Notes and References l. THE EXPANSION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY International Society and International Theory James Mayall 1. This debate is discussed by Martin Wight in Systems of States, ed. H. Bull (Leicester, The University Press, 1977), ch. 4. 2. Pascal, Pensies, vol. III (292), trans., A.J. Krailsheimer (Harmonds- worth, Penguin Books), p. 46. 3. P.D. Curtin, The Image of Africa (Madison, Wise., University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), p. 279. 4. Ibid., p. 280. The quotation is from Vattel's Le Droit des Gens, bk I, ch. VII. 5. Adda Bozeman, The Future of Law in a Multicultural World (Princeton, N.J., The University Press, 1971), pp. 161-86. 6. Cf. Ernest Gellner, 'Our Current Sense of History', in Contemporary Thought and Politics (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), pp. 113-33. 7. For these two views, see Elie Kedourie, Nationalism in Asia and Africa (New York, The World Publishing Co., 1970), pp. 1-153, and Ernest Gellner, Thought and Change (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), pp. 147-78. 8. The nearest to a sustained African defence of intervention is contained in Tanzania's Memorandum on Biafra's Case, a document which President Nyerere circulated privately to his fellow Heads of State at the 1969 OAU Summit Conference. It failed to win further adherents to the Biafran cause, but made sufficient impact to persuade the Nigerian Federal Government to make an official refutation. For both documents, see A.H.M. Kirk-Greene (ed.), Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria, vol. 2 (London, OUP, 1971), pp. 429-38. 9. President Nyerere's speech to the African trade ministers involved in the negotiation of the Lome Convention with the EEC is a good example of the genre. He suggested that their efforts 'should be directed towards obtain- ing that which rightfully belongs to us, remunerative trading arrangements in a dynamic context, through a scientifically worked out built-in mechan- ism, within the framework of international trade and exchange, and full reparations for past neglect imposed upon us by colonialism'. (Quoted in West Africa, 15 October 1973.) 10. On the ironic nature of contemporary nationalism, see Ernest Gellner, Legitimation of Belief (London, CUP, 1974), esp. ch. 9.
Transcript
Notes and References
l. THE EXPANSION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY International Society and International Theory James Mayall
1. This debate is discussed by Martin Wight in Systems of States, ed. H. Bull (Leicester, The University Press, 1977), ch. 4.
2. Pascal, Pensies, vol. III (292), trans., A.J. Krailsheimer (Harmonds-worth, Penguin Books), p. 46.
3. P.D. Curtin, The Image of Africa (Madison, Wise., University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), p. 279.
4. Ibid., p. 280. The quotation is from Vattel's Le Droit des Gens, bk I, ch. VII.
5. Adda Bozeman, The Future of Law in a Multicultural World (Princeton, N.J., The University Press, 1971), pp. 161-86.
6. Cf. Ernest Gellner, 'Our Current Sense of History', in Contemporary Thought and Politics (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), pp. 113-33.
7. For these two views, see Elie Kedourie, Nationalism in Asia and Africa (New York, The World Publishing Co., 1970), pp. 1-153, and Ernest Gellner, Thought and Change (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), pp. 147-78.
8. The nearest to a sustained African defence of intervention is contained in Tanzania's Memorandum on Biafra's Case, a document which President Nyerere circulated privately to his fellow Heads of State at the 1969 OAU Summit Conference. It failed to win further adherents to the Biafran cause, but made sufficient impact to persuade the Nigerian Federal Government to make an official refutation. For both documents, see A.H.M. Kirk-Greene (ed.), Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria, vol. 2 (London, OUP, 1971), pp. 429-38.
9. President Nyerere's speech to the African trade ministers involved in the negotiation of the Lome Convention with the EEC is a good example of the genre. He suggested that their efforts 'should be directed towards obtain-ing that which rightfully belongs to us, remunerative trading arrangements in a dynamic context, through a scientifically worked out built-in mechan-ism, within the framework of international trade and exchange, and full reparations for past neglect imposed upon us by colonialism'. (Quoted in West Africa, 15 October 1973.)
10. On the ironic nature of contemporary nationalism, see Ernest Gellner, Legitimation of Belief (London, CUP, 1974), esp. ch. 9.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 299
Diplomacy Today Michael Palliser
1. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Sociery: A Study of World Politics (London, 1977), p. 163.
2. Sir Ernest Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th edn (London, 1979), p. 3.
3. Ibid., p. 107.
2. NATIONALISM Two Types of Nationalism John Plamenatz
1. /deen ;:_ur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit; Briefe zur Bifijrderung der Humanitiit.
2. G. Mazzini, Essays, trans. Okey (London, 1894); Selected Writings, ed. N. Gangulee (London, 1946); The Duties of Man and Other Essays (London, 1955).
3. See 0. Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Hapsburg Monarchy (Chicago, 1929).
Toward a Marxist Theory of Nationalism Horace B. Davis
References
A. Cobban, The Nation State and National Self-Determination (London: Collins, 1969).
R.S. Cohen eta!. (eds), For Dirk Struik: Scientific Historical and Political Essays in Honor of Dirk}. Struik (Dordrecht and Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1974).
R. Debray, Letter in Sunday Times (Oct. 12, 1969). K.W. Deutsch, 'The Growth of Nation States: Some Recurrent Patterns of
Political and Social Integration.' World Politics 5: 168-95, 1953. C. Geertz, Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1968). E. Gellner, Thought and Change (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1964). K. Kautsky, Die materialistische Gesichtsaifasung, Vol. 2 (Berlin, 1929). R. Luxemburg, 'The Russian Revolution', in C. Grunberg ( ed.) Archiv Fuer
die Geschichte des So;:_ialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung (Leipiz, 1928). T. Nairn, 'Scotland and Europe', New Left Review Qan. 1974). D.B. Schirmer, Republic or Empire: American Resistance to the Philippine War
(Cambridge: Mass, Schenkman, 1972). ]. Stalin, Marxism and the National Question: Selected Writings and Speeches (New
York, 1942). T. Stoianovich, Review in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 89 (1974). T.G. Vincent, Black Power and the Garvey Movement (Berkely: Ca, Ramparts
Press, 1972).
300 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
J. Wiatr, Narod i panstow (Warsaw, Ksiazka i Wiedza, 1969). E.R. Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York, Harper and Row
1969).
Internationalism A.D. Smith
1. On elite linguae francae, medieval and modern, cf. E. Haughan, 'Dialect, Language, Nation', American Anthropologist 68, 1966, 922-35.
