NOTE TO USERS · as used in this study, means "raptors, threatened species, endangered species,...

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Abstract

Linear developments, such as roads and railways, have been identified as major

contributors to wetland hgmentation. Several studies have concluded that the 'banier

effect' of roads and railways result in increased inbreeding among wetland species and

reduced genetic diversity, heightened nsk of local extinction due to population dynamics,

and a decrease in the ability of species to re-colonize otherwise suitable habitat.

The study looks at decision-making processes that preceded highway construction and the

mitigative strategies adopted by the highway authonty to reduce degradation of sensitive

wetland habitats. Corrugated steel culverts are evaluated as transit corridors for amphibians

and small mammals at two Vancouver Island wetland locations. The tracks of several

species were recorded on sooted plates placed within the culverts, which in turn were

photographed and analjjsed for species occurrence.

Recornrnendations are made for improved monitoring and catalosing of amphibians and

small mammals near roads, and for enhancing the performance of culverts, and other

structures, as conduits for amphibian and small marnmal passage beneath linear

constructions. Separate comparative trials compare the preference of the Rough-skinned

Newt (Taricha granulosa) for various corrugated steel culvert treatments. Results of the

trials show preferences according to the amount of moisture, the amount of light and

openness, and the type of substrate found within culverts. Culverts monitored at wetland

sites measure their degree of usage by several faunal species.

Royal Roads University Masters of Environment and Management

Acknowledgements

Research conducted for this thesis was made possible, in part, by iùnding provided to

Royal Roads University by the Environmental Services Section of the Engineering Branch

of the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways (Contract: 008LM 1359).

1 would like to thank the following people for their ,gidance and encouragement over the

course of this thesis project. To each of you my respect for believirig in the good things

you do.. .and for doing thern. Special thanks to Don Blood, whose commitment to his work

became an inspiration for mine. And thanks too to my farnily, especially Mitchell, who

tau@ me how to talk with newts.

Don Blood, R.P. Bio.

Dr. Doug Bright

Angela Buckingham

Ken Broadland

Trudy Chatwin

Dr. Ted Davis

Randy Dolighan

Dr. Bill Dushenko

D.A. Blood and Associates

Applied Research, Royal Roads University

Environmental Services, British Columbia Ministry

of Transportation and Highways

Fish, Wildlife and Habitat Branch, British Columbia

Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks



University of Victoria



Applied Research, Royal Roads University

Royal Rwds University Masters of Environment and Management

iii

Laura Friis Research and Conservation Section, British

Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and

Parks, Victoria

Dr. Pat Gregory Universis of Victoria

Michael J. Kent, P. Geo. Environmental Services, British Columbia Minist~y

of Transportation and Highways

Joe Materi, R.P. Bio. D.A. Blood and Associates

Karen Momson Fish, Wildlife and Habitat Branch, British Columbia


Dr. Dave Nagorsen Natural History, Royal British Columbia Museum

Dr. John Russell Forest Genetics Section, British Columbia Ministry

of Forests

Robert Tully R.T. Photo, Victoria

Royal Roads Un?denity Masterç of Environment and Management

Glossary of Terms

For the purposes of this study;

" wildlife" as defined in the British Columbia (B.C.) Wildlife Act , Section 1 .(II, and

as used in this study, means "raptors, threatened species, endangered species, game

or other vertebrates prescribed as wildlife, and for section 3 to 5,7,8, and 1 10 (2) (v),

includes fish.

"small marnmals" includes baver, racoon, and rnamrnals smaller than these species.

"amphibian" as defined in the British Columbia Wildlife Act , Section 1. (l), and as

used in this study, means a vertebrate of the class Amphibian and includes the eggs

and other developmental life stages.

"culvert" means any enclosed device used to transport water through linear

developements such as roads, railways, pipeline right-of-ways, and dykes. They are

also refmed to as 'wet' culverts.

"drv culvert" means a culvert that is not intended to cany water and which prirnarily

serves as a comdor for wildlife through linear developments. Although these

culverts are normally dry they may contain water during flood events.

crossi in^ stnictures" refer to structures that allow passage of wildlife through linear

developments, and includes bridges, arches, culverts, tunnels, and utility service

conduits.

"comgated steel v i ~ e culverts" (CSPs) are zinc-plated.

*Note: !hile many of the comments in this study pertain to roads, they are often

equally applicable to linear developrnents such as railways, pipelines, dykes, etc.

Royal Roads University Madsrs of Environment and Management

ABSTRACT I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II

GLOSSARY OF TERMS IV

1 .O INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 HASITAT FRAGMENTATION AND FORUMS 1 1.2 CORRUGATED STEEL PIPE CULVERTS AS CROSSING STRUCTURES 3

2.0 STUDY OBJECTIVES 5

3.8 STUDY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 14

3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT: FEATURES OF THE PIERCY CREEK WETLAND 14 3.1.1 PIERCY CREEK WETLAND MITIGATION STRATEGIES 16

3.2 HAMILTON MARSH 22 3.3 PREVIOUS FIELD OBSERVAT~ONS OF AMPHISIANS AND SMALL MAMMALS 24 3.4 TESTED VARIABLES AND METHODOLOGY 25 3.5 OPTIONS FOR FIELD DATA COLLECTION 30

3.5.1 TRACK-PLATES 32 3.5.2 PLATE PREPARATION FOR FIELD USE 33

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36

4.1 CULVERT TRIALS PREFERENCES FOR NEWTS 36 4.1.2 LIGHT AND OPENNESS TRIALS 40 4.1 -3 SUSSTRATE TRIALS 41

4.2 TRACK-PLATE RESULTS 45 4.2.1 PIERCY CREEK OCCURRENCES 46 4.2.2 HAMILTON MARSH OCCURRENCES 49

4.3 OPTIMIZED PLATES 50 4.4 METAL LEACHING FROM NEW GALVANIZED CULVERTS: POSSIBLE ~MPL~CAT~ONS FOR AMPHIBIANS 55


5.0 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 59

REFERENCES 66

Appendix A

A l ........................................................ Piercy Creek occurrences 1 culvert 1 and 2 A2 ....................................................... Piercy Creek occurrences / culvert 3 and 4 A3 ....................................................... Piercy Creek occurrences / culvert 5 and 6 A4 ......................................................... Piercy Creek occurrences / culvert 7 and 8

Appendix B ( selected plate photos from Appendix C)

..................................................................... BI Piercy Creek plate 02/14/09 B2 ................................................... ....p late a; Hyla regilla (detail from plated)

................................................................... 83.. ..plate b; Taricha granulasa ............................................................................... 84.. plate d; Hylaregilla

..................................................................... B5 .plate e (detail from plate d)

.......................................................... 66 plate O; linear tracks and crow print: B7 .................................................................................... p late r; deoosits

................................................................. B8 Hamilton East and West 02/09

............................................................. B9 .coitontail or rabbit prints (plate p)

Appendix C

Section 1

Piercy Creek 01 O1 0407 01 2307 011108 O 1 2408 O1 0209 01 2809 O1 1409 O1 O61 O O1 261 O

Piercy Creek 02 020407 022307


vii

022408 020209 022809 021409 02061 O 02261 O

Piercy Creek 03 030407 032307 031 IO8 032408 030209 032809 031409 03061 O 03261 O

Piercy Creek 04 040407 042307 041 1 O8 042408 040209 042809 041409 04061 O O426 1 O

Piercy Creek 05 050407 052307 051 1 O8 052408 050209 052809 051 409 05061 O 05261 0

Piercy Creek 06 060407 062307 O61 1 O8 062408 060209 062809 061409 06061 O 06261 O


viii

Piercy Creek 07 070407 072307 071 1 O8 072408 070209 07261 0 071 409 07061 O

Piercy Creek 08 082307 O81 1 O8 082408 080209 082809 081409 08061 0 O8261 O

Section 2 Hamilton Marsh

0407east 0407west 2307east 2307west 1 108west 2408west 0209east&west 2809west 061 Oeast&west

Section 3 plates a-s

Section 4 Climatological Report

Section 5 Chemical Analysis Report

Royal Roads University Masters of Environmen! and Management

List of Tables

Table 1: New untreated culvert ............................................................................ 37 Table 2: Wetness trial ........................................................................................... 39 Table 3: Light trial ................................................................................................. 41 Table 4: Openness trial ........................................................................................ 42 Table 5: Substrate trial ......................................................................................... 44 Table 6: Piercy cr-eek occurrences and summaries ............................................. 47

................ Table 7: Piercy Creek average occurrences and percent occurrences 48 .................................................................. Table 8: Hamilton Marsh occurrences 51

Table 9: Detected metals ............................................................................... 57

List of Figures

Figure 1 : Piercy Creek ............................................................................................ 6 Figure 2: Piercy Creek photos ................................................................................ 7 Figure 3: Photo viewpoints ..................................................................................... 8

............................................................. Figure 4a and 4b: Hamilton Marsh maps 10 Figure 5: Highway 4 photos .................................................................................. 12 Figure 6: Stream crossing structures ................................................................. 17 Figure 7: Piercy Creek dry culvert locations ....................................................... 19

.............................. Figure 8a and 8b: Culvert detail and Piercy Creek elevations 20 ....................................................................................... Figure 9: Wildlife culvert 20

........................................................ Figure 10: Hamilton Marsh culvert locations 23 Figure 12a-h: Trial culvert photos ......................................................................... 28 Figure II: Test bed plan ..................................................................................... 29 Figure 13a-c: Field equipment and installed plate ............................................ 34 Figure 14: Marten and Fisher print schematic ................................................. 53

Royal Roads University Masters of Environment and Managemont

1.0 Introduction

1 .l Habitat Fragmentation and Forums

Linear developments, such as roads, railways, pipelines, and dykes, have been identiSed as

major contributors to wetland hgmentation. Evink et al. (1 996) provides a review of

several studies of habitat fragmentation owing to linear infrastructures. The 'barrier effect'

of linear infrastructures results in increased inbreeding arnong wetland species and reduced

genetic diversity, heightened risk of local extinction due to population dynamics, and a

decrease in the ability of species to re-colonize otherwise suitable habitat. Where roads

divide large continuous populations into smaller local populations the probability of local

extinction and the potential for inbreeding is increased (ûpdam, 1998). Findlay md

Houlihan (1 997) describe a negative correlation between species richness in Ontario

wetlands and roads 1-2 km. away.

Roads are a ubiquitous feature of the North American landscape. Forman (1 998b)

calculated that road surfaces in the United States are equal in area to the state of South

Carolina He estimates that a primary road feeding 10,000 vehicles a day through

woodlands leaves its stamp on a strip of habitat 305 metres wide. Dahl (1990) estimated

that 53% of al1 original wetlands in the United States have been pmanently lost.

The 1995 International Symposium on Habitat Fragmentation and Inhtructure

(Maastricht, Netherlands) demonstrated that hgmentation due to transportation

infiastructure is a major concern in Europe and elsewhere (Vos, 1995). Fragmentation of

natural habitat is thought to be a contributing cause of contemporary declines in

biodiversity, and acute declines in amphibian populations are subjects of increasing

urgency arnong researchers (Blausîein and Wake, 1990; Blaustein and et al. 1994).

