Chapter 13: Non-Finite Clauses and Clauses without Verbs

Ling 100

July 16, 2008

Today’s Topics

• Four kinds of non-finite clauses

• The form of non-finite clauses

• The functions of non-finite clauses

• The catenative construction

• Verbless clauses

Four Kinds of Non-Finite Clauses

• Clauses headed by a gerund-participle or a past participleare always non-finite

• Clauses headed by a plain form verb are non-finite when they are infinitive, either with or without the special marker to

• This gives us four kinds of non-finite clauses– To-infinitival: Liz wants to write a novel.– Bare infinitival: Liz might write a novel.– Gerund-participial: Liz dreams of writing a novel.– Past-participial: Liz has written a novel.

• Keep straight the names of verb forms: participle, plain form from the names of clause types: participial, infinitival

The Form of Non-Finite Clauses

• Non-finite clauses are headed by a secondary form of the verb, thereby lacking primary tense

• They are normally embedded in a larger structure– I remembered to talk to my doctor.– I intended to talk to my doctor.

• A non-finite clause can have special subordinators (to and for)

• A non-finite clause can lack overt subjects• The subject of a non-finite clause is generally not a

nominative pronoun• Sometimes a non-finite clause may have a non-subject NP

left understood

Subordinators in To-Infinitivals: to and for

• The word to is a special marker of to-infinitivals

• When a to-infinitival contains a subject it also includes the subordinator for

– [For John to lose his temper like that] is highly unusual.

– We can’t afford [for everyone to travel business class].

• Some prescriptive grammar books still warn against the so-called ‘split infinitive’, as in to really succeed – but this is silly

Subjectless Non-Finites

• Most non-finite clauses have no overt subject, but do have an understood subject

• Sometimes we understand the subject through syntactic determination– Ed promised to resign from the board.

– They called on Ed to resign from the board.

• Sometimes it is not syntactically determined– It is unwise to go swimming straight after a meal.

– It was unwise to invite Ed to the party.

Non-Finite Clauses Functioning as Adjunct

• When a non-finite functions as a supplementary adjunct, the subject can usually be identified as the subject of the matrix clauseHaving read the report, Mary was sure there had been a miscarriage of justice.

• More rarely, it can be found elsewhere in the matrix clause– %Born and bred in Brisbane, the Sunshine Coast was always my

preferred destination to recharge and socialize from my teenage years.– %Jennifer Lopez stars as Marisa, a maid in a fancy New York City hotel.

While trying on a wealthy woman’s dress, a handsome and rich politician mistakes her for a society woman.

• Sometimes there is no NP in the matrix clause that works– %Being desperately poor, paper was always scarce – as was ink.– %Having failed once, is the fear of failure any less this time around?

Non-Finites with an Overt Subject

• Pronouns appear in the accusative when they are subjects of infinitivals– [For them to refuse you a visa] was quite outrageous.– All I want is [for us to be reunited].

• Gerund-participial as complement– She insisted on [my / me being present throughout the interview].– She insisted on [her father’s / her father being present throughout the

interview].– She insisted on [there being a counselor present throughout the

interview].

• Gerund-participial as adjunct– She sought advice from Ed, [he being the most experienced of her

colleagues].– She sought advice from Ed, [him being the most experienced of her

colleagues].

Hollow Non-Finite Clauses

• Sometimes a non-finite clause will have a non-subject element missing which is recoverable from an antecedent expression– The house will be ready [for you to inspect __] in a few days.– The new car took me quite a long time [to get used to __].– The report was far too long [to read __ in one evening].– They came up with a rather difficult argument [to refute __].– Her new book is definitely worth [looking at __].

• These are predominantly to-infinitivals• The missing element is normally direct object or object of a

preposition• The antecedent is normally an NP or a nominal• The hollow clause can have a range of functions, all licensed by a

particular lexical item.

