, whether centralized or commer- cial, is to be conducted successfully in Africa, fully trained African writers, book illustrators and editors must be available. laid plans are liable to break down in practice.

Of 25 countries which supplied information about facilities for training their nationals in var- ious aspects of publishing, 10 had no facilities at all. Educated people were too few in number to be spared for such training, one country complain- ed. Of the remaining 15 countries, 9 had facili- ties for the local training of artists, and one pos- sessed facilities for writers as well. Writers' workshops, all of them except one sponsored by the Unesco Centre at Accra, had been conducted in six countries within the last three years. About 10 countries had, also within the last three years, each offered a few scholarships for the training of local writers and artists abroad.

It is good that such facilities are offered; the more of them the better. But the most indispen- sable person in any publishing organization is the editor. and supervising the execution of a book from start to finish. It is he who, if necessary, can give the general writer or artist at least some of the tech- nical knowledge required for writing or illustrat- ing a school textbook, a primer for new literates or any other type of book. wishes to use local printing facilities in a country new to publishing, must keep a vigilant eye on

Otherwise the best

It is he who is responsible for planning

It is he who, if he

(1) Unesco, Educational Studies and Documents, No.25 - The N e w Zealand Schools Publica- t ions Branch.

23

inexperienced printers to ensure that they meet the exacting demands of book printing. whose training, by and large, has not been provid- ed for in African countries.

The kind of editor most urgently needed in Africa is, of course, the editor of school publica- tions and mass literacy primers and readers. His basic background should preferably include a good command of the language of publication, some knowledge of educational psychology and some teaching experience. for adult literates, he would need some training in mass literacy methods. some months working with experienced editors in an established publishing concern. he would need to have some knowledge of modern audio-visual methods of book presentation and il- lustration as well as of the operation of a modern book printing unit.

suffice for all of these requirements. By the end of that period an editor should have a reasonable understanding of publishing methods and problems, what to edit, how to edit, how to decide on require- ments of paper and on the type of printing needed, what printing facilities are available or can be made available, how to prepare printers' speci- fications and how much to expect of his printers. Such training would be all the more necessary be- cause in small African establishments especially an editor may find that, for some time at least, he would have to act as both editor and production manager.

Foreign publishing firms and other interested organizations should be able to arrange such train- ing without difficulty. If African countries them- selves cannot finance training, foreign govern- ments and other aid-granting organizations might be requested to co-operate in this essential task.

And it is he

If he is to produce books

He should also spend

In addition,

Twelve to 18 months' intensive training should

The foreign publisher' s changing rdle

In some African countries the r61e of the foreign commercial publisher is already changing from that of the supplier of all books to that of a part- ner and collaborator in African book production. This trend will doubtless continue. The estab- lishment of African publishing industries does not necessarily put a foreign publisher out of business. If he can invest capital in new African publishing firms, if he can invest in African manpower by putting his publishing experience at the disposal of would-be African publishers, if he assists in pro- viding printing and distribution facilities as well as paper and printing materials, not only will he earn from Africa a large debt of gratitude but he will also make it possible for him to stay in business in Africa and expand his operations.

For a long time to come, Africa will need to continue to import many of the books it needs. As education and literacy, economic development and publishing advance in Africa, the total volume of books imported into the region will probably not

24

diminish, although there will be continual changes in the volume of specific types of books. And if, in time, Africa should begin to export books on a larger scale than now, one may look forward to the growth between this region and the rest of the world of that international exchange of books which is the mark of a healthy publishing industry.

Factors favouring African publishing

In many African countries, the following factors favour the healthy development of book publishing: (i) There are few if any restrictions on the estab- lishment of new publishing industries. (ii) Copy- right privileges of authors and publishers are, in general, adequately protected by law. A few countries, however, still have inadequate copy- right laws or none at all. These countries may be urged to adhere to the Universal Copyright Con- vention. (iii) There are no restrictions on the re- mittance of royalties to authors, and no income tax deductions are made on royalties before they are remitted. lishing has been insufficient to make the remit - tance of royalties a problem. urged to ensure that the free remittance of royal- ties to authors and publishers will always be pos- sible.