The probability that small mammals will cross lightly travelled roads 6-1 5 metres wide

may be less than 10% of that for movement within adjacent habitats (Meniam et al.1989;

Swihart and Slade, 1984). Wetland faunal species show a similar reduced tendency to cross

2

roads (Langton, l989b; Fahrig et al. 1995). The impact extends beyond the footpnnt of the

linear structure, and in the case of roads can result in:

permanent loss of habitat (equal to, or greater than, the structure

footprint);

degraded habitat attributable to modified water budgets, the introduction

of road chernicals and contaminants produced by motor vehicles,

reconfigured habitat edge to interior area ratios, increased vehicular

road-noise, and human and domesticated animal intrusions;

obstacles for pond-breeding fauna, such as aquatic amphibians, to reach

suitable breeding and foraging sites;

traffic-caused mortality of small mammals and amphibians; and

species loss (Bennett, 199 1 ; Andrews, 1990).

In regard to roads and amphibians, Gibbs (1 998) States that arnphibians may be the animal

taxon least able to cope with environmental changes associated ~ 4 t h habitat loss and

fi-agmentation. Mader (1 984) contends that linear developments may represent physical

and psychological barriers that alter the way that amphibian species move within their

habitats.

On the subject of species population loss attributable to roadkill, Foxman and Alexander

(1 998) state:

"In short, road vehicles are prolific killers of terrestrial vertebrates.

Nevertheless, except for 2 srnall number of rare species, roadkills have

minimal effect on population size (and) the ecological effect of road

avoidance caused by traffic disturbance is probably much greater than that

of roadkills seen splattered dong the road".

Forums dedicated to wildlife and transportation issues have gained international

recognition over the past decade. The Proceedings of the International Conference on

Wildlife Ecology and Transportation (ICOWET), a forum funded in part by the Florida

Department of Transportation, and the 1995 International Symposium on Habitat

Fragmentation (The Hague), have been important venues for discussing wildlife and

transportation ideas. The 1989 Toad Tunnel Conference held in Rendsburg, Gennany,

culminated in an AC0 Polymer Products Ltd. publication entitled Amphibians and Roads:

Proceedings of the Toad Tunnel Conference, Rendsberg (Langton, 1 989a). The

Proceedings were the first widely distributed collection of papers that pertained

exclusively to transporiation and habitat topics. An annual workshop hosted by the British

Columbia-based Columbia Mountains Institute of Applied Ecology called 'Roads, Rails and

the Environment', and the literature bibliography compiled by Anthony Clevenger, a

research ecologist at Banff National Park, are significant Canadian contributions to the

wildlife and transportation theme.

1.2 Cornigated Steel Pipe Culverts as Crossing Structures

In recent years fish and wildlife habitat protection have become a high pnority for highway

authorities. In the past, cormgated steel pipe culverts (CSPs) were pnmarily evaluated for

their ability to transport water. They were used (and still are) for their ability to reduce

water ponding adjacent :O highways, to limit subsurface seepage in road fill, and to reduce

catastrophic structural failure and road surface flooding. Cormgated steel culverts are

inexpensive compared to culverts manufactured fi-om other mateds, and are relatively

easy to install during initial road construction stages. Installation costs can rise appreciably

where extensive site preparation and engineering work is required. CSPs are a durable and

cost-effective means of managing hydraulic and drainage systems adjacent to hiaways,

and are ernployed by provincial and federal highway authorities across Canada, and by

municipalities, pnvate landowners, and industry.

Numerous cases in Europe have been documented that show culverts of various

constructions to be a cost-effective means of increasing the permeability of linear

infiastructures for arnphibians (ibid.). Arnphibians are extremely vulnerable to road

mortality, particularly during the spring season, when some species, newts for example,

move in large nurnbers on a broad fiont to breeding ponds (J. Materi, pers. comrn.). Toad

tunnels were constructed as early as 1969 in Switzerland and have since been used

throughout much of the United Kingdom, West Gmany, and the Netherlands. The British

fim, AC0 Polymer Products Ltd. specializes in the design and production of polyrneric

amphibian tunnels and fencing systems.

Clevinger and Waltho (2000), in evaluations of drainage culverts as transit comdors for

small and medium-sized mammals at Banff National Park, found them to be an effective

means of increasing the lateral permeability of roads to severai species of furbearers.

Yanes et al. (1 994) and Jackson (1996) demonstrated that culverts aid the conservation of

vertebrate populations.

2.0 Study Objectives

Clevinger and Waltho (2000) note that evaluations of wildlife crossing structures, such as

dry culverts, are essential for determining their effectiveness, for making recommendations

for improving thern if necessary, and for designing effective rnitigation measures in the

future. Although much has been written about a range of culvert types used to mitigate the

banier effect of roads to faunal species, little has been written about amphibians and small

mammals in relation to CSPs, and their performance as road-crossing structures.

The major purpose of this study was to determine the presence of amphibians and small

mammals in corrugated steel pipe (CSP) culverts at two Vancouver Island wetlands, Piercy

Creek and Hamilton Marsh (Figures 1,3,3,3a, 3b, and 5). Culverts at both sites fall under

the authority of the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways (MoTH).

The Piercy Creek Wetland is located south of Courtenay, and Hamilton Marsh is located

west of the village of Qualicum Beach. Eight recently-installed dry CSP culverts at Piercy

Creek and two (wet) cross-drainage CSP culverts installed in 1995 at Hamilton Marsh

were monitored for amphibian and srnall mammal presence. The Percy Creek culverts

were monitored as part of a MoTH initiative to determine the performance of dry CSP

culverts as transit comdors for the passage of amphibians and small mammals.

Results at the Hamilton Marsh relate, in part, to a study on vehicle-caused amphibian

mortality completed there in 1996 (Blood, 2000). It was expected that field results would

provide an indication of the type and number of amphibians and small mammals that

fiequent CSP culverts at both locations.

Researchers have evaluated the effects that variables, such as light, moisture, and substrate

type play in the use of crossing structures by wildlife. Their conclusions are commonly

based on observations made in the field. It was felt that experiments conducted in a

partially controlled environment would better allow selected variables to be examined in

isolation fiom one another, and would elirninate the compounding influences of field

variables such as local vegetation and traffic noise.

Figure 1 : Piercy Creek

Figure 2: Piercy Creek photos

Figure 3: Photo viewpoints

Figure 4a and 4b: Hamilton Marsh maps

Figure 5: Highway 4 photos

West view (mid-photo vehicle is at Hamilton

Cree k)

West culvert 1 north

A series of comparative trials investigated four variables suspected to affect arnphibian

behaviour in culverts. The trials were designed to show whether Rough-skinned News ( T.

granulosa) significantly favour or reject culverts according to:

= culvert openness, (as discussed by Reed et al., 1975; Reed, 198 1; Hunt et

al., 1987);

interior wetness (Brehm, 1989; Jackson, 1996);

intenor light (Krikowski, 1998; Beier, 1995; Jackson, 1996) and

= substrate type (Mansbergh and Scotts, 1989; Yanes et al. 1995).

The variables chosen for the trials were tested on CSP culverts similar to those found at

Piercy Creek and Hamilton Marsh. Manipulations of culvert aprons, fences, entrance

b e l s , entrance vegetation, and the like were not attempted.

Previously studied behaviour-modifj4ng variables, other than those previously mentioned,

include culvert placement (Podloucky, 1989), traffic volume and related noise, hydrology

and temperature (Langton, 1989), forest and vegetative cover, human activity, the nature of

approaches and fencing systems (Boarman et al. 1996), and the proximity of predators.

3.0 Study Design and Implementation

3.1 Environmental Context: Features of the Piercy Creek Wetland

The Comox Valley Parkway is a recently completed four-lane paved highway that cross-

links the new Inland Island Highway to the costal Island Highway that it parallels. The

coastal highway or 'Old Hi&way', as it is now familiarly known, follows the island's

relatively populated eastern shoreline. The inland route is situated to bypss Courtenay,

and traffic is re-routed to the Parkway and the older road while construction work

continues to the north. Cment vehicdar flow on the Parkway is consequeritly higher than

is expected when the inland route becomes operational in the fa11 of 2001. Current annual

average daily traffic on the Parkway is approximately 7000 vehicles (J. Robertson, British

Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways, pers. comm.).

A 1995 study by the engineering group, Reid-Crowther, identified three potential routes

for the proposed 'Courtenay Connecter', as the Parkway was then known. The 17th Street

option was detennined to be unsuitable due to capacity constraints. The Anfield Road

option was detennined to be unsuitable due to social and biophysical considerations

(Guimond, 1995). At the completion of consultations with various government agencies,

local native bands, and members of The Millard / Piercy Creek Watershed Stewards

Society, it was concluded that the 29th Street option would least impact the rural lifestyle

which was so highly valued by area residents (Ellefson, 1997). This option was also seen

to protect residential property values and public safety. A less attractive feature was the

fact that alignments of the 29th street route would bisect the Piercy Creek 1 Millard Creek

watershed.

A Reid-Crowther survey showed that the loss of agricultural land to new road construction

in the vicinity of the Percy Creek Wetland was publicly unacceptable. Another study

concluded that 87.5% of surveyed residents thought that if the Piercy Creek drainage was

assesseci as valuable habitat, it should be given a wide berth (Manley, i996). These

surveys, in conjunction with cost considerations and other factors, were cited in a decision

to avoid adjacent agricultural lands (regulated under land-use covenants of the British

Columbia Agricultural Land Reserve) and place the road closer to the Piercy Creek

Wetland. Permits fiom Federal and Provincial governent agencies were required to

approve road placement decisions.

The Piercy Creek Wetland is a mosaic of small ephemeral pools and water-filled

depressions clustered around a larger permanent pond that itself is held by a series of

abandoned beaver dams. There was no observed evidence of beaver activity during the

study period. In spite of this, the dams rernained relatively impervious and showed no

signs of breaching. Trap-killed beaver were observed being taken fiom the pond in

February of 1997 (Manley, 1997). Trapping since that time may be responsible for an

apparent loss of a resident beaver population.

The main pond is no more than a few feet deep during annual high water periods, and the

surface area fluctuates seasonally fiom approximately 1 hectare to 1.5 hectares. The Creek

gradient is low, and silt flats and berms are cornmon. The Creek accepts storm water runoff

fiom ditches immediately south of the wetland on Arden Road. Both Piercy Creek and its

downstream tributary, Millard Creek, have low or non-existent water flows during dry

seasons.

A n=ly continuous wooded comdor buffers the creek for most of its lower course.

Privately owned agicultural lands straddle the lower course, and wooded areas and

residential neighbourhoods border these (Figure 1). Contiguous woodlands with an area of

about 15 hectares south-west of the Piercy Creek Bridge surround the Piercy pond. A 100-

metre strip of woodland separates the Piercy pond fiom the Parlcway right-of-way. A

sirnilar distance separates the pond fiom residential lots to the west. Many of the standing

trees surrounding the pond are dead, likely a result of seasonal flooding and waterlogged

tree roots.

3.1.1 Piercy Creek Wetland Mitigation Strategies

Incorporated into the Comox Valley Parkway plans were strategies designed to mitigate

the anticipated negative impacts the road would bring to bear on the wetland. These

included the construction of fish-rearing channels for Coho salmon and Cutthroat trout

known to over-winter in the Piercy Creek 1 Millard Creek watersheds. Additional

enhancernents included placements of spawning grave1 and weirs, rockwork, root wads,

riparian planting, constructed ponds, and the incorporation of bridge features that allow

unimpeded movement of wildlife dong the wooded comdor that buffers the creek. The

habitat rernediation works constructed by MoTH at Piercy Creek exceeded

recomrnendations made by Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

In a pre-construction monitoring project north of Piercy Creek at Keddy Swamp, large

migrations of juvenile Western Toads (Bufo boreas) were reported to have occurred during

the summer months of 1999 and ZOO0 (Bernard, 2000). Mortality is probable in the event

that future migration pathways at this site cross road surfaces. Consulting biologists have

identified this potential and VMP officiais have ailocated funds toward mitigative

solutions at this location.