The Functions of To-Infinitivals

• Subject To turn back now would be a mistake.• Extraposed Subject It would be a mistake to turn back now.• Extraposed Object We considered it sensible to take legal advice.• Internal Comp of Verb Her parents [intend to buy her a car].• Comp of Preposition I go to the gym [in order to keep fit].• Adjunct in Clause I go to the gym to keep fit.• Comp of Noun It provides [an opportunity to broaden the

mind].• Modifier in NP We found [a big box in which to keep the CDs].

We found [a big box to keep the CDs in].• Comp of Adjective He was [anxious to make a good impression].• Indirect Comp He’s still [too young to be left alone].

Interrogative Infinitivals

• Various heads license interrogative infinitivals– Comp of verb

I don’t [know whether to accept their offer].– Comp of adjective

I’m not [sure how to proceed].– Comp of preposition

They can’t agree [on what to do about it].– Comp of noun

[A decision whether to go ahead] hasn’t been made.

• The meaning of interrogative infinitivals is deontic

Bare Infinitivals

Bare infinitivals only occur as internal complements of certain verbs, with no subject permitted

• You should take legal advice.

• I want you to help clean up the garage.

• The devil made me do it.

• All I did was ask a simple question.

Gerund Participials

• Subject Bringing your dad in on the deal was agreat idea.

• Extraposed subject It’s been a pleasure talking to youboth.

• Object I find talking to Max rather stressful.• Extraposed object He considers it a waste of time going

to meetings.• Internal comp of verb I remember telling you about her visit.• Comp of preposition He insists [on checking everything

himself].• Adjunct in clause Having read the paper, I can’t see why

you care.• Modifier in NP Who was [the doctor performing the

operation]?

Past Participials

• Internal comp of verbShe [has written another novel].I could [have you dismissed on the spot].

• Modifier in NP[The guns stolen in the break-in] were recovered.

Exercise #1

State the function of the underlined non-finite clauses in the following examples: subject in clause structure, complement of noun, etc.

1. It gave us an opportunity to make a quick profit. comp of Noun2. This made obtaining a loan virtually impossible. Internal comp of verb3. We’re looking forward to seeing you again. Comp of prep4. I can’t decide what to do about it. Internal comp of verb5. They are saving up to buy a washing machine. Modifier of verb6. They arrived home to find that the house had been burgled. Mod of verb7. Anyone knowing his whereabouts should contact the police. Mod of noun8. I’m afraid asking for special consideration won’t do any good. Subject9. The grid is to prevent cattle wandering off. Internal comp of verb10. I’m determined to do better next time. Comp of adj

The Catenative Construction (1)

• Most cases where a non-finite clause is an internal complement of a verb are instances of the catenativeconstruction

• Exceptions– Our goal is to eliminate all these errors in the next version.– These rules are to protect the privacy of our clients.– This made working with them an unpleasant experience.– I’d call that shirking your responsibilities.

• These are all similar to variants with other categories– Our goal is an error-free version.– These rules are for our clients’ protection.– This made the job an unpleasant experience.– I’d call that laziness.

The Catenative Construction (2)

• Examples of the catenative construction

– Kim seemed to understand it.

– Kim began to understand it.

– Kim hoped to understand it.

• These are not rephrasable with other categories

• We use ‘catenative’ because these complements can be chainedShe seems to want to stop trying to avoid meeting him.

Simple and Complex CatenativeConstructions

• Simple catenative has no intervening NP interpreted as the subject of the non-finite clause– I promised to read the report.– We daren’t move the furniture– Max regrets locking the door.– Pat got nominated for treasurer.– Ed seemed to me to cheer them up.

• Complex catenative does have such an NP– We persuaded Sue to read the report.– We helped Sue move the furniture.– I remember Sue locking the door.– He had Sue nominated for treasurer.– We rely on Sue to cheer them up.

Exercise #2

Classify the following catenative constructions as simple or complex.

