NomenclatureWhat is a Wind Turbine
• Turbine: RotorAssemblage of Blades
• GeneratorNacelle
• TowerGuyed, Freestanding
• Foundation
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Nomenclature
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• Mid-80s HAWT• Internal Ladder• w/ Fall Restraint• Work Platform• Tip Brakes• “Rocket” Tower
Wind Energy Conversion Devices
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• Drag DevicesHAWT (Seldom)VAWT (Often)
First Choice of “Inventors”
• Lift DevicesHAWT (Dominant)VAWT (Rare)
Configuration: Axis of Rotation
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HAWT VAWT
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) Configurations
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VAWTs Darrieus2 Blades
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DAF-IndalAtlantic Wind Test Site, PEI
GiromillArticulating Straight Blade VAWT
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Dansk Vindkraft, 1980, RisøDenmark
Horizonztal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) Configurations
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One-Blade
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Rival Calzoni, Central Italy
Two Blades
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Three-Blades
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org Tehachapi Pass, California
ApplicationsHow Wind Energy is Used
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Applications-Telecom
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Applications--Off-the-Grid
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Applications--Homes
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Applications--Farms
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Electric Vehicle Charging
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Single Turbine Interconnection
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Hanstholm, Denmark
Multiple Turbine Cluster
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Multiple Turbine Cluster
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Applications--Wind Power Plants
Whitelee, Glasgow, Scotland
Off-Shore
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Wind Plant ArraysRectilinear
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Wind Plant Arrays--Rectilinear
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160-250 kW: Mojave, California
Wind Plant ArraysLinear
Dikes, Breakwaters, Canals
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Wind Plant ArraysLinear
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1 MW: White Deer, Texas
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Wind Plant ArraysRidgetops
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Wind Plant ArraysRidgetops
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Wind Turbine Size
• In Wind Energy—Size MattersRotor Diameter or Swept Area
• Not Generator Size!
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Medium-Size & Large Wind Turbines
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0
20
40
60
80
100
120Rotor Diameter (m)
250
1000
500
50
15 25 40 60 80 110Diameter (meters)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Swept Area (m²)
2000
3000
Specific Capacity & Specific Area
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Sample Specific Capacity Specific Area
SpecificSpecificRatedSweptRotorAreaPowerPowerAreaDia.
m2/kWW/m2kWm2mModelManufacturer2.83581,8005,02780V80Vestas3.23121,6505,28182V82Vestas2.63791,5003,959711500GE3.13221,5004,657771500SLGE4.92041,6007,854100100-1.6GE
Annual Energy Production Relative to Rated Power & Rotor Area
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Renewable Tariffs Launched
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Average Wind Speed (m/s)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7Million kWh/yr
GE 1500 71GE 1500 77
Annual Energy Production Relative to Rated Power & Rotor Area
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Renewable Tariffs Launched
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Average Wind Speed (m/s)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12Million kWh/yr
N80 2500N90 2300
Annual Energy Production Relative to Rated Power & Rotor Area
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Renewable Tariffs Launched
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Average Wind Speed (m/s)
0
2
4
6
8
10Million kWh/yr
V82 1650V80 1800
IEC Large Wind Turbine Classes
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IEC Large Wind Turbine Classes(Wind speed in m/s)
SLow WindMedium WindHigh Wind
a: Slope parameter used in the turbulence intensity equationNote: 10-minute averages, hub height wind speed. Air density; 1.225 kg/m3.
0-471-48997-2, p. 210.Adapted from IEC 61400-1; cited in Wind Energy Handbook, Tony Burton, et al, John Wiley & Sons UK, 2001, ISB
IVIIIIII67.58.510VaveAnnual Average Wind Speed
3037.542.550VrefReference Wind Speed4252.559.5701.4 Vref50-year Return Gust Speed
31.539.444.652.51.05 Vref1-year Return Gust SpeedBABABABA16%18%16%18%16%18%16%18%I15Turbulence Intensity at 15 m/s
32323232aI15: Characteristic value of hub-height turbulence intensity at a ten-minute average wind speed of 15 m/s
Size Today
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112 m
Hvide Sande, Denmark
80-100 m
• 3 MW• 10,000 m2
• 10,000,000 kWh/yr• 250 t
Rotor Overspeed Controls
• All Wind Turbines Must Have Some Form of Rotor Overspeed Control--All
Micro: Dynamic Brake OKMini: Dynamic Brake Maybe OKHousehold-size: Dynamic Brake Typically Not
Sufficient
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Rotor Overspeed Controls
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• No Aerodynamic Controls • Furling
VerticalHorizontal
• Tip Brakes• Parachutes• Pitching Blade Tips• Spoilers• Variable Pitch
Pitch to FeatherPitch to Stall
Overspeed ControlsFurling-Vertical
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Rotor ControlsFurling-Horizontal
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Overspeed ControlsPitching Blade Tips
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OverspeedControls
Variable Pitch
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• Pitch-to-Feather
LessonsFrom 30+ Years of Experience • No Panaceas• No Cheap Solutions• No Breakthroughs--No Miracles• Numbers Matter• Experience Matters• Size Matters
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Lessons• Always Check the Numbers
Vortec: The Numbers Didn’t Add Up
• Always Check the ReferencesVortec: References Discredited in the USA
• Always GoogleVortec: Ducted Turbine Critics on the Web
• Always Go to the Library. . . Or to Your Neighborhood Bookstore!
