NONVIOI..ENCB IN VIOI..ENCB: APPJlOACHE.S TO
IN'I'ERNA110NAL CONPUCT JtESOLU'l10N IN COSTA RICA
submitted 10 tbe
FICUity ot tbe School ot Inlemationll Service
of The Alllcric:a Uai'M'Iity
ill Putial Pui6Dment of
the~ b tbe Dear
of
lloc:tlor ol PlliJolaply
iD
1991 The A..maic:a.ft Udivenity Wasbinplo, D.C. 20016 7.R /q
tU ji~DICJJ' UlllDSITY LI!lUIT
o COPYRIOIIT
by
PAUL HUBERS
1991
ALL RIGHI'S RESERVED
NONVIOLENCE IN VIOLENCE: APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN COSTA RICA
BY
Paul Hubers
ABSTRACT
Costa Rica claims to be one of the few neutral and nonaligned states to have
abolished its military power. It furnishes an historical context for exploring two
hypotheses: first, that nonviolent, coopetative intemalional conflict n:solution bas
promoted peace, teeurlty, and developmmt., and second, that violent intemationa1
conflict resolution bas promoced war, iftsecurity, and underdevelopment.
Discussion of the theory, method, and outcome for such conflict resolution
will include a oew indic:alOr on xmJ violence u well as data on housing, health,
education, and employment. This indica10r of conflict intensity measures the percen·
tage of people killed in periodic war aver twenty-year time spans. and contributes to
the United Nations' General Assembly security and international conflict resolution
debate which links peace, disarmament, and development.
The thesis will focus on Costa Rica's border with Nicaraeua aJong the San
Juan River, a conflictive border which continues to be a focus of attention as a
possible site for an isthmian border canal, and for use u a possible comentooe in
ii
various isthmian peace plans. The United States bas witbdnwn twice from a world
cowt in the Twentieth Century over oonftict concerning tbis border (wocWed with
intervention by Japan and Israel. United Nations peacebepin& ovenures, and
Ew-opean &ooomic Community trade).
A world order rather than an anti-dependency or a nonviolent appn:liiCb 10
resolve contllct dominates international conflict resolution, concentrated especially in
four majoc gtobaJ zones of conflict including the Western Caribbean. Re!ortin& 10
violent conflict resolution has fostered an insurgent international arms and druc
(cocaine) busine.u similar 10 that operating in pre-1959 Cuba and a powin;
international debt. This dissertation will address ooc only problematic international
Iran..Contra issues, but aho why an intq:ratcd approach 10 c:oopentive development in
the resolution of conflict will be necessary in the future.
ACKNQWI.EDGEMENIS
rlt'SI of all, 1 would lib 10 thank my three faculty advisors very much: Abdul
Aziz Said, Steven Arnold, and Theodore Rosch6. In addition, I am profoundly ~
fu1 10 DarrdJ and Mildred Randall for their special help - and to Mary Uepold for
ber editin& - alon& with Philip Brenner, Coralie Bryant, Fantu Cheru, Jack Child,
James eouer, John Fi.nan, Louis Goodman, Ann He!d, William LeoGrande, Faith
Leonard, Micke Meurs, and Nicholas Onuf. I am thus also gratefu110 tbe many Cen
tral American refugees wbo, night alter night, worked as "UII3em" ja.<Uton 10 clean
up after me and my fellow students. Given the diffi<:ulty of writing something cohe-
rent about international relations and nonvioknc:e, I would lib to dlank Alice Paul
deeply also for her dissertation written over siAty yean aco • .,.owatds Equality, A
Study of the Legal Position of Women in the Uruted StaleS, • (The American Univer
sity, 1928). Perhaps, through more people liU her, there will be one law whele no
law exists now, for men and women as well u for pacifists and non-pacifists.
For help in understanding isthmian questions, I would lik.e to tban.k Adolf
Jonk.ers as well as Roy and Janet May in Costa Rica, Robert Gante.r in N".caragua,
and Andn:as Maislinger in Austria. In this sense, I am also grateful to Alvaro
ArguelJo Hurtado, Myron Rios, and Oscar Garc!a Cubas, the respective deans of Uteir
international relations procrams in Managua, San Jos6, and Havana, as well as to
iv
Noam Chomsky, for their patient respoma to l'!Wly questions. Rick Emrich, Rob
RJtclUe, and Moira Kenny were helpful also at The OuisOc Institute. In addition, I
am gmeful co Carlos AJ.zupny Tteto (Cuba), Mercedes An::e Rodrlaucz (C\&N),
Mubarak Awad (Palestine), Damian FenWlde:z, Miriam Gras Med~ja (C\&N),
LaDonna Harris, James Holger (Chile), Warren Hoover, Rodrigo Jaubenh Rojas
(Mwco), Jan Lowther (Costa Rica), Pedro LecSn (CoS(a Rica), Joe Macintyre
(Nica.raaua), David MacMichael, Carlos Melendez Chaverri (Costa Rica), 1~ N~
Mourelo Aguilar (Costa Rica), Julio Le Riverend Brusone (Cuba), Alison Oldham,
Xnut Royce, Gregorio Seiser (Mwco), Luis Guillermo SoUs Rivera (Costa Rica),
Edward Snyder, Dorolhea Woods (Switzerland), Raymond Wilson, and Louis Wolf
for their suggestions alq the way.