The Inland Vancouver Island Highway, when completed, will cross approximately 150

fish-bearing streams. A range of engneered structures other than CSP culverts is used to

protect these streams and their adjacent riparian zones. Under favourable conditions these

structures also provide increased opportunities for amphibians and small marnmals to

move within their habitats. Structures include bridges, multiplate arches, and concrete box

cuiverts. The former British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parksl

Fisheries and Oceans Canada, in the joint publication, Land Development Guidelines for

the Protection of Aquatic Habitat, show examples of culvert types comrnonly utilised

dong the Inland Vancouver Island Highway for fish protection (Figure 6).

At the highway design stage, the Piercy Creek Wetland was identified as a logical location

for dry culverts. The installation of culverts was considered to be a practical way to

Figure 6: Stream crossing structures (British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks 1 Fishenes and Oceans Canada)

N P E OF STRUCTURE

BRIDGE

- -

OPEN BOTTOM CULVERT

BOX CULVERT

PIPE ARCH CULVERT

STACKED CULVERTS

ROUND CULVERT

increase the permeability of the Comox Parkway at Piercy Creek, and to preserve the

ability of small mammals and amphibians to move between wetter habitat west of the

Parkway and higher ground to the es t . Vancouver Island Highwôy Project representatives

complied with consulting biologists D.A. Blood and Associates rewmmendations

regarding culvert specifications and placement (M. Kent, pers. comm.).

During road construction in the spring of 2000 a total of twelve dry CSP culverts were

placed at fi@ metre intervals at Piercy Creek (Figure 7). Eight of these culverts lie south

of the Piercy Creek Bridge and are set in grave1 ballast at various elevations; six of the

eight study culverts are placed above grade (Figure 8b and Figure 9). Two culverts nearest

Piercy Creek were placed at grade. These culverts wntained a silty soi1 substrate that was

wet, or moist, during the study period.

The eight culverts south of the Piercy Creek Bridge were monitored for amphibian and

small marnmal presence. Al1 culverts are 34 to 36 metres in lena& with a diameter of 1000

rnillimetres. Al1 conform to the Canadian Standards Association standard CANICSA

G40 1, and are constmcted of hot-dipped, zinc-galvanized, steel pipe. They are typical of

CSP culverts used in many road jurisdictions in Canada

19

Figure 7: Piercy Creek dry culvert locations (British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways 1 modified drawing)

Figure 8a and Sb: Culvert detail and Piercy Creek elevations

- -1- -' Depth = 12.7 mm ', .-- A* . Radius of ~urvature~ .

-L - - - T

=17.4625mm ' * TL Amtec

Culvert # 6 Culvert #1

E w C'Y

E € E € E O E s

O Y

O O O O O O O a

O O 7 z 7

7

X X 2

X X

€ E O

i w i w z w C9 C'Y C'Y 2

a .- a

Figure 9: Wildlife culvert (British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways drawing)

3.2 Hamilton Marsh

The 35-hectare Hamilton Marsh is entirely encircled by roads. Annual average daily traflic

on Highway 4 to the east of the marsh is about 3600 vehicles (J. Robertson, British

Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways, pers. comm.). Annual average daily

traffic on Highway 4A (Hill ia Road) to the no& is estimated to be less than 50 vehicles

per day. A 1996 management plan documented seven species of amphibians and eleven

species of small mammals in the vicinity of Hamilton Marsh (J-C. Lee et. al, 1996).

Beginning in late May of 1996 a count of road-killed amphibians was conducted on newly

opened Highway 4 (Figure 4b, location 2). Over a ten-month period 3663 amphibian

mortalities were recorded on a 550 metre section of the highway, with 1675 mortalities

recorded for March and April alone (Blood, 2000). The total morîality number was

comprised of species including Rough-skinned Newts (T. granulosa) [89%]), Pacific Tree

Frogs Wyla regilla) [3%] and Red-leged Frogs (Rana aurora) [<1%]. The remaining

species could not be identified.

Because amphibians have limited locomotory ability, with road crossings sometimes

requiring hours, even low traffic volumes will produce high mortality. The pst-breeding

outbound migration may be more interspersed than the earlier inbound migration due to a

reduced urgency to breed (J. Materi, pers. cornrn.).

At least three Canadian studies document the morîality of amphibians solely attributable to

vehicles. Highway 59 in Ontario exhibited a cumulative sp~g-through-fall amphibian kill

rate of 30,000 individuals on a 3.6 kilometre section over four years (AshIey and

Robinson, 1996). Fahrig et al. (1 994) show a negative correlation between anurans and

road traffic as the number of anurans in the study area decreased with increasing traffic

density. A 1997 Vancouver Island study documented a kill rate of 3663 amphibians over a

545-metre section of road over a ten-month period (Blood, 2000).

The two CSP cross-drainage culverts examined in the preceding study were monitored for

amphibian and small mammal presence (Fiame 44 location 2, and Figure 10). The culverts

are 29 and 34 metres long, respectively, and 600 millirnetres in diameter. Since the

Hamilton Marsh culverts are drainage structures they are placed at a lower elevation in the

Figure I O : Hamilton Marsh culvert locations (British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways 1 modified drawing)

road ballast, relative to grade, than the dry culverts at Piercy Creek. Their culvert floors

were at, or below, high water levels during the four-month study period and often held

standing water. Detritus (or tailwater) pits at the culvert ends were water-filled over this

time. Track-plates were installed in the south end of the East culvert, and in the north end

of the West culvert, since these ends were most accessible to monitoring activities. The

average distance fiom the culverts to Hamilton Marsh is 400 metres.

3.3 Previous Field Obsenrations of Amphibians and Small Marnmals

Pnor to this study, intensive inventories of amphibians and small mamrnals were not

completed at the Piercy Creek Wetland. However, amphibians, river otter, and beaver were

observed in the wetland during a biophysical assessments conducted between January and

March 1997 (Manley, 1997). A more complete 1979 inventory of wildlife in the p a t e r

Comox Valley observed cougar, black bear, deer, river otter, beaver, elk, and rare and

endangered mammals, such as the Vancouver Island marmot, Vancouver Island Water

Shrew, wolvenne, and Short-tailed Weasel (Moms et al., 1979).

During the course of this study the distinctive croak of the Pacific Tree Frog was re,darly

heard at Piercy Creek and amphibian egg masses were observed in the main pond. These

observations are consistent with lists of faunal species that the Sensitive Ecosystems

Inventory working group has compiled for Eastern Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands

(Ward ez al., 1998). In a follow-up inventory survey of a constmcted aquatic pond located

less than a kilomeire fiom the Piercy Creek Wetland biologists observed three species of

amphibians and several small mamrnal species (Materi and Blood, 1999).

Many species of fiogs, toads, and salamanders migrate to and fiom aquatic breeding sites

toward foraging and wintering grounds. Twitty et al. (1967) recount instances of the Red-

bellied Newt migrating several hundred yards, and in some cases several miles, to their

nascent ponds. Heusser (1 960) documents cases of amphibians retuming to breeding ponds

many years after the site has been destroyed by landfills. A study of Spotted Salamanders

found that these amphibians moved in a linear direction an average of 150 metres fiom the

pond, and that movement was unaffected by either the presence or absence of vegetation,

or by topography (Douglas and Munroe, 198 1). Gibbs, in a 1998 study, suggests that

movement patterns of woodland amphibians do not occur independently of landscape

features.

Very little is known about populations or historic migration patterns of pond-breeding

amphibians in British Columbia wetlands. Oliver and McCurdy (1 979, in a study at

Blinkhorn Lake near Victoria, observed that adult female Roggh-skinned Newts embark on

two annual migrations; one in springtime toward breeding ponds, and another in winter

toward terrestrial wintering sites. The study suggests that male newts are primarily aquatic.

3.4 Tested Variables and Methodology

The comparative trials investigated four variables suspected to affect amphibian behaviour

near CSP culverts. Many of the variables associated with culverts are dissimilar between

locations. For instance, the placement of vegetation at the culvert inlet is unlikely to be

shared between culverts. Some variables are common to al1 culverts. Therefore, it was felt

prudent to resûict an examination of variables to those that exist between the culvert inlet

and the culvert outlet, in other words, the culvert proper. Light, wetness, openness, and

substrate variables were seen as having the greatest potential to distinguish CSP culvert

design features that encourage amphibian and small mammal use, independent of site

influences.

It was assumed that Rough-skinned Newts (i7granuZosa) prefer culverts according to

variations in noisture, light, openness, and substrate type. It was further assumed that

amphibian species other than T.,oranulosa would exhibit similar preferences under similar

conditions. The Rough-skinned Newt was chosen for the comparative trials due to its

availability, for its habit of migrating relatively long distances, and for its range. The

relative abundance of the Rough-skinned Newt in coastd British Columbia also allows for

the ready gathering of large samples.

The CSP culverts selected for the comparative trials are typical of those used throu&out

British Columbia, and are similar to the 10 culverts investigated in the field portion of the

study. The manufacturing process consists of rolling zinc-galvanized steel sheet into spiral

mils that are joined by a running seam.

Culverts of 300-millimetre diameter were chosen for ai1 trials, except those associated with

the openness variable. The 'openness' trial utilized culverts of 300,400, and 500

millimetres in diameter. The pitch and depth of comgations of al1 culverts are typical for

culverts under 2000 millimetres in diameter (Figure 8a).

The eight study culverts situated at the Comox Valley ParLway average 35 metres in

length and are 1000 millimetres in diameter. These measurernents produce a length to

aperture ratio of 58. The 300-millimetre diameter culverts used in the triais approach the

length-to-aperture ratio of the Piercy Creek and Hamilton Marsh culverts, however,

smailer diameter (or longer) culverts would have been better suited. Ideally, trial culverts

would have been 20 feet long, but space and handling constraints restricted culvert length

to 1 O-foot sections.

The trials were conducted outdoors during Septaber, October, and November. Variations

in weather conditions were not formally evaluated in the context of trial results. Trials

were suspended during weather extremes, such as penods of frost, hi& temperature, or

storms. A climatological report for the local area is included in Appendix C, Section 4.

The samples consisted of s e v e n ~ newts, which were contained in a holding tank. The

newts were collected in Gee traps (Figure 1 ld) from an aquatic pond constructed by VIHP

at the Big Qualicum River 1 Inland Vancouver Island Hi&way crossing. The care and

handling of newts conforrned to guidelines published in Live Animal Capture and

Handling Guidelines for WiId Mammals, Birds, Amphibians & Reptiles Guidelines, by

British Columbia's Resources Inventory Branch [RIB] (1 998) and the National Research

Council, Washington, (Nace et al., 1996).

Al1 trials consisted of three replicates, except the substrate trial, which consisted of five

replicates. Substrates were thought to be important for their potential to buffer amphibians

from undulating, and possibly thermally unsiable interior surfaces. Hence, this variable

received somewhat more attention than did others.

Each replicate examined ten newts that had not been part of the imrnediately preceding

replicate to avoid possible habitation affects. A series of three culverts were mounted

parallel to each other on a test bed. A holding pen was constructed at the inlet to the

culverts. The holding pen was not partitioned and provided common access to al1 three

culverts. Individual trap pens were located at the outlet of each culvert (Figure 1 l g and

Figure 12).