2. H. Seton-Watson, 'Unsatisfied Nationalisms',journal of Contemporary History 6/1, 1971, 3-14.
3. E. Gellner, Thought and Change, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1964, ch. 7.
4. E. Gellner, 'Scale and Nation', Philosophy of Social Sciences 3, 1973, 1-17, especially p. 14.
5. B. Akzin, State and Nation, Hutchison, London 1964, ch. 5. 6. Cf. the analysis of anti-semitism by S. Andreski, Elements of Comparative
Sociology, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1964, ch. 21. 7. Seton-Watson, op. cit., and Nationalism, Old and New, Sydney Univer-
sity Press, Sydney 1965. 8. Cf. D. Apter, Some Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Modernisation,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1968. 9. Gellner, Thought and Change, op. cit., p. 174.
10. T. Warburton, 'Nationalism and Language in Switzerland and Can-ada', in A.D. Smith (ed.), Nationalist Movements, Macmillan, London 1976.
11. Gellner, 'Scale and Nation', op. cit., p. 15. 12. Cf. M. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, George
Allen & Unwin, London 1930, pp. 181-2. 13. Cf. R.G. Hovannisian, Armenia, the Road to Independence, University of
California Press, Berkeley 1963; and C.J. Edmonds, 'Kurdish Nationalism', journal of Contemporary History 6/1, 1971, 87-107.
14. On terrorism generally, cf. P. Wilkinson, Political Terrorism, Macmil-lan, London 1974.
15. J.P. Nettl and R. Robertson, International Systems and the Modernisation of Societies, Faber, London 1968. The phrase, 'a system of locks' is Gellner's in Thought and Change, op. cit., p. 175.
16. Nettl and Robertson, op. cit., Pt I. 17. R.L. Merritt and S. Rokkan (eds), Comparing Nations, Yale University
Press, New Haven 1966. 18. An interpretation also favoured by some Marxians such as A.G.
Frank, Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution? Monthly Review Press, New York 1969.
19. H. Martins, 'Time and Theory In Sociology', in J. Rex (ed.), Ap-proaches to Sociology. An Introduction to Major Trends in British Sociology, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1974.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 301
20. Some 'nation-states', while much larger than villages or districts, are pretty small, for example Iceland, while others, such as China or India, resemble empires. This somewhat detracts from Gellner's object of analysis, the scale of nations.
21. Cf. P. Mercier, 'On the Meaning of "Tribalism" in Black Africa', in P.L. van den Berghe ( ed.), Africa: Social Problems of Change and Coriflict, Chandler, San Francisco 1965.
22. Cf. J. Galtung, The European Community: a Superpower in the Making, George Allen & Unwin, London 1973.
23. D. de Rougement, The Meaning of Europe, Sidgwick & Jackson, London 1965.
24. For the notion of 'concentric circles', cf. J.S. Coleman, Nigeria: Back-ground to Nationalism, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1958.
3. THE STATE IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD The Territorial State Revisited- Reflections on the Future of the Nation-State John Herz
1. See World Politics Vol. IX (1957) pp. 473-493. 2. See, for instance the similar conclusion reached by Klaus Knor in On
the Uses of Military Power in the Nuclear Age (Princeton, 1966) p. 174. 3. See, for example Knor, Military Power, pp. 2lff. 4. International Politics in the Atomic Age, pp. 112-43. 5. These authors use the somewhat misleading term "nationalist univer-
salism"; see for example, Politics Among Nations (4th ed.; New York, 1967), pp. 323 ff.
6. lnis L. Claude, The Changing United Nations (New York, 1967), p. 9. 7. See also L. Beaton, "Nuclear Fuel for All," Foreign Affairs 45 ( 196 7): 4,
662 ff. 8. Among the most dangerous risks a multiplication of variables under
nuclear proliferation would bring about are those of a personal nature (insanity or incapacity or emotional overreaction of leaders, unintentional or unauthorised action of subordinates, etc.). For a summing up of these factors see Jerome D. Frank, Sanity and Survival: Aspects of War and Peace (New York, 1967).
9. It is true, however, that in those Latin American countries where Indians - not yet mobilised politically and otherwise - constitute a high proportion of the population we have the problem of nationhood still to be established out of ethnically diverse constituent groups.
10. Even more spurious, of course, would be West Berlin as an indepen-dent "third German state" ( a suggestion of the Soviets and their friends).
11. Referring to the domino theory of aggression in Southeast Asia, Kenneth Waltz remarks: "States in the area of the fighting lack the solidity,
302 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
shape, and cohesion that the image suggests. Externally ill-defined, inter-nally fragile and chaotic, they more appropriately call to mind sponges ... " "The Politics of Peace," International Studies Quarterly 11, no. 3 (1967): 205.
12. R. Emerson, From Empire to Nation (Boston, 1960), p. 96. 13. On the effect of what he calls "collective 1egitimisation" through
acceptance into the U.N. see lnis Claude, Changing U.N., pp. 83ff. 14. In his truly penetrating and enlightening study, The Revolution in
Statecraft (New York, 1965), Andrew M. Scott calls this phenomenon "infor-mal access" or "informal penetration."
15. Ibid., pp. 168-69. 16. As Robert C. Tucker has pointed out, the process should be referred to
as "deradicalization" rather than "deideolization", because less radicalism in action may be accompanied by doctrinal emphasis on symbols of "nonchange". "Intensified verbal allegiance to ultimate ideological goals belongs to the pattern of deradicalization". "The Deradicalization of Marx-ist Movements," American Political Science Review 61, no.2 ( 1967): 343 ff., 358.
17. Interestingly, Trotsky, than whom no one was more "world-revol-utionary", declared in the 1920s that "only that revolution is viable which wins out of its own strength". Quoted in Ossip K. Flechtheim, Bolschewismus 1917-1967: Von der Weltrevolution zum Sowjetimperium (Vienna, 1967), p. 47.
18. Burton, International Relations, has developed a theory according to which the international system of the future will be distinguished by a lessening of alliances and the substitution for "power politics" of nonalign-ment based chiefly on nationalism.
19. Robert Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations (New York, 1966), p. 116.
20. See, for example, S. Carrighar, "War Is Not in Our Genes", New York Times Magazine, lO September 1967.
21. Aggressiveness is likewise claimed by Lorenz and others to be a genetically inherited instinct; in this article, which deals primarily with territoriality, I cannot deal with this theory in detail.
Why Africa's Weak States Persist Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg
l. Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, ed. by Talcott Parsons (New York: Free Press, 1964).
2. Ibid., 155. 3. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Claren-
don Press, 1979), 73-76. 4. Ibid., 75. 5. See Giovanni Sartori, "Guidelines for Concept Analysis," ed., Social
7. See Harry Eckstein's brilliant critique, "On the Science of the State," in "The State," Daedalus, Vol. 108 (Fall 1979), 1-20.