In many countries, however, pub-

Countries may be

Need for Publishers' Associations

There are few publishers' associations in Africa. Of 25 countries for which information was avail- able on this point, only three maintain such or- ganizations. Publishers' associations should be be established in all countries with two or more publishers. sociations can perform are the following: mote favourable conditions for the publishing in- dustry by ensuring that the factors listed in the foregoing section continue to operate; (ii) when necessary, examine the problem of translation rights, perhaps in collaboration with other pub- lishers' associations in neighbouring countries. Most foreign publishers are unwilling to grant translation rights to African publishers because royalties are small and their remittance may be uncertain. diffusion of many local languages, editions of translated works are small and African publishers cannot give satisfactory guarantees of sales. Ethiopia is one country whose requests for trans- lation rights have been refused by foreign publish- ers. An association of publishers or associations of publishers in neighbouring African States work- ing together might be able to examine the whole problem and perhaps determine how translation rights might be obtained on terms satisfactory to both the original foreign publisher and the African publisher. One way might be to request a subsidy from some source for certain translated works if it is in the interests of knowledge or of a country's development that such works be published;

Among functions which these as - (i) pro-

The reason is that due to the limited

(iii) examine, possibly in collaboration with print - ers or booksellers or their associations, other book trade problems such as those affecting the printing and distribution of books and the supply of paper.

11. PRINTING

The printing of books raises the larger question of printing as a whole. There are probably enough print - ing facilities in Africa, regionby region, to satisfy present demands. But demands are ever-increasing . Inaddition, adequateuse isnot made of printing pres- ses. Skilled printers are difficult to obtain, par- ticularly because few African countries have train- ing facilities or are planning to provide them. (l) Another problem is that the presses vary consid- erably and are not evenly distributed between coun- tries. presses in a few countries such as the UAR, Niger- ia, Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, only a few pres- ses (sometimes only one nationally owned press) in many other countries, and in at least five coun- tries there are no presses at all.

However, almost every African country has plans at various stages of implementation to in- stall new presses or improve existing ones. These plans invariably include the provision of facilities for book printing.

ing facilities does not seem to be favoured by African countries, large or small. Textbook Production Centre at Yaoundd, Cameroon, which furnishes facilities for printing textbooks and other manuals for Cameroon and the adjacent countries of the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville) and Gabon, is an organization which, because of its regional nature, m a y be dif- ficult to duplicate elsewhere in Africa except per- haps for the three territories of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland. doubtedly performing a very useful function. But perhaps in the near future it m a y become much more important as a training ground for skilled African printers than as a printer of textbooks and manuals for five African countries.

In the provision of printing facilities for Afri- ca, the country -by -c ount ry approach thus appears to be desirable. The bringing to fruition of plans throughout the continent for the installation or ex- pansion of printing facilities would depend upon a number of factors such as the provision of skilled personnel, machinery, paper and printing supplies, electric power, and so on. In many cases the availability of foreign aid will also be a determin- ing factor.

Production Centre at Yaoundd would be of great use, as indicated ab, -e. In addition, African countries might, wherever possible, establish for- mal courses for the training of printers or improve or expand such courses.

There is a comparative concentration of

Regional co-operation in the provision of print-

The Unesco

The centre is un-

For personnel training, the Unesco Textbook

Scholarships for the

training of printers abroad could also be made available. These are matters which a printers' association, if there should be one in a country, could vigorously pursue. At the moment, how- ever, there are very few printers' associations in Africa. was available on this point, only five had such a printers' association.

school books and adult literacy books, as sugges- ted earlier in this study, would encourage the in- stallation or improvement of printing facilities in African countries. needed in Africa and are required in large numbers. In cases where existing printing facilities are not being fully employed, such publishing, by helping to ensure a regular volume of work, will also help to ensure adequate use of facilities. A program- m e for the publishing of school books and adult literacy books m a y not alone suffice to support a large modern printing establishment. But when such a programme is combined with other activi- ties such as the printing of government publica- tions, school broadcasting pamphlets, exercise books, newspapers, journals and magazines, bul- letins, posters and so on, the possibilities of maintaining at least one large printing establish- ment are greatly enhanced even for the smallest countries. Such prospects would be increased if countries planning to install new printing presses were to examine the possibilities of using various types of modern equipment, including photo-offset printing units which can assure reliable, low-cost produ c t ion.

In general, the main prerequisite for localiz- ing book printing in Africa is to create publishers. Once local publishers are functioning and a regular volume of books to be printed is assured, printing facilities will follow. This has been the case in various non-African countries. In Jamaica, for example, the establishment of the Ministry of Education' s Schools Publications Branch has great - ly stimulated the local printing industry. The re- sult is that Jamaica is now served by two large printers capable of producing most kinds of school textbooks and readers efficiently. The underly- ing principle is the old one of supply and demand. Essential factors, of course, are the engagement of local printers as far as possible for the printing of books, and the assurance of a regular volume of business to justify the installation of new equip- ment,

Of '27 countries for which information

The creation of national centres for publishing

These books are now the most

Of 34 countries for which information was available on this point, only six offered formal training courses in printing at various but sometimes limited levels. T w o other coun- tries were beginning to implement proposals for such courses. Except for on-the-job train- ing provided mainly for unskilled workers, the remaining 26 countries seemed to have no facilities and no plans at all.