Figure lla-h: Trial culvert photos

Figure 12: Test bed plan

In initial test trials, the holding pen was fitted with a layer of sphagnum moss. The newts

were content to bury themselves in the moss and made no attempt to move through the

culverts. For recorded trials, the moss was removed, and with the loss of protective cover

the newts were motivated to move through the culverts more readily. The holding pen was

occasionally wetted. A garden sprinkler was positioned at the culvert outlets and qua i

portions of pelletised food were placed on the si11 of each culvert outlet. With these

inducements, the newts traversed the culverts in two or three days. The actual tirne that

newts remained in the culverts varied fiom several minutes to severai hours.

Newts placed in the holding pen were barred imrnediate access to the culverts. On the

assurnption that the newts wodd better acclimatise themseIves to the pen, and investigate

potential avenues of escape, a %" mesh screen temporarily blocked access to the culverts.

Vigilance was necessary to prevent newt flight; on one occasion a forgotten garden hose in

the holding tank served as a ladder to fieedom and severai newts made good their escape.

Newts were nui through al1 culverts to ensure equivalent olfactory clues in each of the

culverts, should this be a factor in behaviour modification. The trials investigated the

following four variables:

Wetness

Two of three culverts remained dry while the third was flushed with a discreetly placed

drip feed that supplied approximately 10 litres of water per hour over the term of the

trial. At this rate of flow, water movement in the culvert was not visibly discemible.

Light

A culvert was horizontally sectioned (Figure 12b). A clear polyethylene cover wris

attached to ensure that the interior of the cdvert was protected fiom rain. A second

culvert remained untreated.

ûpenness

Two culverts, one measuring 300mm, and another measuring 500mm were compared.

Both culverts were 10 fi. in lena@.

4. Substrates

Substrates are not normally applied to the interiors of CSP culverts. It is possible that

the absence of substrate materials inhibit their use by amphibians. but nothing in the

literature could be found to confirm this. The "coated" substrate alluded to in the trial

tables was a poured-in-place polymer cernent. This substrate was scrubbed and flushed

with fiesh water upon hardening, but the surface was not analysed for residual

chemicals. The soi1 used in the trial was a dry, reddish, sand 1 clay mixture of fine to

moderate texture. The trial was comprised of five replicates, and for two of the five

replicates the order of the culverts was altemated on the test bed.

3.5 Options for Field Data Collection

Several culvert-monitorins techniques were evaluated for their suitability to provide a

reliable record of animal activity within the wetland culverts. Methods for monitoring the

movements of amphibians were referenced to methods described by Heyer et al. (1994).

Initially, pit-fa11 traps and drift fences were installed at Piercy Creek to capture amphibians

as they esited the culverts. Although this type of trap can produce good results in certain

applications, pit-faIl traps were not a sood choice at this particular site. The traps were

installed in early spring and high water levels at that time of year fiequently flooded the

traps and enabled escape. Additionally, a primary objective of the study was to record both

amphibians and small mammals simultaneously, something pit-fall traps alone could not

do. A combination of pit-fa11 traps and photo surveillance equipment was concluded to be

too comples to deploy and monitor, and defeated a desire to record animal movements

covertly.

Motion-activated cameras appeared at the outset to offer good potential. However, while

their motion sensors have proven suitable for recording the passase of small marnmals they

were unsatisfactory for capturing the movement of amphibians, in addition to any

qualitative assessment of usage patterns by different species. In tests, srnaIl and often slow-

moving amphibians did not trisser the sensors with consistency.

32

A photo surveillance system incorporating an i n h e d emitter and receiver, comrnonly

called a 'break beam trail monitor', could have been modified to record amphibians and

small mammals. However, the threat of equipment thefi or vandalism at a location like

Piercy Creek made this option unattractive, as did cost.

Zielinski and Kucera (1 995) describe three devices for recording animal tracks. Two of the

devices employ a sooted duminum plate and a piece of contact paper (papa with a taciq

adhesive on one side) placed sticky-side up. When animals walk on the plate, their feet

pick up soot, which in tuni is deposited on the contact paper, leaving a clear black image

on a white background (RB, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,

1998).

Fowler and Golightly (1 994) recorded many species on track-plates, including Marten

(Martes Americana), Emine (Mustela erminea anguinae), and Long-tailed Weasel

(Mustelaidae_fienata). These devices relied on animals to blot soot Eom the plates with

their feet, exposing the aluminum substrate, thereby forming the print image. Mowat et ai.

(2000) used a combination of track-plates and rernote cameras to detect Marten and Short-

tailed Weasels in four Briush Columbia forest types.

Tems such as track, print, and plate, take on different meanings according to the context in

which they are used. For the purposes of this study the following definitions apply:

print: the footprint, or other mark, produced by mammals, insects, birds, reptiles,

or amphibians

w: a number (or series) of prints.

plate: a device upon which prints and îracks are recorded

photo print: a paper or digital record

image: photopph, illustration, rendering, reproduction, or likeness

Track-plates used in this study were expected to meet several performance criteria

Primary among these were ease of handling, durability, cost, and the ability of the plate to

capture and display prints. Aluminum sheeting of 0.05 inch thickness was selected for the

task, and a total of twenty plates were cut to size. Plates deployed at Hamilton Marsh

measured 30 centimetres by 75 centimetres, while those used at Piercy Creek measured 45

centimetres by 75 centimetres. These sizes correspond to the 600-millimetre diameter

culverts found at Hamilton Marsh and the 1000-millimetre culverts at the Comox Valley

Parkway.

3.5.2 Plate Preparation for Field Use

Proper plate preparation is essential, and reasonably straightforward. It is important that

the plate surface is clean and dry before applying soot. The plates are air-dned before

sooting and transport to the site. It is good practice to become accustomed to handling

plates by their edges. Track-bearing plates were transported in a mid-sized car by carefully

arranging them on seats and in the trunk. A better option for transporting sooted plates

would be a custom built rack. Sooted plates were cleaned with water and soapy steel-wool

pads.

The plate-sooting process partially followed procedures documented by Zielinski and

Kucera in their 1 995 publication American Marten, Fisher, Lynx and Wolverine: Survey

Methods for Their Detection. An acetylene 'B' cylinder and a plumbers torch were used due

to their ease of portability and reasonable cost (Figure 13c).

Caution must be exercised to ensure that sooting takes place in a well-ventilated space,

preferably outdoors, and that appropriate safety precautions are followed to prevent

exposure to noxious gases. It is important to recognize that although acetylene gas is

relatively non-volatile, approved procedures for handling and transporting bottled gas must

be followed. Safety brochures that outline these procedures are available at al1 bottled gas

outlets.

Figure 1 la-c: Field equipment and installed plate

Acetylene to air mixture ratios must be adjusted to produce a thick black smoke; too much

air will produce sootless smoke, not enough will produce an excessively rich smoke that

spits fibrous carbon deposits ont0 the plate. A torch fitted with a brazing tip produces

suitable results, although a flat tip may be more suited to the task. The torch is moved back

and forth across the vertical plate surface to ensure an even and dense coating of soot. A 'B'

tank of acetylene gas will soot in excess of 100 plates of the size used in the study-Plate

sooting in bright sunlight may produce poor results. Bright light can give the appearance of

evenly applied soot, but lower light levels ofien reveal a thin and patchy application.

The original plan called for inserting and rernoving plates in a single operation. However,

early difficulties in the plate-sooting process, and ongoing adjustments to that process,

dictated that plates be deployed and retrieved on separate dates. Plates were sooted at the

roadside. This required relatively dry weaeher or careful positioning of the plates to prevent

small raindrops fiom spotting the plate surface as it was being sooted. Wind cirafts created

by passing transport trucks and high road noise became persistent annoyances during the

recording period. Plates were laid between one and two metres into the culvert. The small

chord of open space that was created beneath the plate while it was supported in the culvert

was plugged with small Stones or mud; the choice of material depending on whether or not

the culvert was likely to cany water. Reference numbers and dates were scribed into the

corner soot of each plate as it was removed. This important step assigned each plate an

instant and unique identity- Track-plates were photographed in natural light using 35-

millimetre hi&-resolution black and white film. Slow speed film (25 ASA) required using

slow shutter speeds and the use of a carnera ûipod. Film was processed at a professional

photo lab and printed on 8"x 10" paper. A total of 72 plates were photographed; 63 at

Piercy Creek and 9 at Hamilton Marsh. A builder's d e r was placed beneath each track-

plate and simuitaneously photographed to provide scale. A 50mm lens of good optical

quality was used to photograph al1 plates and a close-up lens was used to photograph print

details. A photo record is included with this report (Appendix C).

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 Culvert Triais Preferences for Newts

The culvert preference trials were evaluated using a null hypothesis (Ho) that an equal

number of newts would pass through culverts of different configuration indicating no

particular preference. To determine whether the null hypothesis was accepted or rejected,

the collected data was submitted to a Chi-squared (y) goodness-of-fit test. Chi-squared

values were compared to a distribution table with the appropriate degrees of fieedom.

3 = (obsenred -expected) 2

expected

The 'New untreated culvert' trial consisted of three new untreated culverts of the sarne

diameter. The objective of the trial was to determine if culvert preference was influenced

by unknown factors, such as the orientation of the culverts in the test bed, or navigational

cues. No statistically significant preference was shown for the left, right, or centre, culvert

(Table 1). The 'New untreated culvert' trial results suggest that preferences were not

influenced to a significant degree by factors associated with the test-bed design, or its

orientation. It was observed that for this trial, and those that followed, that the corrugated

surface of the culverts did not irnpede newt locomotion.

Table 1 : New untreated culvert

New unMed culvert trial Test culvert#

4.1.1 Wetness Trial

On land, amphibians usually lose body water at a high rate by evaporation through the

skin. This water loss can usually be replaced through absorption fiom the atmosphere, or

moist places in the landscape. In an experiment conducted in 1945, Stebbins observed that

a desiccated terrestrial salamander increased its body weight nearly 40% in 24 hours afier

being placed on a wetted surface. Brekke et al. (1 991) described the toad 'seat patch' that

acts like a blotter, and the wrinkles and furrows of toads and salamanders that draw water

up into the skin by capillary action. Stebbins and Cohen (1 995) describe various

physiological mechanisms and landscape features that allow amphibians to maintain body

moisture at healthy IeveIs.

Newts did not show a preference for the wet culvert (Table 2). There are factors, however,

that should be taken into account before reaching conclusions about the 'wetness' trial

results. Since the trial newts were taken directly fiom a water-filled tank and transferred to

a holding Pen, which too was wet, the likelihood that the trial newts were desiccated is

rernote. A wet culvert may have had no special appeal to water-bloated newts. Desiccated

newts, on the other hand, may show preferences for culverts exhibiting damp or wet

interiors.

Stebbins and Cohen (1995) conclude that amphibians are more often threatened by

desiccation than by excessive hydration. They explain that water moves through the skin

by osmosis, moving fiom a region of low concentration of solute (dissolved salts etc.) to

one of higher concentration. In experirnents with the Red-spotted Toad, Brekke et al.

(1991) and Hoff and Hillyard (1993) were able to demonstrate the toads' aversion to water

containing urea or sodium chlonde at unfavourable levels, thus consening body water. If

amphibians are more likely to be exposed to p a t e r health risks fiom desiccation than

fkom excessive absorption of water, it seems likely that moist culverts would be preferable

in locations where amphibians are expected to experience deficits in body water fiom time

to time. Water found within culverts that are accessible to amphibians should also contain

chernical constituents that are not a threat to their health. Freda (1990, and 1991), Home

and Dunson (1995), and Freda et al. (1990) examine these constituents.