I am also indebted for insight through corrcspoodence witb academic writers:
Sidney Bailey (EncWwf). Judit BaJW (Hunpry), Alfred BOOiscll (Germany), Elise
Boulding, Robin Burns (Austtal.ia), Adam Curle (England), Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz,
Richard Du Boff, Jean Bethke El.sbtain, Richard Falk, Andrt Gonder Frank (the
Netherhnds), Conrad On:bel (Canada), Rent Lemarcband, Alfred McCoy, Glenn
Paige, Egbert Pfieffer, Jorge Rodrfquez Scruff (Puerto Rico), Bert ROling (the
Netherlands), Peter Dale Scott, Tam<U Szentes (Hungary), Helena Tuomi (Finland),
Jo Vallentine (Australia -· a politician also), Raimo Vayrynen (Finland), Salvador
Vilaseca (Cuba), Sidney Waldman, and Lawrence Weiss.
1 would also like to thank Adrian Bishop and Rosalee Dance, Jean Brown,
M~ Lloyd and Thomas Wadden, and Winifred Walker-Jones. Likewise, I would
like to thank my pareocs, William and Henrietta Hubers for their love and support
along the way. For otber debCs due l'!WlY and varied information specialists, please
see • APPENDIX B. •
Fmally, I would lib to thank Maheodza Kumar, editor of Gandhi Maa (New
Delhi, India), for permission co draw on an article previously published in .G.aosUli
MJa, (• A Global Methodoloay of Nonviolence, • April 1987). Likewise, for kind
permission co use stati.uical data, I would liJa:: co thank both Carol Schreiber at Hazpcr
&. Row, Publishers, Inc., New York City, concerning: Gtrard Chaliand and Jean
Pierre Rageau, translation by Tony Bemtt, maps by Catherine Petit, Stratc&ic A(las
A Comparative Geopolitics of the World's Powm (New Yorlc Harper &. Row,
1985), 48-50; u well as Kate Buchanan and Matpret Chapman at Sage Publications
of Pergamon Press in Oxford, Eotland, coooeming: Istvan Kende, •wars of Ten
Years, • Journal of Peace Reyaus;b 1.5 (1978): 239-41. These people, and many more
than I have mentioned here- ro wbom dUs work is dedicated- have coopera-tively
offered time and advice for creating this small contribution toward nonviolent and
ecologically·a'stainable potential for international conflict resolution.
vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFSC Amerla.n Friends Servia: Committee
AID Uniced States Agency for International Development
AfSR Ams:ric;w Political Science Review
lli Bulletin of Peace PIQposa!s
CAm Coyen Action lnfonnatioo Bulletin
CAS Cuadernm Am¢ricaoos
CS.M Cbrisrian Science Monitor
COHUCA Central American Commission of Human Ri&hts; (Spanish: Comisi6n para Ja Oefensa de los Derecbos Humanos en Cc:nt:roammca, Costa Rica)
CDLD Costa Rican DctnOCratiC Defense Network (Spanish: Coordinadora para Ia Defensa de las Ubenades Democraticas en Costa Rica, Mexico City)
CRY Current Hjstoa
CIA United States Central lnteUi&eno: Agency
ODE CounciJ of Economic Research; (Spanish: Consejo de Investigaci6n y Docencia Econ6mic:a, Mexico City)
CODEHU Costa Rican Commission of Huma.'l Rights; (Spanish: Comisi6n para 1a Oefensa de las Oerechos Humanos, Costa Ric:a)
Conscientious Qbjcction tp War &: MWtat,y Seryjcc: Newsletter (Switzerland)
vii
CRlES
CSPPCR
CSUCA
DCF
ECLA
ECOSOC
EDUCA
Regional Network of Economic and Social Rt:sean:h; (Spanish: Coordinadora Rqioaal de lnvcstipciones EcoocSnricas y Sociala, Costa Rica and N"ac:anpa)
Committee in Solidarity with Costa Rican Political Pri$0Dt:n; (Spanish: Comi~ de SoHdaridad con los Presos Politicos en Com Rica. Nalional University of Mexico, Council of Economic Research [CIDE), Mexico City)
Caribbean Studies
Executive Confederation of the Central American Universities; (SI*\ish: Confederaci6n Superior Universitaria Centroammcana, Costa Rica)
Data Center Fi1es, Clippin& Service, NACLA
Oevel()l)ment and Peace (Hungary)
European EcononUc: Community (BelJium)
United Nations &onomic Commission of Latin Ameri~ (Spanish: Comisi6n EcoruSmica pata Ambic:a l..atina y el Caribe or CEPAL)
United Nations Economic and Social CounciJ