8. Easton avoids the concept of the "state" in favor of that of the "political system"; see The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science (New York: Knopf, 1953), 90-124.
9. Brownlie (fn. 3), 75. 10. See Nelson Kasfir, The Shrinking Political Arena: Participation and Eth-
niciry in African Politics, with a Case of Uganda (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1976).
11. See Clifford Geertz, "The Judging of Nations: Some Comments on the Assessment of Regimes in the New States," European journal of Sociology, XVIII (No. 2, 1977), 249-52.
12. Brownlie (fn. 3), 75; Weber (fn. 1), 156. 13. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black
Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1982).
14. See Michael Oakeshott, "The Vocabulary of a Modern State," Politi-cal Studies, XXIII Gune and September, 1977), 319041, 409-14.
15. The legitimacy of a government in the eyes of its citizens must be distinguished from its legitimacy in the eyes of other states; it is international legitimacy that is significant in the juridical attribute of statehood. A government may be legitimate internationally but illegitimate domestically, or vice versa. An instance of the former is Uganda during the last years of Idi Amin's regime; of the latter, the Soviet Union in its early years.
16. Geertz (fn. 11), 252. 17. Ibid., 253. 18. There is a wealth ofliterature on military intervention in Africa. Two
outstanding accounts are Samuel Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Studies in Military Style (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), and Claude E. Welch, Jr., ed., Soldier and State in Africa: A Comparative Anarysis of Military Intervention and Political Change (Evanston, Ill. Northwestern Univer-sity Press, 1970). Both have excellent bibliographies.
19. William Gutteridge, "Introduction," in Richard Booth, "The Armed Forces of African States, 1970," Adelphi Papers. No. 67 (London: Inter-national Institute for Strategic Studies, 1970), 4.
20. Jon. R. Moris, "Transferability of Western Management Concepts and Programs, An East African Perspective," in Lawrence D. Stifel,James S. Coleman, and Joseph E. Black, eds., Education and Training for Public Sector Management in Developing Countries (Special Report from the Rockefeller Foundation, March 1977), 73-83. For Ghana, see Robert M. Price, Sociery and Bureaucracy in Contemporary Ghana (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975); for Kenya, Goran Hyden, Robert Jackson, and John Okumu, eds., Development Administration: The Kenya Experience (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1970).
304 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
21. Myrdal, Asian Drama: An Inquiry into Poverty of Nations (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1968).
22. Nyerere, The Arusha Declaration Ten Years After (Dares Salem: Govern-ment Printer, 1977), esp. chap. 3: "Our Mistakes and Failures," 27-48.
23. Independence Day Speech of President Mobutu Sese Seko, July l, 1977, typescript, translated from the French by James S. Coleman.
24. See West Africa, No. 3255 (December 3, 1979), 2224; and Ghislain C. Kabwit, "Zaire: The Roots of the continuing Crisis," Journal of Modern African Studies, XVII (No.3, 1979), 397-98.
25. Gutteridge (fn. 19), 1. 26. Ibid., 3. 27. Africa Contemporary Record, 1979-80, p. C 109. 28. The concept of "international society" is explored in Martin Wight,
Power Politics, ed. by Hedley Bull and Carsten Holbraad (London: Royal Institute of international Affairs, 1978), 105-12. Also see Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977), 24-52; and Alan James, "International Society," British Journal of Inter-national Studies, IV (July 1978), 91-106.
29. In considering the issue of human rights in Africa, the O.A. U.'s Assembly of Heads of States stressed the equal importance of "peoples' rights," and recently recommended that an "African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights" be drafted. Peoples' rights are the rights of sovereign people and can only be claimed and exercised by state governments. See Africa Contemporary Record, 1979-80, p. C 21.
30. Bull argues that the primary historical goal of international society has been to preserve the society of states itself; but it is difficult to see how this can be accomplished in the long run without first guaranteeing the sover-eignty of member states. See The Anarchical Society (fn. 28), 27.
31. This is essentially the Austinian concept of "sovereignty." See John Austin, The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, ed. by H. L.A. Hart (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1954).
32. Bull (fn. 28), 34. 33. For an argument that at least in some cases "independence" was a
"reversion" to sovereignty, see Charles H. Alexandrowicz, "New and Origi-nal States; The Issue of Reversion to Sovereignty," International Affairs, XLVII Quly 1969), 465-80. For an opposing view, see Martin Wight, Systems of States, ed. by Hedley Bull (Leicester University Press, 1977), 16--28.
34. French West Africa rather than its constituent units- Senegal, Mali, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, etc. - could have been one state had Africans been able to agree to it; Nigeria could have been more than one.
35. At the time of independence in 1960, British-governed Somaliland joined the Italian-administered trust territory to form the Somali Democratic Republic. In October 1961, the Federal Republic of Cameroon came into
NOTES AND REFERENCES 305
being, composed of East Cameroon (formerly a French Trust Territory) and West Cameroon (part of a former British Trust Territory). Independent Tanganyika joined with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania in April 1964.
36. Quoted by Robert C. Good, "Changing Patterns of African Inter-national Relations," American Political Science Review, Vol. 58 (September 1964), 632.
37. Quoted in Ali A. Mazrui, Towards a Pax Africana: A Study of Ideology and Ambition (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 12.
38. According to the United Nations, in 1978 there were 13 African countries (8 on the continent and 5 island countries) with a population ofless than one million. Nine of these had populations of 600,000 or fewer. See Africa Contemporary Record, 1979-80, p. C I 07.
39. Martin Wight, "Why is there no international Theory?" in Herbert Buterfield and Martin Wight, eds., Diplomatic Investigations (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), 33.
40. Zdenek Cervenka, The Organization of African Unity and its Charter (New York and Washington: Praeger, 1969), 232-33.
41. Martin Wight defined "international legitimacy" as "the collective judgement of international society about rightful membership in the family of nations. See Systems of States (fn. 33), 153 (emphasis added).
42. Cervenka (fn. 40), 93. 43. Zdenek Cervenka, The Urifinished Quest for Unity: Africa and the OA U
(New York: Africana Publishing Co., 1977), 65. 44. As of March 1982, it was unclear whether the war between Morocco
and the Polisario over the former Spanish Sahara could be considered a failure for the O.A.U., since it was uncertain whether the Sahrawi Democra-tic Republic (SADR) was as yet a legal member of the organization. See "The QUA's Sahara Crisis," West Africa, March 8, 1982, p. 639.
45. Peter Lyon, "New States and International Order," In Alan James, ed., The Bases of International Order: Essays in Honour of C.A. W. Manning (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 47.