Table 2: Wetness trial

Dry 1 wet culvert trial

Replicate 1

Replicate 2 Oct.27

Replicate 3

Total

Test culvert # C l C2 C3 wet dry dry

n.s.= not significant; ' (~~0.05) ; " = (pcO.01); " = (pcO.001)

4.1.2 Light and Opemess Trials

A horizontally sectioned culvert permitted the culvert floor to receive full ambient light.

This is more light than any in-ground culvert would receive. Contrary to what might be

expected, the newts prefmed an unsectioned, and darker, culvert by a statistically

signifiant degree. The reasons that the sectioned culvert was not prefmed are not

obvious. The polyethylene sheet, which served as the cuivert roof, may have been invisible

to predator-wary newts, whereas the closed culvert may have afforded some semblance of

protection. However, it is difficult to determine if preference was not influenced to some

degree by the physical differences between culverts.

openness of a culvert is strongly correlated to the amount of light that penetrates the

culvert interior. Toad tunnel manufacturer AC0 Polymer Products promotes well-lit tunnel

interiors in its sales literature. Jackson and Tyning (1 989), in reference to Spotted

Salamanders and two comrnercially manufactured toad tunnels, note that once light is

increased salamanders traverse culverts in less time. Dexel(1989) States:

"On the one hand it was observed that large tunnels (diameter lm with a

length of 15 m) were used by a larger proportion of the toads recorded in

the vicinity of each particular tunnel than those tunnels with relatively small

diameters. On the other hand, it was noticeable that even tunnels with a

diameter of only 30 cm over a length of 15m were not necessarily avoided".

Openness may function completely independent of the amount of light entering the

culvert interior. In the study trials, and possibly in previously documented research,

increased openness resulted in increased light penetration to the culvert interior. It

is not possible to conclude though whether preference is attributable solely to an

increase in the physical dimensions of the culvert, to a corresponding increase in

interior light, or a combination of both factors. It is not clear if the addition of light

to the trial culvert, and an apparent lack of protective cover, may have made the

darker culvert more attractive to the newts. Taken together, the light and openness

trials suggest that there may be upper preference lirriits to one or both variables.

(Tables 3 and 4).

Table 3: Light trial

Light trial

rest Replicate

Replicate 1 Nov.12 N ov.13 Nov.14

Replicate 2 Nov.15 Nov.16


Total

A' 10.8

Test culvert # C l C2 C3

sectioned blocked

'Test replicate rejected due to water in culvert #7

n.s.= not significant; ' = ( ~ ~ 0 . 0 5 ) ; " = (pcO.07); "' = (p<0.001)

Table 4: Openness trial

Openness trial


Replicate 2 N ov.27 N ov.28 Nov.29

Replicate 3 Nov.30 Dec. 1

- -

Total

x2 2.1 2

Test culvert # C l C2 C3

500rnm.dia. 300rnm. Dia. blocked

,.S.= not significant; ' = (pcO.05); " = ( p ~ 0 . 0 1 ) ; "' = ( p ~ 0 . 0 0 1 )

4.13 Sabstrate Trial

The Vancouver Island Highway Project monitoring activities on North Vancouver Island at

Keddy Swamp compareci four dry CSP culverts of different diameters and substrates in

the, as yet, unpaved right-of-way (Bernard, 2000). The report documented no amphibian

movement in the single culvert containing no substrate and greater movement of the most

cornmon species ljuvenile Western Toad (Bufo boreas) and Red-legged Frog (Rana

aurora) through the three culverts that were treated with grave1 or soil substrates. Although

the culvert location, or other undetermined factors may have had some bearing on the

numbers of amphibians that passed through the culverts, the results suggest that these

amphibians preferred culverts with substrates.

No significant preference for any substrate by newts was observed during the substrate trial

in the present study (Table 5). In fact, the culvert which had no substrate applied to its

interior surface recorded highest use, although not significantly. It was observed that the

newts struggled on the soil substrate. Its dry, fine and crumbly texture did not pennit much

of a foothold, and the newts, unable to elevate their bodies from the surface, more or less

'swam' through the culverts. Substrates of this type in culverts of 30 metres or more in

lmgth would likely present a challenge to salamander species, and suggests that not al1

soils are suitable as substrates.

While the culvert with the polymer cernent floor provided the flattest and hardest walking

surface, it was also favoured the least, although not significantly so. It is possible that the

poly-cement substrate exuded chernicals or odours that repelled the newts, or that the

sandpaper-like surface of the substrate was unappealing. Regardless of the reasons that

newts chose the culverts they did, the substrate variable was felt to be of consequence and

worth closer examination.

The trials on culvert substrate used herein did not provide any clues about optimum culvert

design, possibly because the alternative substrates chosen (relatively coarse, dry soil or

freshly applied polymer cement) may have been equally unsuitable from a physiological

and behavioural perspective. Controlled trials such as these, however, allow for the

Table 5: Substrate trial

Su bstrate trial

Replicate 1 (R I ) Sept.23 Sept.24

Replicate 2

Replicate 3

Total (R1 +R2+R3)

Test culvert iC C l C2 C3

coated ba re soi1

soi1 coated bare

1 Total (R4) 1 4 1 5

Replicate 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 7

1 Total (R51

bare soi1 coated

Total (al1 replicates)

coated bare soi1

11 22 17 %2 3.66 df=2 n.s.

n.s.= not signficant; = ( ~ 4 . 0 5 ) ; " = (pcO.01); *** = (pc0.001)

minimisation of often-unknown confounding variation that occurs in a field setting.

The substrate trials did indicate that newts are capable of using new unlined culverts

constructed fiom zinc-galvanized steel. Also indicated was that individual newts used in

the trials did not exhibit any obvious signs of impaired motility or vigour based on direct

contact with the galvanized steel surface for periods of up to several hours. Longer-term

observations of more sensitive toxicological responses may provide a better understanding

of potential impacts to amphibians fiom the use of unmodified culverts as transit comdors.

Assuming that unmodified culverts are capable of being used by Rough-skinned Newts

(and possibly other amphibians) as transit comdors, it is a separate question whether

amendments to culvert design would further increase fiequency or use. Detailed evduation

of alternative substrate designs was beyond the scope of this study. Future investigations of

value might be on avoidance 1 preference for different coatings; varying degrees of

'curing' or leaching of substances fiom coatings pnor to the trials, and different soi1 types.

4.2 Track-plate Results

Wetiand track-plate data were collected over a four-month period fiom early July to late

October. The plates were placed concurrently in a total of ten culverts; two drainage

culverts near Hamilton Marsh and eight dry culverts at the Piercy Creek Wetland for

seven-day terms. This was repeated nine times over a four-month period for a total of 63

recording days.

Nearly al1 of the recovered plates showed small marnmal presence. Plate prints confïrm

that the study culverts were regularly used by several species, including Sirds and insects.

Piercy Creek cdvert $7 was flooded in 7 of 9 sets due to its proximity to the high water

mark. Plates fiom this culvert were mostly unreadable. Culverts #1 and iF3 were sirnilady

flooded, but only occasionally. Occurrences in these culverts did not deviate fiom those in

neighbouring dryer culverts to any signifiant degree.

4.2.1 Piercy Creek Occurrences

Regular visitors to the culverts included racoons, members of the weasel family, mice and

voles, occasionally birds and slugs, and several unidentified crawling and flying insects.

The most regular visitor to the culverts were members of the weasel family (32%) n= 50,

followed closely by mice, voles and shrews (31%) n= 48. Racoon pnnts appeared on I l %

of the track-bearing plates. Percentages are s h o w as total occurrences for individual

species relative to total occurrences for al1 species. Surnmaries of species occurrence are

provided in Tables 6 and 7.

No amphibians were recorded at either Piercy Creek or the Hamilton Marsh location. The

reasons that amphibian presence was not recorded in either location are not conclusive.

Few amphibians were observed in the highway corridors at either wetland during midday

visits throughout the study penod.

It is relevant to note that the study penod did not begin until early surnrner, following the

normal breeding migration period. The monitoring devices that were originally placed in

the field in Apnl failed to perform satisfactonly (see section 3.9, which resulted in delays

as altemate monitoring devices were investigated, constructed, and deployed,

It is possible that amphibians entered the culverts and retreated when they encountered the

track-plates. This seems unlikely, as it was observed in tests that amphibians had no

hesitation in crossing sooted plates placed in their path. It is also possible that amphibians

circumnavigated the plates, but since the plates were positioned in the culverts to minirnize

avoidance this too is unlikely; it would also indicate that amphibians traversing the culverts

successfully avoided the plates for 560 plateldays.

Perhaps it was the wrong time of year to expect to find amphibians in the culverts. But,

assuming that out-mi,gations and random travel of amphibians occurred in the highway

comdor between early July and late October (a reasonable assurnption) it is significant that

none of these rnovements were recorded on the culvert plates.

Table 6: Biercy creek occurrences and summaries

Ocairance of i n d i i u d species by da&

I

Average species oaxirance on sanple date mm

Plate Reb-eival date

Plate Mi date

Recorded plates (out of 8 possible aiiverts)

AI species ocairance on sapie date

Average species oaxirance on sampk date

Pacifie Tree Frog (Wa @la Baird and Girard)

Rougbskinned Newt (Taricha granulm Skib)

other Amphibii

First unidentiiied type (cent$& k U e lins&) 3

Second unidentifieci type (centipede Ibeeiie I I )

Thii unidentified type ( larger, snakeiike)

Other unidentified lyps 1

417

16

2.66

7123

17

2.43

8/11

17

212

8124

22

3.14

9i2

6 7 8 7 7 7 7 8 6

12

1.71

9114

22

3.14

9/28

19

2.71

1016

16

200

10126

14

2.33

Table 7: Piercy Creek average occurrences and percent occurrences

Average species o c a a a n c e o n ~ ~ mQ=k

If amphibians were present in the local area there is no conclusive evidence why they did

not cross the culverts plates. The reasons may be attributable to the presence of predators

in the culverts or to the possibility that amphibians entirely crossed under the Piercy Creek

Bridge or over the road surfaces. Sufficient food sources on the wetland side of the road

may have given amphibians no cause to wander. An inventory of amphibians in the

wetlands and highway comdors conducted prior to the study would have proven usefid in

deterrnining amphibian presence in proximity to the highway, and for narrowing the

potential reasons for apparent amphibian absence in the culverts.

Three groups of unidentified mcks appeared on the plates. These are called, for lack of

better names, The First Unident$ed Type (ceïîtipede / beetle / insect track), The Second

Unidentified Type (centipede / beetle / insect trach), and the Third UnidentiJed Type

(Zarger. snakelike). The first type of unidentified tracks is visible on 10% of plates. Print

examples of the first, second, and third unidentified types can be seen on plate photos 011

241 08,011 241 08 and 021 141 09 respectively (Appendix C: Section 1). Examples of

centipede tracks can be seen in Animal Trach (Murie, 1974).

4.2.2 Hamilton Marsh Occurrences

In the study Trafic-caused Mortality of Amphibians on Highway 4A, Vancouver Island.

and Potential Mitigation, Blood (2000) described drift fences which were erected to direct

amphibians to culverts in a 550-metre highway section. Thirty-metre fences, one on each

side of the culvert, and angled away fiom the highway, intercepted March and April

amphibian migrations towards Hamilton Marsh. Pitfall traps at the outboard ends of the 50

centimeire hi& fences capîured amphibians that attempted to detour around the fences and

culverts. One hundred and sixteen amphibians were captured in pit-fa11 traps at culverts 1: 2

and $3 (renmed Hamilton East and Hamilton West respectively in this study). Results

indicate that more amphibians attempted to go around the drift fences than through the

culverts. Sixty of the 72 amphibians which passed through the culverts were Rough-

skinned Newts. Based on kill rates on the highway, only 20% of expected migrants used

the culverts. Blood speculated that the drainage culverts .,: Hamilton Mmh were not

conducive to amphibian use due to their relatively small size and lack of interior light

(ibid. ).