25

As already indicated, the creation of new publishing houses or centres in African countries need not wait upon the installation of adequate printing facilities. The process should rather be the reverse. For the time being, publishing centres in countries with few or no printing facili- ties can have their printing done abroad. regular and possibly expanding programme of book publishing has been prepared, the installa- tion of additional, more modern printing machin- ery would be justified. Some arrangement might be made with local printers whereby they would provide the necessary machinery in their estab- lishments in return for an assurance of a mini- m u m of regular business. could be given by individual publishers or collec- tively through a publishers’ association. In countries with a policy of centralized printing and publishing, the centralized publishing centre, once its programme is ready, could press upon the government and also upon the local printer or printers the necessity of providing new or addi- tional machinery.

in Africa is bound to increase. ing, however, the basis of book publishing and printing activity is educational publishing and will be for some time to come. It is necessary, there- fore, that educational publishing should be started as soon as possible in countries lacking this ser- vice and that it should be vigorously promoted.

It is likely that when local book printing is established commercially in many African coun- tries, printing costs would at the start be higher than abroad. Nigeria, where commercial publishers complain that costs in the country’ s new, modern printing establishments are at times excessive. The pro- blem is that in such establishments initial costs are inevitably high, while publishers, on the other hand, must keep the prices of their books as low as possible if they are to remain in business. This difficulty might well be resolved by negotia- tions between printers and publishers, either sep- arately or through printers’ and publishers’ as- sociations. in the long run, for their own benefit, publishers should not regard initial costs as an insuperable obstacle to their using local printing facilities.

Once a

Such an assurance

The writing, printing and publishing of books For the time be-

This has already been seen in

For the benefit of local printing and,

111. SUPPLY OF PAPER AND OTHER MATERIALS

Just as the problem of the printing of books raises the larger problem of printing generally, so does the problem of the availability of paper and other materials for books raise the larger pro- blem of the availability of all types of paper and other printing materials. of the many commodities of which Africa is in very short supply. There is not enough to satisfy present needs,

26

Paper especially is one

let alone meet expected

rapid increases in demand. A recent FAO/Unesco study on The Place of Pa-

per in Development and ForeignAid(1) analyses pre- sent and anticipated needs for paper in the develop- ing countries, especially in Asia and Africa, and the obstacles to meeting these needs. The re- port also gives suggestions on the use of foreign aid in satisfying them. It points out that though many African countries are still at a stage where it is more relevant to speak of the introduction of paper than an increase in its consumption, paper consumption throughout Africa, as in Asia, has been growing steadily over the years. By 1975 the demand for newsprint, printing and writing paper for Africa and Asia combined, except Japan and mainland China, may approach nearly 5 mil- lion tons, as against l. 13 million tons in 1960 - almost a five-fold increase.

only about one-tenth of the expected total world consumption of paper for about two-fifths of the world’ s population. Even so, it is most unlikely that African and Asian countries will of themsel- ves be able to satisfy their paper requirements by 1975. limited in Asia, are more limited still in Africa. In addition, the shortage of foreign currency which is needed for a multitude of purposes besides im- ports of paper, may well result in the im osition of controls and quotas on such imports .(& This would add to such more general obstacles to the importation of paper as low purchasing power, widespread illiteracy, high freight charges, in- adequate distribution systems and high tariffs, (3) factors which raise the cost of paper in Africa to a level sometimes twice as high as the internation- al one.

The study goes on to suggest how foreign aid might be used to ease the paper problem. Paper is by no means in short supply in most of the world, and in Africa and Asia it is so important to the development of education, which in turn is so essential to economic and social progress, that aid in the form of paper should not be regarded as a type of ” soft” aid by countries which can af- ford to give it. Substantial grants of paper are already being made under bilateral agreements to

(1)

This figure of 5 million tons would represent

Present facilities for paper production,

FAO/ACPP - 63/9, 1963, prepared by the Institute for International Economic Studies, Stockholm. Controls and quotas are at present in force in some African countries such as the Sudan and Ghana. It is reported, however, that in Ghana these restrictions do not seriously af- fect the supply of paper., There is a wide range of import duties and taxes on printing and writing paper in Africa, varying from zero up to 40 or 45 per cent in some countries such as Mauritius, Zambia, Southern Rhodesia and Malawi. the whole continent average from 20 to 30 per cent.