46. Independent Commission on International Development Issues, North-South, a Programme for Survival (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980); Roger Hansen, Beyond the North-South Stalemate (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979); Robert L. Rothstein, Global Bargaining: UNCTAD and the Quest for a New Economic Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979).
47. Charles H. Mcilwain has noted that "Independence de facto was ultimately translated into a sovereign de jure." Quoted by John H. Herz, "Rise and Demise of the Territorial State," in Heinz Lubasz, ed., The Developement of the Modern State (New York: Macmillan, 1964), 133.
48. See Wight (fn. 28), chaps. I and 2. 49. Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 46. Unfortunately, Tilly tends
306 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
to neglect the international dimension of European state making. For two excellent essays on this topic, see Martin Wight, "The Origins of Our Sates-System: Geographical Limits," and "The Origins of Our Sates-System: Chronological Limits" (fn. 33, ll G--52).
50. "Political Theory and International Relations," in Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration: Essays on International Politics (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), 239-40.
4. INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT IN THE NUCLEAR AGE Change and War in the Contemporary World Robert Gilpin
1. Similar, but not identical, situations have occurred in the past. For example, Dutch pre-eminence in the seventeenth century was threatened militarily by the French and economically by the British.
2. This is the thesis of Kaldor ( 1978). 3. Proposals of the Administration to extend American commitments in
the Middle East and elsewhere could have the same consequence. 4. It must be acknowledged that the Soviet Union and the United States
have quite different conceptions of the meaning of detente. For the Soviets, detente does not mean an end to class struggle or the historic movement toward the victory of communism. For the United States, detente is indivis-ible; the Soviet union must not use detente to advance its political control over other nations.
References
E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years Years Crisis 1919-1939 (London, Macmillan 1951).
P. Chatterjee, Arms, Alliances and Stability, (New York, Halsted Press 1975). J. Hackett et al., The Third World War- August 1985 (New York, Macmillan
1978). E. Halevy, The Era of Tyrannies (New York, Doubleday 1965). M. Kaldor, The Disintegrating West (New York, Hill & Wong 1978). R.O. Keohane & J.S. Nyc, Power and Interdependence (Boston, Little, Brown
1977). E. Mandel, Europe vs America (New York, Monthly Review Press 1970). K.N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley
1979).
No-First-Use of Nuclear Weapons: An Overview Frank Blackaby, Jozef Goldblat and Sverre Lodgaard
1. The Church and the Bomb, The General Synod Debate, February 1983 (CIO Publishing, London, 1983), p. 39.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 307
2. Resolution of the Church of Scotland, quoted in the Ecumenical Press Service, 25 June 1983.
3. Resolution of a four-day gathering of church leaders from 60 countries, meeting in Uppsala, Sweden, quoted in the Ecumenical Press Service, 1 May 1983.
4. The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response, A Pastoral Letter on War and Peace, 3 May 1983, National Conference of Catholic Bishops (United States Catholic Conference, Washington D.C., 1983).
5. The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response (note 4), pp. iii and iv.
6. The Challenge of Peace: God's Promise and Our Response (note 4), p. 4.
7. The Times, London, 17 November 1983, p. 12. 8. Le Malin, 24 March 1983: "P. Gerard Debois, Secretaire du Conseil
Permanent de l'Episcopat Fran<;ais ('une sorte de premier ministre catho-lique') estimait qu'un debat sur le nuclaire militaire serait 'inimaginable' dans notre pays".
9. Ecumenical Press Service, 25 June 1983. 10. Disarmament Campaign, No. 27, November 1983, p. 6. ll. The Church and the Bomb (note 1), p. 67. 12. See, for example, Air Force Magazine, Vol. 61, No. !,January 1983, p.
67; and Strategic Review, Vol. 11, No.3, Summer 1983, p. 43. 13. Bouscaren, A.T., 'Just war, nuclear arms and the catholic bishops',
Strategic Review, Vol. 11, No. 3, Summer 1983, pp. 43-50. 14. van Voorit, L.B., 'The churches and nuclear deterrence', Foreign
Affairs, Vol. 61, No.4, Spring 1983, p. 847. 15. van Voorit, L.B. (note 14), pp. 846--47. 16. Alternative Defence Commission, Defence Without the Bomb (Taylor &
Francis, London, 1983), pp. 45-49. 17. Excerpts from the Protocol are reproduced in Goldblat, J., Agreements
for Arms Control, SIPRI (Taylor & Francis, London, 1982). 18. UN General Assembly Resolution 1(1), 24 January 1946. 19. UN General Assembly Resolution 1653 (XVI), 24 November 1961. 20. UN General Assembly Resolution 1936 (XXVII), 29 November 1972. 21. UN General Assembly Resolution 38/73, 15 December 1983. 22. UN General Assembly Resolution 38/75, 15 December 1983.
5. REVOLUTION Explaining Revolutionary Situations John Walton
l. C. Tilly, From Mobilisation to Revolution (New York, Addison-Wesley 1978) p. 192.
2. A.L. Stinchcombe, Theoretical Methods in Social History (New York, Academic Press 1978).
308 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
3. T.O. Ranger, "Connexions Between Primary Resistance Movements and Modern Mass Nationalism in East and Central Africa. Parts I & II". Journal of African History vol. 9 nos. 3/4 (1968).
4. M. Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana, University of Illinois Press 1964); R. Wuthnow, "On Suffering, Rebellions, and the Moral Order." Contemporary Sociology vol. 8 no. 2 (1979).
5. I. Wallerstein, The Modem World System II (New York, Academic Press 1980).
6. Ibid., ch. 6. 7. T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge University Press
1979) ch. l. 8. B. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston, Beacon
Press 1979) p. 55. 9. C. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya (London, Heinemann 1975) p. 20l.
10. A. Portes & J. Walton, Labour, Class, and the International System (New York, Academic Press 1981).
ll. F. Furedi, "The Social Composition of the Mau Mau Movement in the White Highlands." Journal of Peasant Studies (July 1974).
12. Moore, Social Origins, p. 479. 13. T.W. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt (Princeton University Press
1979) pp. 55ff. 14. K. Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (New York, Interna-
tional Publishers 1963) pp. 127-28. 15. E. Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York, Harper &
Row 1969); H. Alavi, "Peasants and Revolution" inK. Gough & H. Sharma (eds), Imperialism and Revolution in South Asia (New York, Monthly Review Press 1973); A.O. Hirschman, Journeys Toward Progress (New York, Anchor Books 1965); B.J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion (Berkeley, University of California Press 1977); Furedi, "Social Composition."