Central Americ:an University Press; (Spanish: Editorial Univcrsitaria CentroaJnbicana, Costa Rica)
f.Il Earth Island Journal
~ Environmental Cpnseryatjon
Environmental Policy on Central Amedg UQdate
FAO United Nations Food and Aanculture Or&anization
fAS Forei&n Affairs
Friends Committee on National l&&islation NeWsle!tcr
Friends Peace Center Newsletter (Costa Rica)
viii
FSLN
Fomgn Policy
Sandinista National Libetation Front (Spanish; Frentc Sandinista de Uberaci6n Nacional, Nicaraaua)
GPO United States Government Printing Office
!fa Imeli Forejgn Affairs
lJHS. International Journal of HcaJ!h Seryiccs
n..o United Nations International labor Office
IMEMO Mirovaia Ekonomika i Mezhdunarodnye Otnosltniia, Institute of World Economy and International Relations, University of Moscow Academy of Sciences, the Soviet Union
IMF lntcmational Monetary Fund
1QH Iotematjonal Ouanization
IER Imematjonal Policy Report
lU,A International Peace Research Ayociarjgn Newsletter
fUCN International Union for Conservation of Nablte (Switzerland)
1S.Q Intm!ational Stu<!iAA Quancrly
ISRI Graduate Institute of International Relatioos (Spanish: InstiMO S\I})Cflot de Relaciones Internacionales, Cuba)
n:r In These Ijmes
ICR Journal of ConOicJ Resolution
Journal of Ioteramerign Studies & World Affairs
JER Journal of Peace Research
l.fQ Japan Ouaoerly
L.atin American Research Reyjew
Mjdd!e Ea5t Journal
Mlddle:Eau MERIP Report
Mlm Mjamj Herald
MIM Mideast Monitor
~ Montbly Reyjew
NACl.A NACLA Rcpoa on the Americas
HAR Nonb American Reyjcw
La Naci6n (Costa Rica)
NIDA Natiooal Institute on Drua Abuse
MIN New Internationalist (England)
NSA Unired SlateS National Security Aaenc:y
trCI New York Times
OAS Orpniwioo of American StaleS
~AHO Pan-American Health ~anization, linked to the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO)
W Peace Brigades IntcmationaJ New~leucr
fmY People' s Daily World
PNS Pxifu:a News Service
lSQ Political Scimce Ouaaerly
BAQ Rcpongrio Amtdc;ano (Costa Rica)
RlS Rclaciones lnternacjonajes (Costa Rica)
X
UA LA Rcp@lica (Costa Rica)
SIPRI Stockholm lntemational Peace Research lnstii:U~ (Sweden)
m Tico Times (Costa Rica)
nYQ Third World Ouancrly
UCR National University of Costa RK:a. oear San Jos6
UNIDIR
UPAZ
USN'NR
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research {Switzerland)
University of Peace, linked lO the United Nations, a few miles west of San Jos6, C05ta Rica
U.S. News & World Reoort
WBK World Bank, United Nations
World Deve!ooment
WHO United Nations World Health Orpn.i.zation
World Polir:jg
Ylzr Wa!hinctoo Post
Em World Rainforest Report
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT'S •
UST OF ABBREVIATIONS
UST OF TABLES
UST OF lLLUSTRA TIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I . THEORY
1. POWER IN VIOLENT AND NONVIOLENT CONTEXTS
2. CONCEPTS OF VIOLENCE AND NONVIOLENCE
3. PRINCIPAL APPROACHES TO CONFUCT RESOLUTION
PART n. METHOD
4. DlSARMAMENT A.."'D DEVELOPMENT
S. POWER, NEEDS, AND RIGHTS CRITERIA
6. VIOLENCE AND NONVIOLENCE - WAR OR PEACE
xii
ii
iv
xiv
ltV
2
38
75
12S
172
211
PART m. OUJ'CC>ME
7. BAR.RJERS TO SECURITY: DRUGS AND MILITARIZATION
I . DEBT AND CREDIT • • • f I • I •
9. RESOLVING FUruRE CONFUCI'
A
B
c
D
SOURCES
AN BTYMOLOOY OF THE THREE APPROACHES
RESEARCH SOURCES
SERIAL VIOLENCE DATA
MAPS . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
SELECT BIBUOORAPHY
387
391
m
411
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1. Three Ncnvioleat Criteria and Their Cbarlc:leristic In lallernldol .. ConfUct Raolution
2. A COilciJe Dltel.lfte In the Western Caribbean: A Foundadoa for Traaarmament?
121
3. Milllll'y and DeYdopment Aid to Costa Rica (1~1988) 330
4. Security and DeYeJopmeat Aid to Com Rica (1~1988) 332
s. Mllilll'y. Security. and Dewioprw!f Aid lo Colla Rica ( ~~ 1911) • • • • • 334
xiv
UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Ficure
1. Bar Graph on Serial Violence Percentages, By State
XV
Pa&e 187
PART l.
THEORY