(2)

(3)

Rates for

certain African and Asian countries, mainly to the larger ones. tries are more difficult to satisfy. To help these as well as the larger countries, the study first suggests that since most of their present and fore- seeable future needs are for finished books rather than paper per se, grants of specific amounts and types of paper might be replaced by a more flexi- ble aid arrangement. Under such an arrangement, cash grants might be spent on paper and paper pro- ducts in the donor countries. in those countries might be included. quotes the United States-Philippines Printing Agreement as an example in this field.

The study then suggests larger-scale multi- lateral action in the following terms:

I' As a minimum programme for multilateral action, it would seem desirable that an internation- al agency initiate the keeping of records concern- ing paper needs for educational and cultural pur- poses, the supplies available domestically and through foreign aid, and the existence of printing and publishing facilities. Such an agency would serve as a clearing house of information, of re- quests for aid, and of expressions of interest in meeting them. tacts and projects in the field.

easily imagined. The agency could serve as an intermediary in actually preparing bilateral pro- grammes. ted in order to create a pool out of which multi- lateral aid for educational and cultural program- mes could be extended. The administration of paper aid to small countries would benefit particu- larly from the specialization in problems of paper supply in educational planning and the development of mass media that such an agency would command. Its operation should in no way be regarded as an alternative to continued bilateral aid, but as a sup- plement which, if the initial experience is favour- able, could be given an increasing r61e ."

In reviewing the needs of the developing Afri- can countries and the possible r61e of foreign aid in helping to meet them, one can only endorse the suggestions made in the FAO/Unesco study. As for the various obstacles to paper imports which the study examines, the raising of national and per capita incomes and the reduction of illiteracy are matters which can only be touched on here, and only in so far as they concern the supply and distri- bution of books.

Freight charges on paper could be reduced through bulk ordering. Paper is often ordered in small amounts rather than in large quantities, and transport charges are inevitably higher than they need be. In each African country the government, printers and other importers of paper might con- sider the creation of a central pool for bulk order- ing. paper distribution so that supplies would reach users quickly and at low cost.

But the needs of the smaller coun-

Textbooks printed The study

This would facilitate bilateral con-

Multilateral action of greater scope is also

Pledges of paper might also be collec-

Such a pool could also handle problems of

The reduction or removal of tariffs and taxes

on newsprint and printing and writing paper might well be examined by African governments. Each government might provide for the duty-free impor- tation of at least all paper for educational and lit- eracy programmes, whether the paper is to be used by educational institutions or government agencies, or even by commercial printers for the production of books. The same provision might be extended to other printing supplies, which are heavily taxed in certain African countries.

In addition, governments might make the most liberal possible allocations of foreign currency for imports of paper and printing supplies especially for educational and literacy programmes. strictions on such imports do not help a country's economy, but tend to hinder it in the long run.

duction of paper in Africa. African countries do not wish to continue depending on foreign supplies of paper and printing materials to the extent they do now, and it would greatly facilitate the develop- ment of publishing and printing if printing supplies were available locally. Many African countries are now studying the possibilities of establishing paper mills and in one country the authorities are closely watching experiments in the production of paper from eucalyptus trees, which grow plenti- fully within its borders.

countries will be able to produce more than a small part of the paper they may need for the time being. The Unesco report, Developing Information Media in Africa, makes the following observaton on this point:

ed newsprint and printing paper, but mills were under construction in three others. mills could be economically established elsewhere depended, not so much on the availability of suit- able raw materials (of which there was no lack), as on the development of the supporting structure (in the field of electric power, chemicals and transport, for example) and especially on the size of the potential market, since newsprint mills were feasible only on a large scale." (l)

hold good largely in the case of printing and writ- ing paper.

In this matter of paper production, African countries might best be served through regional co-operation. The agency for aid in paper sup- plies, suggested in the FAO/Unesco study quoted earlier in this section, could well assume addition- al functions. For example, it might assist in set- ting up local paper industries in Africa - a more

R.e-

A word might be said here about domestic pro-

It is unlikely, however, that most African

I' Only four countries in Africa as yet produc-

Whether

This comment on the newsprint problem would

(1) Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, No.37, Unesco. perts on development of information media in Africa, held at Unesco Headquarters, Paris, 24 January-6 February 1962.