16. J. Walton, "Accumulation and Comparative Urban Systems." Com-parative Urban Research vol. 5 no.l ( 1977).
17. E. Hobsbawn, Primitive Rebels (New York, Norton 1959) p. 133. 18. Ibid., p. 114. 19. F. Furedi, "The African Crowd in Nairobi." Journal of African History
vol. 14 no. 2 (1973); W.J. Pomeroy, "The Philippine Peasantry and the Huk Revolt" Journal of Peasant Studies (July 1978).
20. A. Giddens, The Class Structure of the Advanced Societies (New York, Barnes & Noble 1973); B. Moore, Injustice (New York, M.E. Sharpe 1978).
2l. Tilly, Mobilisation, pp. 204-5. 22. Moore, Injustice, p. 50. 23. J. Kenyatta, Facing Mt. Kenya (New York, Vintage Books 1965) pp.
47-51. 24. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; S.L. Popkin, The Rational Peasant
(Berkeley, University of California Press 1979).
NOTES AND REFERENCES 309
25. J.M. Paige, Agrarian Revolution (New York, Free Press 1975). 26. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York,
Vintage Books 1966) p. 194. 27. Moore, Injustice, p. 468. 28. B. Cumings, "Interest and Ideology in the Study of Agrarian Poli-
tics." Politics and Society vol. 10 no. 4 (1981). 29. A. de Janvry, The Agrarian Question and Reformism in Latin America
(Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press 1981). 30. C. Tilly, "Town and Country in Revolution" in J.W. Lewis (ed),
Peasant Rebellion and Communist Revolution in Asia (Stanford University Press 1974) p. 273.
31. Margadant, French Peasants, pp. xxii-xxiii. 32. Tilly, "Town and Country", p. 293. 33. E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters (New York, Pantheon 1975) pp.
262, 263, 267. 34. Tilly, "Town and Country", p. 283. 35. Leys, Underdevelopment, p. 209. 36. Ibid., p. 207. 37. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, p. 5.
6. INTERNATIONAL LAW The Development of International Law J.E.S. Fawcett
1. West Rand Central Goldmining Co. v. The King 1905). 2. Territorial Sea Convention; Continental Shelf Convention; High
Seas Convention; Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, all adopted in 1958 and now in force.
3. Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations ( 1961) now in force. A parallel convention on Consular Relations (1963) has been less widely accepted.
4. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1968). 5. Some national tribunals have a similar competence: for example, the
Supreme Court of Canada, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council under Judicial Committee Act 1833, s. 4. The U.S. Supreme Court has refused from its earliest days to give advisory opinions.
6. International Sanctions (Study Group Report, 1938). Chatham House has in hand a new study of economic coercion as an instrument of foreign and international policies.
7. viz. European Convention on Human Rights, and Inter-American Convention on Human Rights.
8. UN Civil and Political Rights Covenant, and Economic Social and Cultural Rights Covenant.
310 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
7. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION The Nature of International Organisations Harold K. Jacobson
1. Interstatal organisations and international organisations might be more accurate descriptions, and several French writers use the term organisa-tions interetatiques. However, since conventional English usage employs the adjective "governmental" and since governmental is slightly more euphonic, I use it rather than statal. ...
2. David Easton, The Political System: an Inquiry into the State of Political Science (New York: Knopf, 1964), p. 130.
3. Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Sociey: A Frame-work for Political Inquiry (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), pp. 55-57 and passim.
4. These rough figures are adequate for present purposes. For more precise figures and a view of the complexities involved in ascertaining them, see Michael D. Wallace andJ. David Singer, "Intergovernmental Organisa-tion in the Global System, 1815-1964: A Quantative Description," Interna-tional Organisation, 24 (Spring 1970), 239--287. Lists of existing IGOs and INGOs that include a brief statement about each organisation are published by the Union of International Associations in the periodic editions of the Union's Yearbook of International Organisations ....
5. Again achieving a precise count is complicated. For careful efforts see G.P. Speeckaert, The 1,978 International Organisations Founded Since the Congress of Vienna. A Chronological List (Brussels: Union of International Associations, 1957), and Kjell Skjelsbaek, "The Growth of International Non-govern-mental Organisation in the Twentieth Century", International Organization 25 (Summer 1971), 420-422.
6. This definition is based on that contained in Samuel P. Huntington, "Transnational Organisations in World Politics", World Politics, 25 (April 1973), 333-368. Unlike Huntington's definition, this one, by introducing the adjective "nongovernmental", would exclude departments of the govern-ments of states.
7. Howard V. Perlmutter originally coined the term. See his article "The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation", Colombia Journal of World Business, 4 (January-February 1969), 9--18. The usage of the term here is drawn from the adaptation in Joseph S. Nye, Jr., and Robert 0. Keohane, "Transnational relations and World Politics: An Introduction," International Organisation, 25 (Summer 1971), 329--349, 336.
8. Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Its Alternatives (New York: Knopf, 1969), p. 14.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 311
Roles of International Organisations Clive Archer
References
H. Cassan, "Le Consensus dans la pratique des Nations Unies," Annuaire Franr;ais de Droit International, vol. 20 ( 1974).
I.L. Claude, Swords into Plowshares, 3rd. ed. (University of London Press 1964); 4th. ed. (New York, Random House 1971).
A.W. Cordier & W. Foote (eds), Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the U.N. vol. 2. Dag Hammarskjold 1953--1956 (New York, Columbia University Press 1972).
K. Deutsch, "External influences in the internal behaviour of states", in R.B. Farrell ( ed), Approaches to Comparative and International Politics (New York, Free Press 1966).
W J. Dixon, "The energy image of U.N. politics", World Politics vol. 34 no. 1 ( 1981).
A. Dolman, "The likeminded countries and the NIEO", Cooperation and Conflict vol. 14 nos. 2/3 (1979).
L.L. Fabian, International Administration of Peacekeeping Operations in the jordan (1971).
B. Gosovic &J.G. Ruggie, "On the creation of a new international economic order", International Organization vol. 30 no. 2 ( 1976).
R. Gregg, "Negotiating a NIEO: the issue of venue", in R. Jutte & A. Gross-] utte ( eds), The Future of International Organisations (London, Frances Pinter 1981).
R. Higgins, U.N. Peacekeeping 1946-1967. Documents and Commentary vol. 1 -The Middle East (London, OUP 1969).
R. Higgins, U.N. Peacekeeping 1946-1967. Documents and Commentary vol. 3 -Africa (London, OUP 1980).
S. Hoffmann, "International Organisations and the International System", International Organization vol. 24 ( 1970).
R.S. Jordan (ed), International Administration (New York, OUP 1971). J.M. McCormick & Y.W. Kihl, "Intergovernmental organisations and
foreign policy behaviour", American Political Science Review vol. 73 no. 2 (1979).
