Office of Research and DevelopmentNational Exposure Research Laboratory
Non-traditional technologies -Recovery of resources
Disclaimer: This presentation does not necessarily reflect official U.S. EPA
policy1
�No – it is all about the money
•So for technology options it is all about resource recovery (energy, nutrients, H2O)
–People need to save money & have water services well into the future
Are nutrients the issue here?
Waste of energy in the water sector• Water services utilize about 3-7% of electricity produced
–i.e. some 100 billion kWh/y = 16 avg coal power plants
• Yet there is about the same amount of embedded energy in food/fecal residuals in our sewers
• However household energy use – 14% for hot water–i.e. heating water more important energy issue–3rd highest use after heating (29%) & cooling (17%) of homes
2 www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/reps/enduse/er01_us.html 3
Let’s rethink the municipal water system• First – noting how we got to where we are today• Second – based on a system’s view what could be more sustainable
• And do we have the wrong economic & service model?
–Given $20 billion/y annual short-fall in water system maintenance (EPA GAP report, 2005)
Most significant incentive for waterworks was fire fighting
• Since the Great Fire of London in 1666 the market forfire insurance was opened up
• US National Board of Fire Underwriters 1872 lead to premiums reduced 20-50% if waterworks available for fire fighting
• Drinking water system still designed today based on providing fire fighting flow
• Hence lose of quality and excess to private needs!Silsby first steam Fire Pump Engines, 1856-1891, USA4
Next was disease concern
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(403,000 cases from a single outbreak of Cryptosporidium hominis in Milwaukee (WI) April 1993, but only 9% of outbreaks vs. Giardia 86%)
(Some likely to be viral & parasitic protozoa, but how many are non-culturable bacteria?)
(85% Norovirus)
(30% Cu, 12% F, 9% NO3
- )
Craun et al. (2010)CMR 23:507-528
(29% since 200180% of deaths)
Etiologic agents (%) for 780 drinking water outbreaks, 1971-2006 USA
Water futures – energy limited by the current design
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Water conservation only
Water conservation & stormwater reuse
Water conservation & wastewater RO reuse
Energy used (kWh) Reuse limit
0 .Percent water demand reduction . 100 .
Novotny (2011) Wat Sci Technol 63(1):184-190
i.e. need to change the system
Renewable energy
Demand manag’t was the first step
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Sydney’s water savings 2000-2009
Sydney Water Corp, 2010
Dual systems mandated in all greenfield developmentsBut the next million pop?
Same usage today as in 1972
Energy use: rainwater, desal in Australia
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Prosser (2011) Water: Science and Solutions for Australia, CSIRO Publishing, Canberra
i.e. need to manage pump type/usage
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Global phosphate use in agriculture:1800-2010
Need for phosphorus recycling
Guano
manure
RockphosphateHuman excreta
YearAshley et al. (2011) Chemosphere 84:737-746
World Phosphate Reserves –Geopolitically Sensitive
Morocco77%
ROW17%
China 6%USA2%
More concentrated than OPEC
Image courtesy Ostara10
Likely trends / Implications
• Climate change / climate resilient infrastructure :–More intense storms, sewer overflows, outages
• Pressure sewers, off grid systems more resilient–Aging population, more prone to diseases
• e.g. legionellosis via water aerosols (etc.)• Need to reduce greenhouse gases :
–Move less water over long distances, i.e. recycle, especially reuse within homes/buildings
• Renewable energy & nutrient recovery :–Utilize energy within ‘wastes’energy/heat recovery–Urban agriculture / recycle of local nutrients
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We need a paradigm shiftCurrent single use
Resource recycle instead of disposalhttp://www.ecosanservices.org
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Solutions•Use of specific process-oriented tools to aid in sustainability assessments, and
•Product-oriented decision support systems to aid stakeholder involvement in the process
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Multi-Criteria Decision Aiding (MCDA), using process tools & being stakeholder-driven:
• Health Impact Assessment
• Life-Cycle Assessment, EF
• BCA, Life-Cycle Costing
• Reliability/ robustness
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Swedish-Australian Urban water sustainability framework
Lundie, S., Ashbolt, N., Peters, G., Livingston, D., Lai, E., Kärrman, E., Blaikie, J. and Anderson, J. (2008) Sustainability Framework. WSAA Occasional Paper No.17. Water Services Association of Australia, Melbourne.