Report of the meeting of ex-

27

permanent contribution than providing aid in sup- plies. cords of the quantities of paper needed for educa- tional and cultural purposes in North, Central, East, West and Southern Africa, it might carry out the following tasks:

Since the agency would already have re-

forecast the paper needs, region by region, of Africa during the next 10 or 20 years, en- visaging where necessary a shift away from the importation of books to local production: determine for each region how far paper needs are being met or can be met by mills already es - tablished or soon to be established, and what ad- ditional mills would be necessary. This study could be made in co-operation with governments: determine or help to determine the most suit- able locations in each region for paper mills, taking account of the availability of raw mater- ials and other factors; encourage governments to co-operate in set - ting up paper production centres on regional rather than national levels so as to assure the even flow of paper within a region produced at least as cheaply as paper elsewhere and as rapidly as possible; encourage governments to pool their resources for this purpose and co-operate in enlisting foreign aid if necessary; examine and report on possibilities for the production in each region of other printing sup- plies.

DISTRIBUTION

Duties and controls

In Africa, as in the other developing regions, it is desirable that books should be of high quality and that their cost be kept to a minimum. This implies, inter alia, that import duties, sales taxes and other trade restrictions on books should be greatly reduced or eliminated, and that cheap and efficient methods of distribution should be utilized. In claiming freedom from economic restrictions, books are of necessity in competition with almost every other product. Their claim to priority rests on the fact that they play so vital a r61e in national development, in the preservation of our heritage of culture and knowledge and in the free flow of ideas.

the Unesco Agreement on the Importation of Educa- tional, Scientific and Cultural Materials. HOW- ever, most African countries adhere to the spirit of the Agreement by permitting books to be impor- ted free from customs duties and other charges. Of those few African countries which export books, all except one permit them to be dispatched free of duty.

Obstacles in Africa to the import and export of books do not arise so much from tariffs and taxes as from shortages of foreign currency, which,

28

Only 11 African countries have so far applied

as already noted, also severely affect paper im- ports. or tries to develop, the more the demand for for- eign currency tends to exceed the supply. This, in turn, increases the necessity for control of its expenditure. Even Nigeria, a country which has been more liberal than many in this respect, is now planning to tighten its import controls for this reason, although it is not known whether the new restrictions will affect imports of books.

In at least seven African countries licences are required for the import of books generally. In Nigeria, licences are specifically required for imports from dollar areas. In Libya, Somalia and Ethiopia individuals do not usually order books from abroad except through local booksellers. Burundi, Libya and Guinea operate a system of quotas for the import of books.

Though total book exports from African coun- tries are very small, they are likewise restricted by controls, presumably to conserve local curren- cy. Ethiopia, for example, requires a licence or a reference to a currency control authority for the export of books. Malawi, Southern Rhodesia and Zambia demand Iicences for exports exceed- ing f50 sterling in value. Ghana, a country from which foreign publishers sometimes re-export books to other English-language areas, requires proof of original importation and value in addition to an export licence.

It should be noted, however, that many Afri- can countries permit the import and export of books without any controls and that in countries where licences and currency clearances are re- quired, they are, in general, freely given. But the fact remains that such controls are applied and hinder the free flow of books.

trols of this nature, Unesco in a recent communi- cation to Member States(O) suggested that Member States might adhere to the Agreement on the Im- portation of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Materials, referred to above, and apply its pro- visions as liberally as possible. thereby be exempt not only from import and ex- port charges but also from licensing and other con- trols as described above. In implementing the Agreement, Unesco suggested Member States might be guided by the recommendations of the meeting of government experts which reviewed op- eration of the Agreement at Geneva in 1957 .(3)

(1)

The faster an African country develops

T o facilitate the world-wide removal of con-

Books would

Cameroon, Congo (Democratic Republic), Ga- bon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Malagasy Republic, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, United Arab Republic, United Republic of Tanzania.

(2) Unesco document Cu1469: Suggestions to Member States on Measures to Promote the Free Flow of Information.

(3) Unesco document MC/33: Meeting of Govern- mental Experts on the Importation of Educa- tional. Scientific and Cultural Materials: Re- port of the Meetinq. December 1957.

The Unesco communication added: 'I The expert meeting of 1957 recalled that when

the Agreement was adopted in 1950, the unfavourable balance of payments position of many countries had made it impossible for them to assume more far- reaching commitments. The meeting affirmed, how- ever, that it wouldbe inthe spirit ofthe Agreement to grant greater freedom to the importation of education- al, scientific or cultural materials, and particularly to books. During the discussion on the subject at the Generalconference (of Unesco), moreover, the view was expressed that Member States should be strongly urged to make available foreign exchange for the pur- chase of books and other publications from abroad. Action to this end is all the more recommended as the amount of foreign currency involved is rela- tively small."

ments might therefore be urged to apply liberally the Unesco Agreement, bearing in mind the re- commendations of the 1957 meeting and the views of the General Conference.

books might also be urged to examine their export regulations in the light of the Agreement and make any revisions necessary.