D. Moynihan, A Dangerous Place (London, Seeker & Warburg 1979). G. Myrdal, "Realities and illusions in regard to intergovernmental organisa-
tions", in Hobhouse Memorial Lecture 1955 (London, OUP). C. Cruise O'Brien, To Katanga and Back ( 1962). S. Weintraub, "The role of the United Nations in economic negotiations", in
D.A. Kay (ed), The Changing United Nations (New York, The Academy of Political Science 1977).
T. Weiss, "International bureaucracy", International Affairs vol. 58 no. 2 (1982).
312 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
A. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press 1962). A. Verrier, International Peacekeeping (Harmondsworth, Penguin 1981). Yearbook of International Organisation 1974 15th. ed. (Brussels, Union of Inter-
national Associations). A. Y eselson & A. Gaglione, A Dangerous Place - The U.N. as a Weapon in World
Politics (New York, Grossman 1974).
8. TRANSNA TIONALISM AND INTERDEPENDENCE
Realism and Complex Interdependence Robert 0. Keohane and JosephS. Nye
I. See e.g. R. Rosecrance & A. Stein, "Interdependence: Myth or Reality" World Politics (Oct. 1973) ....
2. H.A. Kissinger, "A New National Partnership" Department of State Bulletin, Feb. 17, 1975, p. 199.
3. See the report of the Commission on the Organization of the Govern-ment for the Conduct of Foreign Policy (Murphy Commission) (Washing-ton, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975) ....
4. New York Times, May 22, 1975. 5 .... seeK. Knorr, The Power of Nations (New York, Basic Books 1975). 6. Business Week, Jan. 13, 1975. 7. S. Hoffmann, "The Acceptability of Military Force," & L. Martin,
"The Utility of Military Force," in Force in Modem Societies: Its Place in International Politics (Adelphi Paper, IISS, 1973) ...
8. H. Brandon, The Retreat of American Power (New York, Doubleday 1974) p. 218.
9. International Implications of the New Economic Policy, U.S. Con-gress, House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommit-tee on Foreign Economic Policy, Hearings, Sept. 16, 1971.
10. For a more detailed discussion see R.O. Keohane & J.S. Nye, Jr., "Transgovernmental Relations and International Organisations," World Politics (Oct. 1974) pp. 39-62.
11. R. Bauer et al., American Business and Foreign Policy (New York, Atherton 1963) ch. 35 esp. pp. 472-75.
12. B. Gosovic & J .G. Ruggie, "On the Creation of a New International Economic Order" International Organization (Spring 1976) pp. 309-46.
13. R.W. Cox, "The Executive Head" International Organization (Spring 1969) pp. 205-30.
Transnationalism, Power Politics and the Realities of the Present System Michael P. Sullivan
1. Seyom Brown, New Forces in World Politics (Washington, D.C.: Brook-ings Institution, 1974); Robert E. Hunter, "Power and Peace," Foreign Policy
NOTES AND REFERENCES 313
9 (Winter 1972-1973), pp. 37-54; John R. Handleman, John A. Vasquez, Michael K. O'Leary, and William D. Coplin, "Colour It Morgenthau: A Data-Based Assessment of Quantitative International Relations Research," PRINCE Research Studies, Paper No. 11, mimeographed, 1973; Richard W. Mansbach, Yale E. Ferguson, and Donald E. Lampert, The Web of World Politics: Non-State Actors in the Global System (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); Robert C. Keohane and JosephS. Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977); Oran Young, "Interdependencies in World Politics," International Journal 24 (Autumn 1969), pp. 726-50; James N. Rosenau, "Muddling, Meddling, and Modell-ing: Alternative Approaches to the Study of World Politics in an Era of Rapid Change," Millennium: Journal of International Studies 8 (Autumn 1979), pp. 130-44; Richard W. Mansbach and John A. Vasquez, In Search of Theory: A Paradigm for Global Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).
2. Michael P. Sullivan, "Competing Frameworks and the Study of Contemporary International Politics," Millenium: journal of International Stu-dies 7 (Autumn 1978). pp. 93-100.
3. Kal Holsti, "A New International Politics? Diplomacy in Complex lnterd~pendence," International Organisation 32 (Spring 1978), pp. 513-30.
4. Mans bach and Vasquez, In Search of Theory, p. 5. 5. Mansbach et al., The Web of World Politics; Mansbach and Vasquez,
ibid.; Rosenau, "Muddling, Meddling, and Modelling," p. 132. 6. Young, "Interdependencies in World Politics," p. 734. 7. Hunter, "Power and Peace," p. 381. 8. Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1979). 9. Mansbach et al., The Web of World Politics, p. 273.
10. Ibid., p. 275. 11. James N. Schubert, "Toward a 'Working Peace System' in Asia:
Organisational Growth and State Participation in Asian Regionalism," International Organisation 32 (Spring 1978), p. 427.
12. Kjell Skjelsbaek, "The Growth of Nongovernmental Organisations in the Twentieth Century," International Organisation 25 (Summer 1971), pp. 422-42.
13. D. George Kousalas, On Government and Politics, 3d ed. (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1975), p. 233.
14. Mansbach et al., The Web OJ World Politics, p. 276. 15. Mansbach and Vasquez, In Search of Theory; Richard Mansbach and
John A. Vasquez, "The Effect of Issues on Global Conflict-Cooperation: American-West German Foreign Relations, 1959-1975," presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, St. Louis, March, 1977.
16. Mansbach and Vasquez, "The Effect of Issues," p. 18.
314 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
1 7. Graham T. Allison, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971); Morton H. Halperin, Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1974).
18. Mansbach and Vasquez, "The Effects of Issues," p. 22. 19. William D. Coplin, Stephen L. Mills, and Michael K. O'Leary, "The
PRINCE Concept and the Study of Foreign Policy," in Patrick]. McGowan, ed., Sage International Yearbook of Foreign Policy Studies, Vol. 1 (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1973).
20. James M. McCormick and Young W. Kihl, "IGOs and Nation-Behaviour: Routine or Salient?", prepared for delivery at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Washington, February, 1978, p. 3.
21. Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence. 22. McCormick and Kihl, "IGOs and Nation-Behaviour," p. 11. These
data are taken from the Comparative Research on the Events of Nations project (CREON) at Ohio State University, which collected these foreign policy events of thirty-five nations for randomly selected quarters from 1959 to 1968.