Track-plates at the two drainage culverts at Hamilton Marsh did not record the variety or

number of species recorded at Piercy Creek. Nor were they expected to. Culvert ends at

Hamilton Marsh were cantilevered over water-filled pits and were not as accessible to

small marnmais, and particularly amphibians, as the dry culverts at Piercy Creek.

Recorded track-plate information at Hamilton Marsh was rendered unreadable in nine sets

out of eighteen sets due to flooding, or by racoons which dragged their wet pelts across the

plates. These plates are easily recognized in the photo record (Appendix C, Section 2,

Hamilton 02/ 09; East). Due to the proximity of water at this site, track-plates were not the

best choice of monitoring device for capturing the presence of the target species.

Racoons were fiequent visitors, as were mice, voles, and shrews. Several species that

appeared at the Piercy Creek site were not recorded at the Hamilton Marsh site. Species

occurrences can be seen in Table 8.

4.3 Optimized Plates

Wildlife monitoring protocols are described in publications of the Resources Inventory

Branch (M3), British Columbia Mi?istry of Enviroment, Lands, and Parks. These

p~blications provide species-specific monitoring strategies and lists of appropriate field

equipment for monitoring animal groups which include shrews, vole, mice and rats,

snakes, marten and weasel, plethodontid saiamanders, tailed fiogs and Pacific

Salamanders, pond-breeding amphibians and Painted Turtles, pikas and scurids, hares and

cottontails, and others. Recommended animal detection techniques range fiom scat

Table 8: Hamilton Marsh occurrences

Hamilton East - - - -

Ramon (Procyon lotor Linnaeus)

Weasel family (Mustelaidaej

Coitontail and Rabbit

Mice, Voles, Shrews

Winged insects

Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm)

Banana slugs (Ariolimax columbianus)

Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla Baird and Girard)

Rough-skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa Skilton)

Other Amphibia

First unidentified type (centipede ibeetie hnsect)

Second unidenüfied type (centipede lbeetle hnsect)

Third unidentified type ( larger, snakelike)

Other unidenîified types

Deposiîs

' = flooded or obliterated resuls

. . a . .

X X * . X * . . . .

Hamilton West

Ramon (Procyon lotor Linnaeus)

Weasel farnily (Musfelaidae)

Coitontail and Rabbit

Mice. Voles, Shrews

Winged insects


Banana slugs (Ariolimax columbianus)

Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla Baird and Girard)

Rough-skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa Skilton)

Other Amphibia

First unidentified type (centipede Ibeetie hnsect)

Second unidentified type (cenüpede lbeetle hnsect)

Third unidenîified type ( larger. snakelike)

Other unidentified types

Deposits

= dooded or obliferated resuls

examinations and aura1 and visual observations, to pitfall traps, live traps, b e l traps,

snap traps, radio telernetry, and automated cameras. Potentially, track-plates alone could

detect the occurrence of individuals in al1 these groups in highway applications. The

operative word here is 'potentially'.

D i ~ t i n ~ s h i n g animal species by the prints they leave behind has long been a task fi-aught

with difficulties. For instance, RIB publications and a 1998 report by Taylor and Raphael

for the California Department of Fish and Game (Taylor and Raphael, 1998) dlude to the

challenge of differentiating between the tracks of long and short-tailed weasels. A similar

challenge is found in differentiating between tracks of the largest individuals of

physidogically diminutive species and those of the smallest individuals of a related, but

larger species. Both of these problems surfaced in the study. In an attempt to address this

problem Zielinski and Truex (1 995) produced print schernatics (Fi,oure 12). These are

useful in identifjmg the prints of Marten and Fisher. Hd@emy and Biesiot (1986), in their

track identification keys, do not describe distinguishing track features for any of the

weasels found in North America (RIB, 1998).

The few existing identification references, such as the one used in this study, the Peterson

Field Guide Animal Tracks (Murie, 1974), do not allow sufficient taxonomie resolution for

most ecological studies. Therefore, it was felt prudent to assign such tracks to the broader

family group, Mustelaidae for instance, and thereby minimize the risk of incorrectly

identieng closely related species.

The plate photographs provide a sufficient level of detail for the general identification of

species. However, there are several ways that the accuracy of identieng and assigriing

pnnt images to a specific species can be enhanced. Acrylic plastic plate offers a distinct

advantage over plates cut fiom aluminum or similar materials. Translucent acrylic plates

can be backlit: a lighting technique that will, theoretically, improve the resolution and

overall quality of the track image. The use of camera lenses better suited to the task would

similarly improve image quality.

An improvement in the photo recording process could be realized by recording images

directly to a digital format, or by converting quality film images to digital formats. This

would permit irack images to be measured with a relatively high degree of precision, allow

Figure 12: Marten and Fisher print schematic (from Zielinski and Kucera 1995)

side-by-side comparisons of track images to track image keys (where available), and allow

for more efficient cataloguing and transfer of images to research participants and the

public. These images could potentially be linked fiom species inventory websites

maintained by the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks

~ttp//www.for.gov.bc.ca/ricPubs/teBioDiv/vert.vertebrate/index.h~~

Before the first sets of plates were deployed in the field it became apparent that available

track guidebooks contained few images of salamander and anuran prints. Without suitable

reference images for comparison purposes, the task of identifjing these types of amphibian

prints was not possible. The solution to this problem was to create image keys. Two

amphibians, the Rough-skimed Newt (T. granulosa) and the Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla

regilla) were deposited upon the surface of fieshly-sooted plates and their prints were

recorded to 8"x 10" photos (Appendix C: Section 3, photos a, b, d, and e). Both species of

amphibian were chosen for their likelihood of being present at Piercy Creek and Hamilton

Marsh. It was not expected that T. granulosa or H. regilla specimens recorded at either

location could be disiinguished fiom salamander or anuran species of similar morpholoa,

but it was anticipated that the keys would provide a clue as to whether taxonomie family

members were present.

The plates prepared for T. granulosa and H. regilla are examples of what might be

considered to be usefid keys. The fÎog and newt used to produce the key plate prints were

observed over a two-week period for lethargy or behaviour which deviated fiom the

sample nom, and which may have been triggered by contact with carbon soot. Neither

amphibian showed si= of undue stress over this period.

Track-pates are not a panacea for monitoring small animals and amphibians. They do,

however, offer some attractive advantages. Track-plates are relatively easy to deploy in the

field and require a minimum of set-up tirne. Plate arrays have the potential to capture

significant amounts of data over short periods. They are inexpensive, can be configured to

work in dl-weather conditions, are immune to breakdowns, and, importantly, can provide

permanent photo records. Track-plates also have the potential to circumscribe the routes

that amphibians and small mammals use. They can be used for demanding tasks, such as

monitoring movernents through highway median barriers and other constructs, or dong

riparian conidors.

One of the present failings of track-plates, as noted earlier, is in facilitating accurate

identification of closely related species. This has more to do with the lack of print

reference keys than in an inability of plates to provide highiy detailed and readable images.

During the process of interpreting the photo print images, several sets of snake-like tracks

could not be identified (Appendix C: Section 1,2 114 109, and Section 3, plate O). These

images were determined by a leading expert on British Columbia reptiles not to be snake

tracks (P. Gregory, pers. cornm.). It is possible that caterpillars or worms made the tracks,

but without track keys species identification could not be determined. Track keys of a few

of British Columbia's most cornmon snake species will be produced at a later date and

reported in subsequent publications.

For the most part, existing field @des do not permit reliable print identification between

members of the same species family. With a few notable exceptions, usefid keys for

identifjing small mammals, and particularly for identimg amphibians, are non-existent.

Skills for accurately identifjing small mammal tracks are known only to those intimately

familiar with the subject.

4.4 Metal Leaching from New Galvanized Culverts: Possible Implications for

Arnphibians

Several of the recovered plates at Piercy Creek were partially coated with crystdline

residues; thirteen of sixty-three plates displayed these deposits. In damp weather,

condensation fiom the culverts' interior surface was seen to drip ont0 the plates, and white

crusty deposits built up over time into crystalline ndges. (Appendix C: Section 3, plate r).

These deposits were not analysed for their chemical constiîuents.

The deposits that appeared on the Percy Creek track-plates prompted an investigation of

chemical releases fiom CSP cuiverts. A drip feed of tap water was passed through a new

zinc-plated CSP culvert at a rate of 10 litres per hour. After two days the drip was turned

off. The culvert floor was lightly wiped between two conugations with a finger and a

sample of pooled water was taken fiom this location. The amount of abrasion of the culvert

surface by using the hgertip might enhance metal releases to standing water, although

such abrasion is probably not atypical of what occurs when an animal crawls through a

culvert. The sample was analysed for metalloids at Analytical Services Ltd. in Vancouver.

This report can be seen in Appendix C: Section 5. Table 9 summarizes the analytical

results.

A simple evaluation of possible metal-induced risks to amphibians in new culverts was

canied out by comparing the analytical results for each analyte to the British Columbia

Approved Water Quality Guidelines. published by the Water Management Branch, British

Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks (Nagpal et al., 1998). There are no

British Columbia @delines developed specifically for amphibian protection. There are,

however, guidelines published for metal concentrations that are protective of fiesh water

aquatic life (British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks, Water

Management Branch, ~~://www.el~.orov.bc.ca~wat/ws/BCo;uidelines/). In the absence of

toxicity criteria that apply specifically to amphibians, the fieshwater aquatic life guidelines

serve as usefid points of reference.

The British Columbia Approved Water Quality Guidelines recommended maximum

aluminum concentration for protecting fkshwater aquatic life in water with a pH of greater

than 6.5 is .1 mgL per litre. Water officials with the Municipality of North Cowichan state

that the local aquifer, which was the water sample source, exhibits a pH balance that

resides between 6.4 and 6.8, and maximum concentrations of <. 01 mg& of aluminum,

.O48 mgL of copper, and -053 mgL of zinc (T. Todd, Assistant Operations Manager,

District of North Cowichan, Duncan; R. Billings, Manager, Vancouver Island Trout

Hatchery, Duncan, pers. comm.).

Table 9: Qetected rnetals

-- --

Detected met& in culvert water

Hardness CaC03

Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium

Bomn Cadmium Calcium Chmmium Cobalt

Copper lron Lead Magnesium Manganese

Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Silver

Sodium Thallium Uranium Zinc

Source: Analpic Service Laboraroj

MELP*

O. 1 mgllitre

2 PSIL

0.06 mgllitre

1.4 mgllitre

2.0 mgllitre

7.5 pglL

*MELP recommend~ guidelines for freshwter aquatic 1% See 4.4

The concentration of aluminum in the sample fiom the culvert was 13.4 mg/L. This

concentration is 134 times greater than the above-recornmended concentration (Table 9).

Zinc availability, and hence its toxicity in the aquatic environment, c m be influenced by

many factors, including water hardness. British Columbia Approved Water Qualis,

Guidelines for the protection of fieshwater aquatic life fiom chronic effects recornmend

that the maximum concentration of total zinc should not exceed concentrations of 33 pgL

when water hardness is less than, or equal to, 90 mg/L of CaC03. The water sample

contained less than 90 mg1L of CaCO;. The concentration of zinc in the sample was 934

mgL; approximately 28,000 times greater than the above-recornmended concentration. As

shown in TabIe 9, the British Columbia aquatic life guidelines were exceeded in the culvert

water s a q l e for aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc.