T o facilitate the flow of books, African govern-

African countries which export or re-export

Book post

T o encourage the dispatch of books by post, Afri- can countries might consider application of the provisions of the Universal Postal Convention which permit books, newspapers and other periodi- cals to be mailed at half the ordinary rate for printed matter. Of 21 countries for which detail- ed information on postal rates was available, only Malawi, Southern Rhodesia, Zambia, Swaziland and the United Republic of Tanzania grant these concessions,

Freight charges and mark-up prices

Freight and transport charges also hinder the flow of books. Foreign publishers try to reduce pub- lishing costs so as to keep prices of books for Africa as low as possible. Although prices m a y be low in Africa in comparison with other regions, they are beyond the reach of the average African. The price of a I t cheap" book costing the equiva- lent of 50 US cents represents a large s u m in a region where about 70 per cent of the people have an average annual income of less than $100 per head. The cost of books is further increased by ocean freight charges which are as high as 10 to 15 per cent gross in Mauritius, Malawi, Zambia and other countries. In inland areas such as Malawi, the cost of road transport can, moreover, be as much as ocean freight. book reaches the final distribution centre, costs m a y have risen by 2C to 30 per cent. price must then be correspondingly increased. Otherwise, severe hardship is placed on the book- seller who tries to keep to the published selling

Thus by the time a

Its selling

price but must pay these high charges as well as provide storage facilities and offer theusual 10 per cent discount to retailers.

m a y be to blame. Publishers complain that in order to avoid taking risks, booksellers often o r der books in small quantities instead of in bulk, thus increasing their distribution costs. In the case of newspapers, freight charges for smaller quantities are much higher than for bulk orders. The bookseller's point of view, however, must be taken into account. storage facilities for large consignments of books m a y be a major problem in itself. Nevertheless, it remains a fact that freight and transport charges are especially high for East and Southern African countries which are far from the original publish- ing centres in the United Kingdom, France and other major book producing countries.

Some African countries have tried to solve the problem by instituting a system of mark-up prices. In Ghana, for example, mark-up rates vary from 15 to 33l/2 per cent, plus a 12'/2 per cent charge to cover freight costs. Thus a book published at G 2 shillings sells at G 3 shillings; one published at G31/2 shillings sells at G51/4 shillings; one published at G 5 shillings sells at G63/4 shillings, and so on.(1) This system is encouraging to the bookseller, but not of course to the buyer. Ghanaian booksellers claim that it has helped rath- er than hindered the book trade, while realizing its limitations. The average book will not sell even in Accra, the capital, for more than 71/2 shillings.

Whether a system of mark-up prices does help the book trade is open to question. In the absence of country-by-country sales statistics, one cannot argue for or against it. F r o m the bookseller' s point of view, the system does help him to establish a sound business. H e makes a satisfactory profit from I' safe" lines of books and can thus afford to take risks with other lines, such as with books on the fine arts, which are not so I' safe'' and m a y even result in a slight loss but are of great cultural value. The bookseller is thus able to fulfil his much-praised function of contributing by his very display of books to his country' s cultural advancement.

O n the other hand, the system is unsatisfac- tory in that it raises prices instead of helping to reduce them. Better solutions must be found to problems of the book trade in Africa, solutions which would ensure an all-round reduction in pub- lishing and other costs including, if possible, a reduction in freight charges.

Sometimes, however, booksellers themselves

For him the provision of

(1) The Ghana pound is equivalent to the pound sterling (US $2.80); 20 shillings make one pound.

29

Trade discounts the-year-round usefulness is in serving as a medium of exchange for second-hand books.

a centre, even though it m a y be only a small one associated with a school, is considered to be the best outlet. van or mobile bookshop. The general complaint about this means of distribution is that it is nearly always unprofitable because capital costs repre- sented by the purchase of vans are very high. Last on the list is the hawking of books from vil- lage to village or at public gatherings.

The replies in general indicate that in Africa, as elsewhere, the most effective outlets are book- shops, newsagents and bookstalls. Retail tra- ders, pavement hawkers and itinerant salesmen who hawk books at community gatherings or in villages m a y be useful, but are not really effec- tive. tive, but for their operation financialaid is needed.

For country areas, a bookshop attached to

Next in effectiveness is the book

Book vans and mobile bookshops are effec-

The trade discounts granted by publishers more particularly to larger booksellers in Africa are reasonable, varying from 1Z1/2 to 50 per cent. In general, these are the rates normally granted by British, French and other foreign publishers. Given no import duties and economic but effective distribution services, these discounts should be sufficient for a bookseller to conduct a satisfac- tory business.