23. Edward F. Mickolus, "An Events Data Base for Analysis of Transna-tional Terrorism," in Richard J. Heuer, Jr., ed., Quantitive Approaches to Political Intelligence: The CIA Experience (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978); Brian M. Jenkins and Janera Johnson, "International Terrorism: A Chro-nology, 1968-1974," prepared for the Department of State and the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency, Rand Corporation, March, 1975; Brian M. Jenkins and Janera A. Johnson, "International Terrorism: A Chronology (1974 Supplement)."
24. This is not the case with one very narrowly defined type of terrorist activity, namely assassination attempts; see Thomas H. Snitch, "Assassina-tions and Political Violence, 1968-1978: An Events Data Approach," presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Los Angeles, March, 1980. These data show minor fluctuations from 1956 to the early 1970s, followed by a dramatic increase; the data through 1978 showed no such decline as outlined here.
25. For instance, in the Middle East the Arab-Israeli issue gave way to "inter-Arab" issues and then regained prominence along with the colonial issue. In Latin America, regime stability was most prominent in all three periods, but democracy-dictatorship gave way to Castroism in the second period and security in the third period.
26. Coplin et al., "The PRINCE Concept." 27. The same observation applies to their critique ofWilliam Gamson and
Andre Modigliani's work on East-West cooperation and conflict. Coplin et al., showed that if Gamson and Modigliani's data are broken down by region, different patterns of East-West relations emerge, but the frequencies of actions are severely distorted; for instance, breaking out USSR data for Latin America for 1960 means focusing on only one action - out of five
NOTES AND REFERENCES 315
major actions that occurred that year. See William Gamson and Andre Modigliani, Untangling the Cold War: A Strategy for Testing Rival Theories (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971).
28. William C. Potter, "Issue Area and Foreign Policy Analysis," Inter-national Organisation 34 (Summer 1980), p. 427.
29. Peter J. Katzenstein, "International Independence: Some Long-Term Trends and Recent Changes," International Organisation 29 (Autumn 1975), pp. 1021-34.
30. Richard N. Cooper, The Economics of Interdependence (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 120 and 140.
31. Ibid., p. 14. 32. Richard A. Rosecrance et al., "Whither Interdependence?" Inter-
national Organisation 31 (Summer 1977), pp. 425-72. One way of summarising this evidence is to use the percentage of "significance" correlations; for Rosecrance, a "significant" correlation is one exceeding. 75 in trend data and 30 in de-trended (percentage change) data.
33. Oskar Morgenstern, International Financial Transactions and Business Cycles (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959), pp. 102, 106, and 109. Six of the twelve pairs of countries had Z scores high enough to reject the null hypothesis of no agreement at the 5 percent level; only two of the twelve showed no correspondence. Six of the correlation coefficients were higher than .60, eight were .40 or higher; only one was below.
34. Philip Klein, Business Cycles in the Post War World: Some Reflections on Recent Research (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, Domestic Affairs Study No. 24, February, 1976), p. 42.
35. Konrad M. Kressley, "Integrated Television in Europe: A Note on the Eurovision Network," International Organisation 32 (Autumn 1978), pp. 470-71.
36. Rosecrance et al., "Whither Interdependence?" p. 442. 37. Michael Hudson, Global Fracture: The New International Economic Order
(New York: Harper and Row, 1977), p. 219. 38. Frank L. Klingberg, "The Historical Alternation of Moods in Ameri-
can Foreign Policy," World Politics 4 (January 1952), pp. 239-73; FrankL. Klingberg, "Cyclical Trends in American Foreign Policy Moods and Their Policy Implications," in Charles W. Kegley, Jr., and Patrick J. McGowan, eds., Challenges to America: United States Foreign Policy in the 1980s (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1979), pp. 37-56; Michael Roskin, "From Pearl Harbour to Vietnam: Shifting Generational Paradigms and Foreign Policy," Political Science Quarterly 89 (Fall 1974), pp. 563-88; Jack E. Holmes, "The Mood/Interest Theory of American Foreign Policy," mimeographed, 1977; Michael P. Sullivan, "The Vietnam War and American Foreign Policy: Some Perspectives," presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association/West, Los Angeles, April, 1977.
39. Holmes; "The Mood/Interest Theory"; Sullivan, "The Vietnam War
316 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
and American Foreign Policy, 1973), p. 4. 40. Edward Azar, Probe for Peace: Small-State Hostilities (Minneapolis:
Burgess Publishing, 1973), p. 4. 41. Steven J. Rosen and Walter S. Jones, The Logic of International Relations
(Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers, 1974), p. 156. 42. Melvin Small and J. David Singer, "Conflict in the International
System, 1816--1977: Historical Trends and Policy Futures," in Kegley and McGowan, eds., Challenges to America, p. 104.
43. J. David Singer and Melvin Small, The Wages of War, 1816-1965: A Statistical Handbook (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1972), p. 215.
44. Small and Singer, "Conflict in the International System," p. 114, footnote 5.
45. Ibid., p. 107. 46. Frank H. Denton and Warren Phillips, "Some Patterns in the History
of Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 12 (June 1968), p. 190. 47. Ibid., p. 193. 48. Charles W. Ostrom, Jr., and John H. Aldrich, "The Relationship
Between Size and Stability in the Major Power International System," American journal of Political Science 22 (November 1978), pp. 769-70.
49. Klaus Knorr, "Is International Coercion Waning or Rising?", Inter-national Security (Spring 1977), p. 93.
50. Ibid., pp. 99-100. 51. Werner Levi, The Coming End of War (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publica-
tions, 1981). 52. Edward L. Morse, Modernisation and the Transformation of International
Relations (New York: Free Press, 1976), p. 178. 53. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 140. 54. William D. Coplin, "Power Politics Versus Issue Politics: Paradigma-
tic Conflict, Levels of Analysis, and Theoretical Integration," presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Toronto, March, 1979, pp. 6, 8-9.
55. Mansbach and Vasquez, In Search of Theory. 56. Michael P. Sullivan, "Symbolic Commitment as a Correlate of Escala-
tion: The Vietnam Case," in Bruce Russett, ed., Peace, War, and Numbers (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1972); Michael P. Sullivan, "Foreign Policy Articulations and U.S. Conflict Behaviour," in J. David Singer and Michael D. Wallace, eds., To Augur Well: Early Warning Indicators in World Politics (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1979).
57. Donald Puchala and Stuart Fagan, "International Politics in the 1970s: The Search for a Perspective," International Organisation 28 (Spring 1974), pp. 251-52.
58. C. Fred Bergsten, Robert E. Keohane, and Joseph S. Nye, "Inter-national Economics and International Politics: A Framework for Analysis," International Organisation 29 (Winter 1975), p. 23.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 317
59. Robert 0. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, "World Politics and the International Economic System," in C. Fred Bergsten, ed., The Future of the International Economic Order: An Agenda for Research (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1973), p. 147.