Examples of Urban Master planning
•Stockholm city brownfield redevelopments•Gold Coast, Sth of Brisbane, Australia (greenfield development)
•Common points–Not about one issue, but the whole system–Dominant driver – economic viability
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Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm
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Stockholm Royal Seaport (SRS) (Norra Djurgårdsstaden)• This urban development for 10,000 new residences and
30,000 new workspaces, based on Hammarby Sjöstad• Planning work started in the early 2000s and the new city
district will be fully developed around 2025
• Goals:–By 2020, carbon emissions <1.5 tonnes/person.year
–By 2030, free of fossil fuels–Resilient to future climate changes
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Pimpama Coomera Water Futures Project
• First discussed at a series of strategic workshops attended by Gold Coast Water and key government stakeholders in mid 2002
• 18 month stakeholder-driven process20
Initial 10 Options down to 5 then 1
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Innovative water systemsBased on sustainability principles –interfaced to financing models, food production & healthy living environment
•An example new water system paradigm–No-DW firefighting, blackwater-only sewer, local greywater reuse for non-potable household use
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e.g. EcoSan toilet: in India with unique pay-the-user
• Located in Musiri, Trichy, Tamilnadu, India, the Ecosan Community Compost Toilet
• Operating since Jan, 2008• Users paid 10 paise per visit -
about 1/4 of one US cent as human urine and feces are a valuable source of nutrients used in agriculture
(Text and image courtesy of SCOPE)Society for Community Organisation and Peoples Educationhttp://www.scopetrichy.org/23
Ashbolt, N.J. (2011). In: Energy and Water 2011. Water Environment Foundation, July 31-August 3, 2011, Hyatt Regency McCormick Place, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 1233-1241
Future municipal water services:What are the new businesses?
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Small-scale ‘conventional’system ystems
Septic tank Absorption trenchPoor maintenance is a major problem
Primary out
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For stand-alone homes
Aerated Wastewater Treatment Systems (AWTS)
Warranties: • Concrete Tanks & Partitions 15 years • Internal Pipework 10 years
• Electrical control box & alarm panel 5 years• Pumps 2 years
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Require a maintenance contract for use
Problems with AWTS
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Waterless composting toilets
Split Level system with ceramic pedestalWith or without urine-diversion
Stand alone single unit for 4 person housee.g. Biolet 60 XL (http://www.biolet.com/)28
Slow evolution vs step change
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Vacuum toilet
Graywater treatment
Urine-diversiondual-flush toilet
Urine-diversion dehydrating toilet
Sewage treatment(Biolytix NZ system)
Why divert the urine?
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• Use as a plant fertilizer– Normal nitrogen application (80-100 kg/ha)
≡ 10-40 tonnes of urine/ha is needed
Urine-diverting toilets• WM-Ekologen model DS• Other models have combine vacuum system or dry fecal collection with urine diversion.
• BB Innovation & Co. model Dubbletten
• gives 3.3 - 3.6 g N / L
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Urine storage tank (264 gal) & Aquatron solids separator composter
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• Slone FLUSHMATE® Pressure-Assist toilet (1 gal)• The Propellair TM toilet (0.4 gal flush)
–The ‘Propel air’ flushing system reduces water consumption to 0.4 gal per flush, using 84% less water & 80% less energy than avg 2.4 gal WC
• The Quench TM recirculating shower system–The commercially available Quench conservation shower
uses up to 67% (25 vs 43 L) less water than a low flow shower head & use up to 87% less energy
• The Xeros TM cloths washer–uses 90% less water & 2% energy since clothes nearly dry, no dryer required
What’s in the ‘pipeline’ toreduce demand: 40 to 13 gal/p.d
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Conclusions
• In addressing the ‘three pillars’ of sustainability assessments – need to consider over the life-time of the complete water services system–Human health (chemical, microbial & wellbeing)
–Environment (water footprint, EF & LCA options)–Economic (BCA, NPV, LCC)
• Probably requires novel market approaches & governance structures to succeed–E.g. Maintenance contracts & overarching planning group34 35