1. They invited me to join the board.2. I forgot to put the oven on.3. She intends at some stage to do a Ph.D.4. I appeal to you to give us a second chance.5. I promised them to be back by six.6. Ed was told by his doctor to do exercises.7. Max was advised to seek medical help.8. Get someone to help you.9. Try to keep your eye on the ball.10. Not for nothing had I yearned to desist.

The Simple Catenative Construction

• The subject of a simple catenativecomplement is syntactically determined by the subject of the matrix clause.

• Ordinary subject– Semantically related to the matrix verb

– Sara wanted to convince Ed.

• Raised subject– Not semantically related to the matrix verb

– Sara seemed to convince Ed.

Testing for Ordinary or Raised Subjects (1)

Try changing the subject of the matrix by putting the catenative complement in the passive

• Ordinary subject

– Sara wanted to convince Ed.

– Ed wanted to be convinced by Sara.

• Raised subject

– Sara seemed to convince Ed.

– Ed seemed to be convinced by Sara.

Testing for Ordinary or Raised Subjects (2)

Try using a dummy pronoun (extrapositional itor existential there) as the subject of a catenative verb

• Ordinary subject– *It wants to be likely that she’ll go.

– *There wants to be plenty of time.

• Raised subject– It seems to be likely that she’ll go.

– There seems to be plenty of time.

Gerund-Participials

The ordinary/raising distinction is found with gerund-participials as well

• Ordinary subject– Ed regrets interrupting me.– I regret being interrupted by Ed.– *There regret being power black-outs.

• Raising subject– Ed keeps interrupting me.– I keep being interrupted by Ed.– There keep being power black-outs.

Auxiliary Verbs

• Auxiliaries, when used as markers of tense, aspect, mood or voice, are catenative verbs in the simple catenative construction, usually with a raised subject– Kim may beat Sue.– Sue may be beaten by Kim.– There may be a reporter present.

• Dare is exceptional– Kim daren’t beat Sue.– Sue daren’t be beaten by Kim.– *There daren’t be a reporter present.

The Complex Catenative Construction (1)

• An intervening NP appears between the two verbs and is interpreted as the subject of the dependent clause.– We arranged for them to meet the manager.

– We resented their being given extra priveleges.

– We counted on them to support us.

– We believed them to be conspiring against us.

• In the last of these sentences, it is not obvious which clause them belongs to syntactically

The Complex Catenative Construction (2)

• The intervening NP in sentences likeWe believed them to be conspiring against usbelongs syntactically to the matrix clause

• Passive– They were believed to be conspiring against us.– It was arranged for them to meet the manager.

• Insertion of adjuncts– *We believed later them to be conspiring against us.– We arranged later for them to meet the manager.

• The ‘pseudo-cleft’ construction– *What we believed was them to be conspiring against us.– What we arranged was for them to meet the manager.

The Distinction between Ordinary and Raised Objects

• An ordinary object is semantically related to the matrix verb– We urged a specialist to examine Ed.

– We urged Ed to be examined by a specialist.

– *We urged there to be an adult present.

– *We urged it to be clear to Ed that he was on probation.

• A raised object is not– We wanted a specialist to examine Ed.

– We wanted Ed to be examined by a specialist.

– We wanted there to be an adult present.

– We wanted it to be clear to Ed that he was on probation.

Verbless Clauses

• Where non-finite clauses do not carry primary tense, verbless clauses don’t even have a verb

• Verbless clauses as complement to a preposition– He’d been on the beach [without anyone noticing him].– He’d been on the beach [without any sunscreen on].– [While I was working in Boston] I lived with my aunt.– [While working in Boston] I lived with my aunt.– [While in Boston] I lived with my aunt.

• Verbless clauses functioning directly as adjuncts– The meeting finally over, they all adjourned to the local café.– The passengers, many of them quite elderly, were forced to line

up in the sun.

Next Time

Chapter 15: Information Packaging in the Clause

Sections 1 – 4 only