Lots of Wind Books Now Available
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Lessons• Always Be Wary of “New” Designs
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Scams, Frauds, & FlakesTell-Tale Signs
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• Heavy on Hype--Weak on Experience• Fancy Web Site
Web Sites are Much Cheaper than Real Turbines
• Aggressive MarketingWatch for Multi-Level Pyramid Schemes“Get in on the Ground Floor”
• “New” Design, “Not Like The Others”Often VAWTs, Squirrel Cage, Ducted (DAWT)
Scams, Frauds, & FlakesTell-Tale Signs
• PatentsRarely Mean Anything
• Works at Low Speeds (<3 m/s)There’s Little Power in Low Winds
• Silent!Yes, Because They Seldom Do Anything
• Doesn’t Kill BirdsYeah, right!
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Fundamentals of Wind Energy
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Power in the Wind
321 AVP
Where is air density (kg/m3),A is area (m2), andV is velocity (m/s); thus2V3 = 8P
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Seasonal Wind Distribution
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Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18Avg. Monthly Wind Speed (mph)
Amarillo, TexasErie, Penn.San Francisco, Calif.
!
&
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Rayleigh Wind Speed Distribution
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20Wind Speed Bin
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16Frequency of Occurrence %
5 m/s6 m/s7 m/s
Speed, Power, & Height
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V/Vo = (H/Ho) α
P/Po = (H/Ho) 3α
Where α is the surface friction coefficient.• 1/7 (0.14), Low Grass Prairies• 1/4 (0.25), Suburbs• 0.40, Urban
Increase in Wind Speed with Height
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1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 51
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1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Wind Shear Exponent0.1 0.14 (1/7) 0.2 0.25, ) & *
V=Vo (H/Ho)"
H/Ho
Increase in Power with Height
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
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3.5Wind Shear Exponent
0.1 0.14 (1/7) 0.2 0.25, ) & *
P=Po (H/Ho)
H/Ho
"3
Change in Wind Speed & Power with Height
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1/7 (0.14), Low Grass Prairies
2 X Height 25 to 50 m
5 X Height 10 to 50 m
Wind Speed 1.1 1.25
Wind Power 1.35 1.99
Annual Energy Output (AEO) Estimating Methods
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• Back-of-the-Envelope (Swept Area)Simple Approximation
• Power Curve & Speed DistributionMethod Used by the ProsAccuracy Dependent Upon Data
• Manufacturers’ TablesDependent Upon Honesty of Manufacturer
• SoftwareMust Know Assumptions Used (RETScreen)
Energy in the WindAnnual Energy Output (AEO)
Annual Energy Production (AEP)
AEO = 1/2 ρ A V ή (8,760 hrs/year)3
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Rotor Dimensions
Medium-Size & Large Wind Turbines
0
20
40
60
80
100
120Rotor Diameter (m)
250
1000
500
50
15 25 40 60 80 110Diameter (meters)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Swept Area (m²)
2000
3000
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Tararua New Zealand Yields
Tararua Wind Plant New Zealand Specific YieldsVestas V47
Specific YieldSwept AreaDiameterApproximatekWh/m2/yrm2mkWh/yr
8008401,735471,457,901Low1,5001,4401,735472,500,000Median1,8001,7601,735473,050,622High
WindStats, Spring 2005, Vol. 18, No. 2, pg 13.
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AEO Medium & Large Turbines
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Net Generation from Wind Plants
Net
Availability 98%
Electrical 97%
Array Interference 90%-95%
Total 86%-90%
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8Rotor Diameter (m)
2
5
4
3
1
61 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rotor Diameter (m)
0
10
20
30
40
Swept Area (m²)
7
Relative Size of Small Wind Turbines
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AEO Small Wind Turbines
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Measures of Productivity
• Capacity (Plant) FactorMisleading IndicatorUsed for Fossil-Fired PlantsNot Suited for Wind Energy Use
• kWh/kW/yr (for Planning Purposes)When Sufficient Data is Unavailable
• Annual Specific Yield (kWh/m2/yr)The Only Measure Specific to Wind Energy
Equivalent Capacity Factorfor Specific Rated Capacity
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!
!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!
"
"
""
""
""
""
"
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500Annual Specific Yield (kWh/m2/yr)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1 Capacity Factor
Specific Capacity kW/m20.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6" !
Typical Yields (kWh/kW/yr)
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Low High
Germany 1,500 1,800
France 1,400 1,900
Spain 1,700 2,100
Denmark 2,000 2,500
Measures of Cost• $/kW of Installed Capacity
Often a Misleading Indicator
• $/m2 of Installed Swept AreaMost Useful When Resource is Unknown
• $/kWh/yr of Annual GenerationMost Important Criteria in the End
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Sources of Information
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• Trade Magazines• European Wind Reports• German Market Survey• Books• Web Sites• Workshops
Trade Magazines
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• Windpower Monthly• WindStats• WinDirections• RE World• New Energy• Neue Energie• North American Windpower• Systèmes Solaires
• Power Curves• Noise• Power Factor• Flicker
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Measured Performance Data