After compiling more than 250 references on the effects of toxicants on amphibians

Harnfenist et al. (1 989) stated that amphibians are particularly sensitive to metals and

acidification.

Metal levels detected in the trial culvert may be attributable to the newness of the plating

and accelerated rates of metal leaching, or to a section of the plating which was not

representative of the cuivert as a whole. The metal concentrations that were found in water

in the trial culvert rnight not be representative of metal concentrations found within in situ

zinc-plated CSP road culverts. This can only be determined through further testing.

5.0 Implications and Reconrimendations

5.1 Predation

Broad ranges of opinion are expressed in the many studies devoted to linear developments

and habitat hgmentation. Some of these studies recornmend 'doing nothing' to enhance

the ability of faunal species to traverse linear inhtnictures, but instead recornmend the

construction of compensatory habitat.. . man-made wetlands. Others promote sophisticated

crossing structures, such as tunnel and fence systems, and document their success.

Collectively, these strategies attempt to modifj animal behavior in accordance with human

perceptions (which are ofien conflicting) of what the animals' needs are, and how those

needs are best served. The concept of crossing structures dedicated to amphibian and small

m a m a l use may in some cases fall short of their anticipated benefits. Kelly Geer of the

US Fish and Wildlife Service States:

"If avoidance is not an option, then it may be better to create new breeding habitat

on the same side of the road (or other barrier) as the upiand habitzt; but this has a

whole new set of issues and it's success is still being heavily debated (and this can

also be very costly). NOW, if you already have the barrier, so avoidance isn't a

possibility, then considering wetland creation or tunnels may be the way to go" (K.

Geer, with permission, 2000).

The needs of faunal species and the methods of compensating for the 'barrier effect' remain

complex topics for discussion. Many of the sentiments expressed by Pocilucky in 1989

regarding amphibians and tunnels are pertinent today. He stated:

"So far, in spite of a few positive examples (Dexel and Kneitz, 1987) the

number of non-fùnctioning tunnel systems predominate. But apart fiom

Stoltz and Podlucky's work (1983) there is no comprehensive discussion of

this. The reasons for lack of acceptance by the amphibians lie in the use of

unsuitable tunnel pipes, inadequate directing systems and in the lack of

prior planning of studies of the migrating species, the size of populations

and their migratory plans.. . Question upon question. Too many open

questions and the hi& risks involved in the operation of a protective

measure of this kind, not to mention the cost, fnghten us away fiom

demands that are too stringent altogether" (Podlucky, 1989).

While dry CSP culverts and similar structures may offer advantages as crossing comdors

for some species, such as mice, vole, and racoons, there are a number of unanswered

questions that cast doubt on their overall suitabiliv for a wider range of amphibian and

small marnmal species. Predation may not have been a factor in influencing species

occurrences at either Piercy Creek or Hamilton Marsh. However, the regular appearance of

weasels and racoons, and occasionally crows in the culverts does not make this argument

convincing. Neither does the degree of intimacy that predator and prey share in a culvert.

In natural habitats, do prey willingly cross the paths of predators, or as is required in

culverts, follow them? What are the odds for prey to escape predators in a culvert?

In response to questions about predation, Forman (1 998a) quoted the observations of

several unnamed researchers. The researchers reportedly stated that:

"Probably a few hundred amphibian tunnels are used annually by tens of

thousands of arnphibians (presumably al1 predators). Only one sentence was

located mentioning predation.. . Newts and juvenile anurans fed on by

shrews in Switzerland, apparently a minor effect where numerous animals

crossed. A British study of drift fences near a pond (no crossing structure)

reported predation on common toads by brown rats".

"Many of the crossing structures (e-g., wildlife tunnels, underpasses,

overpasses) are targeted for and used by predators, including bear species,

wolves, coyotes, foxes, cougar, and Florida panther".

"Clearly, though, research studies are s w c e and needed".

These observations demonstrate that conclusions about predator 1 prey encounters at

crossing structures Vary between sites, and that conclusions about predation can not be

universally applied.

For dernonstration purposes it can be shown that for the study species the absence of a

linear infiastructure represents a crossing opportunity of 100 %. A 100cm CSP dry culvert

presents to approaching animals an entrance width of about 40crn. Assuming that culverts

are placed at fi@ metre intervals, as they are at Piercy Creek, 9 culverts spread over a

distance of 400111 present a combined entrance width of 360 cm. This represents a crossing

opportunity to approaching animals of 0.9 %. A bottomless arch, or other bridging

structure (Figure 19, with a span of 4 metres, which is placed at 50 metre intervals

represents a crossing opportunity of 9.0 %, while an elevated road (a costly option)

represents nearly unrestricted opportunities for crossing.

If, as the reviewed literature suggests, habitat hgrnentation and the barrier effects of linear

infi-astructures are threats to faunal species that live in proximity to them, then it is logical

that short of avoidance, the best mitigative strategies \d l :

minimize the barrier effect, and

maximize permeability.

Although there is strong consensus in the literature that maximum permeability (and

retention of natural terrain) is desirable, there does not appear to be a consensus on how

this should be attained. How do highway authonties strike a baiance between road

construction costs and acceptable levels of permeability? How much permeability is

enough? How can this be determined? Are the costs of determining acceptable levels of

permeability at each impacted site, and building to those requirements greater than the cost

of building at al1 sites to a benchrnark level that is proven to nulli@ the bamier effect?

With the exception of studies that have pinpointed amphibian migration routes at specific

sites, the relative dearth of mitigation literature on the subject suggests that, pnor to

construction, amphibian migration route plotting is largely based upon sgeculation. In the

absence of site-specific monitoring data on amphibian movements, the task of

Figure 15: Bottomless arches

strategically piacing crossing structures in roads where crossings occur, if they occur, is

daunting.

The routes used by amphibians may Vary due to unknown temporal influences. The costs

of determining arnphibian presence and their crossing routes, and the nsk of geâting it

wrong, may in the end be less attractive than channelling resources toward strategies that

safeguard against this possibility. Increased road permeability is one of these strategies.

The benefits of enhanced permeability, and the retention of natural terrain, include:

allowing natural terrain to extend beneath the road (or other linear

development). . .habitat connectivity is retained.

retention of native vegetation and hydrology

improved penetration of l i a moisture, and air

= retention of protective cover for prey

an improved potential for more natural predator 1 prey encounters (and

enhanced escape opportunities). . .which would likely encourage use by

a broader range of species.

5.3 Future Considerations

It is important to note that in literature reviewed during the course of this study,

descriptions of the type of culvert being discussed by researchers is rarely provided, For

instance, the widely-cited study by Yanes et al. (1994), which concludes that culverts are

effective corridors for facilitating the passage of small mammals, does not document the

physical dimensions of the culverts studied, or the materials used in their construction

(wood, steel, or concrete for exarnple). Their conclusions may give the impression that al1

culverts perform similarly in terms of their effectiveness as crossing structures for small

mammals.

This study was limited in providing definitive answers on the suitability of CSP culverts

for amphibians and small animals. The trials demonstrated that Rough-skinned Newts did

not show strong preferences based on simple manipulations of substrates and moisture.

Field observations showed that small mammals, and other species, regularly fiequented

culverts at the study locations. This knowledge will be usefûl in establishing the

complexity and power of future research design.

Even though the trial newts did travel through CSP test culverts it cannot De concluded that

they would willingly do so in native habitats. It must be remembered that newts initially

showed no eagemess to enter the trial culvex?~, even thou& the culverts offered the only

possibilities of escape and access to food. This attraction may be stronger than

inducements for animals to enter culverts in their natural habitats.

Pre-construction surveys, followed by post-construction assessments, can provide a gauge

of road impacts and mitigation performance. Such investigations will better ensure that

mitigative strategies find their mark, and that dollars are not poorly appropnated. Caution

must be exercised, however, in inrerpreting the results of such investigations. It is possible,

for exarnple, for a species inventory to inadvertently tally population swings. Uncorrected,

such data has the potential to influence mitigative strategies in inappropriate ways.

It can be argued that we have a liinited understanding of biodiversity loss due to roads and

other linear developments because we have a limited understanding of the biodiversity that

these developments affect. There is a need to develop monitoring devices and skills that

are capable of recording and accurately identifjmg amphibians and small mamrnals within

the road corridor. Track-plates and species keys potentially offer a cost-effective means of

meeting these objectives. But nore work is needed to improve their deficiencies, and those

of other monitoring devices, and their cornpanion cataloping systems.

It is beyond the scope of this study to gauge the overarching consequences of cheniical

artifacts on amphibians and small mammals in the study wetlands. However, some of the

study results suggest that direct contact by amphibians with zinc-plated CSP culverts, or

with CSP water may pose health risks. Further studies would be required to test either the

bioaccumulation of metals in amphibians exposed to zinc-plated CSP culverts, or the

associated health effeets. The limited information available on metal leaching from

culverts as they are used in the context of the study, coupled with known sensitivity of

amphibians to metais, suggests that a more detailed evaluation of such nsks is merited.

Both new and old culverts should be examined.

Linear developments will likely continue to etch the global landscape well into the new

millennium. They are the artenes we rely upon to move resources and energy, goods and

people, and upon which our economies and lifestyles are inexorably linked. As we expand

linear developments we are only beginning to understand the frailty of ecosystems that lay

in their path, and the consequences of imperilling them.

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Forman, R.T. (1998a). Follow-up to November 17 broadcast 'Wildlife Ecology and Transportation'. http://itre.ncsu.edu/cte/tc14-followup.htrn1:

Forman, R.T. (1998b). Road ecology: a solution for the giant embracing us. Landscape Ecology, 13, pp. iii-v.

Forman, R.T. and L.E. Alexander (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of EcoIogicaI Systems. 29, pp. 207-23 1.

Fowler, C.H. and R.T. Golightly Jr. (1994). Fisher and Marten survey techniques on the Tahoe National Forest. Unpublished report by the Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, Califomia, for the United States Forest Service, Redwood Sciences Laboratory, Arcata, Califomia vii, pp. 64

Freda, J. (1 990). The effects of aluminum on the Leopard Frog, Rana pipiens: Life stage comparisons and aluTninum uptake. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 4 7. 2 1 0-2 1 6.

Freda, J. (1991). The effects of alurninurn and other metals on arnphibians. Environmental Pollution. 71 (305-338).

Freda, J., V. Cavdek and D.G. McDonald. (1 990). The role of organic complextion in the toxicity of metal to amphibians. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 4 7(2 1 7-224).

Gibbs, J.P. (1 998). Amphibian movements in response to forest edges, roads, and streambeds in Southern New England. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62(2), pp. 584- 589.

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Harfenist, R.A., T. Power, K.L. Clark and D.B. Peakall(1989). A review and evaluation of the amphibian toxicological literature. (Technical Report Series 61) Canadian Wildlife Service. Ottawa

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Heyer, W.R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.C. Hayek and M.S. Foster, editors. (1 994). Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity, Standard methods for amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington

Hoff, K.V. and S.D. Hillyard (1993). Toads taste sodium with their skin: Sensory fiuiction in a transporting epithelium. Journal of Experimental B i o l o ~ 183, pp. 347-35 1.

Home, M.T. and W.A. Dunson (1 995). The interactive effects of low pH, toxic metal, and DOC in amphibian on a simulated temporary pond community. Environmental Pollution, 89(2), 155-1 6 1.

Hunt, A..J., J. Dickens and R. J. Whelan (1 987). Movernent of marnrnals through tunnels under railway lines. Aust. Zool., 24(2), 89-93.