Distribution out lets

Distribution outlets, however, are far from ef- fective. Bookshops are concentrated in large cities, in some countries only in the capital, and attempts to establish bookshops in outlying areas have often met with unexpected difficulties. ample, one of Sierra Leone' s few well-establish- ed booksellers reports that his attempts to set up branch shops in some of the country's smaller but growing towns have been foiled by the exces- sively large rents demanded for the lease of land; in these towns land can only be leased, not bought, since local law forbids its sale.

For the mass distribution of books in Africa, many means are employed. bookshops and newsagents to be found in many large cities, there are more unconventional out - lets - retail traders who carry books as a line of stock, pavement hawkers, book vans and mobile bookshops. Then there are itinerant booksellers who travel by bicycle or on foot and, working either on a salary or commission basis, peddle their books from village to village or wherever people congregate. In some areas, small book- shops are attached to schools and are run by teach- ers or headmasters, often for private profit.

Just how effective are these means of book distribution? The question is of more than pas- sing interest. It is sometimes claimed that un- conventional means of distribution must not be frowned upon merely because they are unconven- tional; they m a y be the best for Africa.

African countries in order to obtain information on this question. ed from 23 countries indicated the outlets prefer- red both for city and for country areas. city areas it appears that the most effective means of distribution is the bookshop. Second in effec- tiveness are newsagents and bookstalls and retail traders with a line of books. However, retail traders in the main are only 'I seasonal" book- sellers; they conduct business solely at the begin- ning of the school year when school books are in great demand and this together with their practice of offering books as merchandise to be bargained for makes them unreliable, to say the least. Next in order are pavement hawkers, who usually sell books during the school 'I season'' on much the same basis as the retail traders, but whose all-

30

For ex-

Besides the bona fide

An inquiry was addressed by the author to

The replies which were receiv-

For

Measures to promote bookselling in Africa

T o encourage the sale of books in African coun- tries, the following measures seem to be neces- sary: 1. Book publishers for Africa, whether domes - tic or foreign, should endeavour to keep the price of their books at the barest minimum. 2. Governments could help by removing all duties and controls on the import of books. 3. Action should be taken to reduce freight charges. International action is doubtless re- quired here since the shipping companies which impose these charges are seldom African-owned. 4. for the transportation of books by road or rail. Railway authorities should be urged to make sub- stantial reductions, and cheap and reliable road services should also be developed. Local book- sellers' associations can be effective in promot - ing such services for all booksellers. 5. A bookshop should be established in every town which is large enough to support one. The ultimate aim should be to develop a chain of book- shops by requisitioning land and possibly by help- ing to finance the erection of shop buildings. In an area where commercial bookselling is the practice, the land and building could then be leased to a bookseller at a nominal rate. Govern- ments might take the initiative in this matter of establishing bookshops. The financing of such shops should not be regarded as an unnecessary drain on a country's resources, but rather as an investment in education and consequently in the development of a people' s potentialities. 6. Each central bookshop serving a country area should maintain a small book van or mobile book- shop to transport books for sale in smaller towns and villages. bookseller himself who would transport books around his area at regular intervals.

Efforts should be made to minimize charges

The van would be operated by the

There

would be mainly school books or books for adult literates. However, experiments would be made with other possible lines to determine which books have an appeal in any particular district. van sales would grow steadily in time, especially if the bookseller is on good terms with his clients and makes a point of being regular.

qualified and have had some training. A major bookseller with knowledge of conditions in rural areas could probably provide this from his own ex- perience. that the rural bookseller, perhaps more so than his city counterpart, should be not only a retailer of books but a source of information about them. Many booksellers in small towns and at rural centres in Africa have failed to prosper because of insufficient knowledge of books.

Again, it would facilitate matters if govern- ments could provide booksellers with vans or at least contribute substantially towards their costs. 7. In a country where a government is sufficient - ly interested, it should not be difficult to organize a book distribution network along the lines sugges- ted. co-operation with local booksellers. would indicate how far services should be extended and how far governments should subsidize the pro- vision of more bookshops and book vans. should, in effect, be regarded as a development plan for the national improvement of book distri- bution services.

Book

Such a bookseller would need to be reasonably

It should be emphasized, however,

A comprehensive plan could be drawn up in The plan

It

Libraries and the flow of books

No matter how much is done to promote book sales in the developing countries, there will al- ways be a number of titles, whether published for children or adults, which the average reader can- not afford. It is the basic function of libraries to provide such books.

A good library service in fact does more than this because in itself it is an incentive to reading. In addition, there is but one step from reading library books to buying one' s own books as far as funds permit. help to create a flourishing book trade as well as be a useful supplement to it.

A good library service can thus

In a region such as

Africa, where average incomes are low and may remain so for some time, it is all the more es- sential that countries provide themselves with ef- fective library services.

library service is Ghana. Headquarters Library and three specialized libra- ries in Accra, the capital, the Ghana Library Board maintains 15 branch or regional libraries at various centres throughout the country, as well as a mobile library service for outlying areas. The provision of trained librarians was a major problem which was recently overcome by the estab- lishment of a library school where professional training is given to intending librarians. This school has had notable results and has begun to at - tract trainees from neighbouring West African States. (1)

to provide similar library facilities. Countries which have not yet done so might be urged to ex- amine their library services with a view to their improvement and expansion.

Legal deposit

One African country which has an excellent Besides its Central

Other African countries are now preparing

A country's central library can serve as the legal depository for locally published books, as is the case in Ghana and in some other African States. A law of legal deposit is necessary to ensure, among other things, that all books published in a country are preserved. need not be the sole depositories. countries have used university libraries instead. The criterion is that a library used as a legal de- pository should be of sufficient standing to assure the preservation of books.

deposit because no books are published there. However, as soon as they have made plans to start book publishing in some form, they might consid- er making arrangements for the legal deposit of books.

National central libraries Some African

Some African countries have no law of legal

(1) Ghana Library Board - Annual Report, 1961- 1962.

31

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS : NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

Argentina Australia

Austria Be 1 g i u m

Bolivia

Brazil Bulgaria Burma

Cambodia Canada Ceylon Chile

China Colombia

Congo Costa Rica

Cuba Cyprus

Czechoslovakia Denmark

Dominican Republic Ecuador

El Salvador Ethiopia Finland France

French West Indies Germany (Fed. Rep.)

Ghana Greece

Guatemala Haiti

Honduras Hong Kong

Iceland India

Hungary

Indonesia Iran Iraq

Ireland Israel Italy

Ivory coast

Japan Jamaica

Jordan Kenya Korea

Lebanon Liberia Libya

Liechtenstein Luxembourg Madagascar

Panuzai, Press Department, Royal Afghan Ministry of Education, KABUL. N. Sh. Botimeve Naim Frasheri, TIRANA. Institut ptdagogique national, I I, rue Ziatcha. ALOER. Editorial Sudamericana S.A.. Alsina 500. BUENOS AIRES. Tradco Agencies, rog Swanston St., G.P.O. Box 2324 V, MELBOURNE C.I (Victoria).; United Nations Asociation of Australia, Victorian Division, 8th Floor, M c E w a n House, 343 Little Collins St., MELBOURNE C. I (Victoria). Verlag Georg Fromme & Co., Spengergasse 39, WIEN 5. Editions ‘Labor’, 342, rue Royale, BRUXELLES 3; N.V. Standaard Boekhandel, Belgielei 151, ANTWERPEN. Fm “The Courier’ and slides: Louis de Lannoy, ‘Le Courrier de I’Unesco’, I 12, rue du Trone, BRUXELLES 5. Libreria Universitaria, Universidad San Francisco Xavier. apartado a I 2. SUCRE; Libreria Banet, Loayza I 18, casilla 1057, LA PAZ. FundagBo Getlilio Vargas, praia de Botarogo 186. RIO DE JANEIRO, GB ZC-oz. Raznoiznos, I Tzar Assen. SOFIA. Burma Translation Society. 361 Prome Road, RANGOON. 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T h e Courier’: AS. Narvesens Litteraturjeneste. Stortingsgt. 2, Postboks I 15, OSLO.

Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester. Unesco Publications Center (NAIP), 317 East 34th Street. N e w York, N.Y. 10016; und, c+ccfit fm finiodrculs: Columbia University Press. 2960 Broadway, N e w York 27. N.Y. Representacibn de Editoriales, plaza Cagancha I 342, I.” piso, MONTEVIDEO. Libreria Politecnica. calle Villaflor, local A, al lado General Electric, Sabana Grande, CARACAS; Librerla Cruz del Sur. Centro Comercial del Este, local 11, apartado 10223. Sabana Grande. CARACAS; Ofirina Publicaciones de la Unesco. Gobernador a Candilito n.O 37, apartado postal n.O 8092, CARACAS; Librerla Selecta, Avenida 3, n.O 23-23, MERIDA. Librairie-Papetcrie Xuan-Thu, 1 8 p 193 rue Tu-Do, B.P. 283. SNOON. Juqoslovenska Knjiga. Terazije 27. BEOXAD.