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Krikowski, L. (1 989). The 'light and dark zones': two examples of tunnel and fence systems. pp. 89-91. In T.E.S. Langton, editor, Amphibians and Roads, proceedings of the toad tunnel conference. AC0 Polymer Products. Shefford, England

Langton, T.E. (1989a). Tunnels and temperature: results fiom a study of a drift fence and tunnel system at Henley-on-Thames, Buckinghamshire, England pp. 145-152. In Langton, T.E.S., editor, Amphibians and Roads, proceedings of the toad tunnel conference. AC0 Polyrner Products. Shefford, England

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Stebbins, R.C. (1945). Water absorption in a terrestrial salamander. Copeia, pp. 25-28.

Stebbins, R.C. and N.W. Cohen (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey

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Yanes, M., J.M.Velasco and F. Suarez (1995). Pexmeability of roads and railways to vertebrates: the importance of culverts. Biolo,oical Conservation, 71, pp. 21 7-22.

Zielinski, W.J. and R.Tmex (1 995). Distinguishing tracks of closely-related species: Marten and Fisher. Joumal of Wildlife Management, 59, pp. 571-579.

Zielinski, W.J. and T.E. Kucera; eds. (1995). Arnerican Marten, Fisher, Lynx, and Wolverine: Survey Methods for Their Detection. United States Department of Agriculture. Arcata.

Appendix A

A1 -A4

Appendix A l : Piercy Creek occurrences 1 culvert 1 and 2

Culvert # 1 Piercy Creek

Racoon (Rqm lotos Linnaeus) Weasei miy (Muselaidae) btiontail and Rabbit Miœ, Voles, S h r e ~

Banana slugs (Aridim cdunnbianus)

Pacifie Tm Frcg (ma regilla Baird and Girard) Roughskinned Newt (Tan'cha grnulosa Skilton) Other Amphibia

Erst unidentified type (œnüpede k t i e linsect) Second unidentified type (œnüpede k i i e linsed) Third unidentified type (larger, snakelike) Other unidentified types Deposits

714 7/23 8111 8124 912 9114 9128 1û/6 10126

X X X

X X X X X X X X

X

X X X X X X

ûihrert#2 PiercyCreek

Ramn (Rucym lotor Linnaeus) Weaçei famiiy (Aksldaidae) Cottontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

&nana slugs (Aridim duManus)

WC Tm Frcg (ma rqilla Baird and Girard) Roughskinned Newt (Tancha pulusa Skilton) Other Pmphibia

First unidentified type (œnüpede k t l e linsect) Second unidentified type (œntipede k t l e linsed) Third unidentifid type (larger, snakelike) Other unidentified types W b

714 7/23 8111 8124 Sn 9114 9128 1016 10126

X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X

X X

X

X X

Appendix A 2 Piercy Creek occurrences 1 culvert 3 and 4


Racoon ( m o n lotor Linnaeus) Weasel h i i y (Mustelaidae) Coitontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

Winged insects


Banana slugs (Aiolimax columbianus)

Pack Tree Frog (Hyla regilla Baird and Girard) Rougbskinned Newt ( T a c h a grnulosa Skilton) m e r Amphibia

First unidentifid type (centipede lbeetle linsect) Secondunidentified type (centipede Ibeetie linsect) Third unidentified type ( lager, snakelike) Other unidentified types Deposits

714 7123 811 1 8124 912 9114 9128 1016 iO126

X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X

X X


Racoon (Procyon lotor Linnaeus) Weasel family (Mustelaidae) Coitontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

Winged insects

Crow ( C o m ~ s brachyrf?yr~chos Brehm)

Banana slugs (AIiolirnax columbianus)

P m c Tree Frog (Hya regilla Baird and Girard) Rougbskinned Newt (Taicha grnulosa Skilton) Cher Amphibia

First unidentified type (centipede lbeetle ~insect) Secondunidentified type (œntipede h t l e linsect) Third unidentified type ( lager, snakelike) û k r unidentified types

1 Deposits

714 7Q3 811 1 8124 9Q 9/14 9128 1016 10126 1 X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

X

X

Appendix A3: Piercy Creek occurrences 1 culvert 5 and 6

- -


bcoon (Ray37 lotor Linnaeus) Weasel farnily (Musfelaidae) Cottontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

CVnged insects

Crow (Caws brachflyndias Brehm)

Banana slugs (Ariolimax mlumbianus)

Pacic Tree Frcg (Hyfa regilla 6aird and Girard) Roughskinned Newt (Tuicha granulasa Skilton) ûther Amphibia

First unidentified type (œntipede Ibeetie iinsect) Second unidentified type (œntipede k t l e l i m t ) Third unidentifieci type ( larger, snakelike) ûther unidentified types Depasiîs

7

X X X 1

X X X X X X T

X l

X X X X X X

X X t

X *

t

t

* t

X X t

t

X *

X X t


Racoon (hocyon lotor Linnaeus) Weasel family (Mustelaidae) Coltontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

Winged insects

Crow (Conlvs brachflynchos Brehm)

Banana slugs (Pnolimax mlumbianus)

Pacic Tree Frog (Hyla regila Baird and Girard) Roughskinned Newt (TaMa granulosa Skilton) ûther Amphibia

First unidentified type (œntipede Ibeetie iinsect) Second unidentified type (centipede lbeetie linsect) Third unidentified type ( larger, snakelike) ûther unidentified types De posits

X

X X X X X X

' = fl ooded plate

X X X X X X

Appendix A4: Piercy Creek occurrences 1 culverts 7 and 8

Winged insects



Racoon (Procyon lotor Linnaeus) Weasel family (Mustelaidae) Cottontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

Banana slugs (Ariolimax columbianus) I * * t t t t t

714 7/23 811 1 8124 912 9114 9/28 1016 10126

t * x t t t t

t t O t ' X '

t t t t t

8 * X 7 * t

Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla Baird and Girard) Rough-skinned Newt (Tancha granulosa Skilton) m e r Amphibia

* t t t t t

* t * * t *

t t t t

First unidentified type (centipede heetle linsect) Secondunidentifiea' type (centipede heetle linsect) Third unidentified type (laqer, snakelike) Wer unidentified types Deposits

Winged insects

t t * t t t

t t t t 7

t t t t t * t t * t t * * t t * t


Racoon (Procyon lotor Linnaeus) Weasel family (Muste!aidae) Cottontail and Rabbit Mice, Voles, Shrews

Crow (Conrus brachMynchos Brehm) I :

714 7/23 811 1 8124 912 9114 9/28 1016 10126

* X X X

x x x x x t

* X X X X X X X X

Banana slugs (Ariolimax columbianus) l : Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla Baird and Girard) Rough-skinned Newt (Tancha granulosa Skilton) Other Amphibia

* t

t

*

First unidentified type (centipede heetle linsect) Second unidentified type (centipede heetle linsect) Third unidentified type (laqer, snakelike) Other unidentified types Deposits

* t

8

t

X X X X

' = flooàed plates

Appendix 5

BI-B8

Appendix B I : Section 1 ; Piercy Creek; plate 0211 4/09

Appendix B2: Section 3; plate a; Hyla regilla (detail from plate d)

Appendix 53: Section 3; plate b; Taricha granulosa

Appendix B4: Section 3; plate d; Hyla regilla

Appendix B5: Section 3; plate e (detail from plate d)

Appendix B6: Section 3; plate O; linear tracks and crow print:

Appendix B7: Section 3; plate r; deposits

Appendix B8: Section 2; Hamilton East and West 02109

Appendix 69: Section 3: plate p; cottontail or rabbit prints

Appendix C

Section 1 Piercy Creek (41 -08

Section 2 Hamilton Marsh 0407east-061Oeast&west

Section 3 plates a-s

Section 4 Climatological Report

Section 5 Chemical Analysis Report

Section 1

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<. ,.. ..C U , .. Y.. W Ca . .. _... . .. .... ... ... . U. -. . - --


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Section 2

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Section 3

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Section 4

Section 5

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CHEMICAL ANALYSE REPORT

Raport To: Fitzglbbcn Contracting Compnny Ltd. 1275 Fzn;krlca h t ~ ç Diiiic.~~~. tl(J '+'t)L Ls2

ASL AYALYMCAL SERVICE LABORATORIES LTD. grr:

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Iïic drlcc~ion limts for soxnc of tlie nieials :scrc Incrcascd sincc dlliiltoxis rwrc rcquired on :lic saii~pie ta c«rnpcns:ilc for thr elrvntcd levrl of Zinc.

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RESULTS OF AVIALYSIS - Watcr

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Conventiond Parametus in Watcr

These armlyscs arc camcd out m accordancc with pracadures dcscnbed in "blci!:ods for Chciniral Andysls of Watcr nrld Wastcs" [USEI?l!. "Xlruluiil for the Chenilcai Analysls cf' Watcr. \Vastcwarcrs. Sediment? and Biolo~icai 13';cjucs.' (BCYOII). andfor "Si;ilid;ud Mctliods for thc Esaiirlrlütlon of \Vater and \!ksr~water'' (APIUI. Fiutfier detnils are üvriihblc on rtiquest.

Metals in Water

Thls analysis is c r~mcd out iisfng proccdures adapteci froiii "Str~ndard Mc~liodv for thci Esnm1n:iliori of Watcr aiid lViwtc\~itcr" 20111 Edit1o:i 1998 published by the Aiiieriçiui Fublic Hcalth Association. and with proceclitrcs ;idnptçd frozrl 'Test Jlcdiods for Evalii;itlrig Solld \Vaste" SW-S4ü publishecl by the Unitcd Stntcs Enrirnnrnental Proicrtinn .4griicy (EPrZI. Thc proc:cdures imy involve prellii~iary saniplc Ircatiiient by acld digestion. usiqg cithcr hotpiattt or rnicrowriw ovrn. or filtration [EPA Mctliod 300%). Insîrumcntril a~ialysis !s by atonitc nbsorpikxi/eruission spcctropliz>totiir~~ (EP.4 Method 7000 scr1c:sI. Iridu~~ivcly cntipkd pinsrna - optical cii~lsioia spectroptio~ornctq [El'-% 'rlethod 6010Bl. and/or Inductlvely couplcd plasnia - tiiass spcclmnic.îry iE1u hirtiind 6020).

Hrcixiuiirndrd I Ioltiirig 1Ynic: Srunple: 6 niosths f?cfcrc.ncr: E 1':l For more dctriil sec:-4% "Collection 6: Sampling Guide"

Mercury in Water

ïhis nnalysis is canied nitr usi* procednr~s ;itlaptcd h m 5:aiiti~rri Mctiiocls h r Llic Esiui~rilition of Watcr and Wristewater' 20111 Eclitlon 1998 piib!ishcd by the h e r l c a n Public Hcdth As=iatIon. rmd with pmccdiires :idnptttl imni 'Tcst Mc~iiods for EvaliratLrlg Solld \Vaste" SW-6-36 p~iblislicd by the Unitcd Stntrs Environmcntal Protcction hgcncy (EPA). T i c proccdiirr ~nvnlvtrj 11 co!c:l-osldatiori of thc acidified saniplc usmg b r o n ~ e niolioctilortdr priur 10 rccfuctlon of the sainplci with staiiiious (bhlorldc. Instrumental nxialysis 1s; by cold vrtpciur acornic absorption spcr-inqdlotomctr; (EPA Mrthnd 7370A/7371A].

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File No. 5143 13

Reromrnendcd Holding Time: Smlplc: 26 dnys Rcfercnce: EPA For mort dcL~i11 scc:ASL "Collertiori J;: Sxupiing Guide"

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