60. Richard W. Sterling, Macropolitics: International Politics in a Global Society (New York: Knopf, 1974), p. 65.
61. Morse, Modernisation and Transformation, p. 179. 62. Ibid., citing Pierre Hassner, "The Nation-State in the Nuclear Age,"
Survey 67 (April), p. 3. 63. Mansbach and Vasquez, In Search of Theory, p. 310. 64. Ibid., p. 407. 65. Brown, New Forces in World Politics, p. 196. 66. Kenneth C. Crowe, "Selling America," Arizona Daily Star, December
7, 1978. 67. R.D. McLaurin, "Interdependence and Technology Transfer: Some
Preliminary Thoughts," presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, April, 1979, p. 19-20.
68. KalJ. Holsti, "Change in the International System: Interdependence, Integration, and Fragmentation," in Ole R. Holsti, Randolph M. Silverson, and Alexander L. George, eds., Change in the International System (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), p. 33.
69. Hunter, "Power and Peace," pp. 38, 46-47. 70. Randleman et al., "Color It Morgenthau." 71. Rosenau, "Muddling, Meddling, and Modelling," p. 132.
9. THE GLOBAL ECONOMY On the Concept of an Economic World Order Lars Anell
1. L. Anell & B. Nygren, The Developing Countries and the World Economic Order (London: Francis Pinter 1978) p. 141.
2. Marina V.N. Whitman, Sustaining the International Economic System: Issues for U.S. Policy. Essays in International Finance. No. 121 (Princeton, N.J. June 1977), p. 27.
3. During the years 1970-4 West Germany's dollar holdings depreciated by one-third when the value of the dollar decreased by 53 per cent against the D-mark.
4. Cohen, quoted in Interjutures (Paris, OECD 1979) differentiates be-tween structural power (the ability to determine rules) and procedural power (the ability to make use of given rules).
5. D.P. Calleo (ed), Money and the Coming World Order (New York Univer-sity Press 1971) pp. 21-3.
6. For a discussion of this concept see Morris Janowitz, The Last Half Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (University of Chicago Press 1978) chap. I.
318 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
7. Kindleberger, who is an energetic advocate of hegemonic solutions, believes that one reason for the extent of the depression during the thirties was the lack of firm leadership of the world economy because the hegemonic leadership was in the process of being transferred from Great Britain to the United States (see Calleo, pp. 34-5).
8. See for example Leopold Kohr, The Breakdown of Nations (New York, E.P. Dalton 1978) p. 206.
9. It is not certain, on the other hand, that international stability increases growth within each of the participating countries. It is theoretically conceivable that certain countries - e.g. countries with high wages and internal stability - may achieve higher growth in a more unstable inter-national order.
10. An account of the developing countries' demands for a new inter-national economic order is given in Anell & Nygren.
11. Ali Mazrui quoted in H. Bull, The Anarchical Society (London, Macmil-lan 1978) p. 77.
Turbulence and Inequality in the Global Economy Jeffrey A. Hart
1. "Turbulence is the term bestowed upon the confused and clashing perceptions of organisation actors who find themselves in a setting of great social complexity: the number of actors is very large; each actor pursues a variety of objectives which are mutually incompatible, but each is unsure of the trade-offs between the objectives; each actor is tied into a network of interdependencies with other actors who are as confused as he, yet some of the objectives sought by each cannot be obtained without cooperation from others." Ernst B. Haas, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory (Berke-ley, Calif: Institute of International Studies, 1975) p. 18.
2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Devel-opment Report 1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978) p. 7.
3. Robert McNamara, Address to the Board of Governors, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 2 October 1979 (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1979) p. 25. See also The Brandt Commission Papers (Geneva: Independent Bureau for International Development Issues, 1981) pp. 50-60.
4. Gilbert H. Winham, The Automobile Trade Crisis of 1980 (Halifax, Nova Scotia: Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, Dalhousie University, May 1980).
5. Albert Fishlow, 'A New International Economic Order: What Kind?' in Fishlow et al., Rich and Poor Nations in the World Economy, pp. 65-7; Marilyn J. Seiber, 'Debt Escalation: Developing Countries in the Eurocurrency Market', in Lawrence Franko and Marilyn J. Seiber, Developing Country Debt (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979); Charles Lipson, 'The International Organisation of Third World Debt', International Organisation, 35 (Autumn 1981) 603-23.
6. William H. Branson, 'Trends in U.S. International Trade and Com-
NOTES AND REFERENCES 319
parative Advantage: Analysis and Prospects', in International Economic Policy Research (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1980).
7. 'The New Interdependence: From Hierarchy to Symmetry', in james W. Howe, The United States and World Development: Agenda for Action 1975 (New York: Praeger, 1975) p. 121.
8. C. Fred Bergsten, 'Threat from the Third World', Foreign Policy, no. 11 (Summer 1973) 102-24, and 'The Threat is Real', Foreign Policy, no. 14 (Spring 1974) 84-90.
9. Douglas Hibbs, Economic Interest and the Politics of Macroeconomic Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Centre for International Studies, MIT, August 1975).
10. Bank for International Settlements, Fiftieth Annual Report (Basle: Bank for International Settlements, 9 June 1980) pp. 22-4.
11. The American Economy: Employment, Productivity, and Inflation in the Eighties, Report of the Panel on the American Economy of the Presi-dent's Commission for a National Agenda for the Eighties (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981) p. 54.
12. Mark H. Willes, '"Rational Expectations" as a Counterrevolution', The Public Interest ( 1980) 81-96.
13. On Germany, see Alfred Diamant, 'Democratising the Workplace: The Myth and Reality of Mitbestimmung in the Federal Republic of Ger-many', in David Garson (ed.), Worker Self-Management in Industry (New York: Praeger, 1977); Richard]. Willey, 'Trade Unions and Political Parties in the Federal Republic of Germany', Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 28 (October 1974) 38--59; Labour Relations and Industrial Democracy in the Federal Republic of Germarry (New York: German Information Centre, February 1981). On japan, see T.J. Pempel, 'Japanese Foreign Economic Policy', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.), Between Power and Plenty (Madison: University of Winsconsin Press, 1978) pp. 154-5.
14. William Diebold, Industrial Policy as an International Issue (New York: McGraw Hill, 1980); Magaziner and Hout, Japanese Industrial Policy; John Zysman and Laura Tyson, 'Making Policy for American Industry in Inter-national Competition', in Zysman and Tyson (eds), American Industry in Industrial Competition (Ithaca: Cornall University Press, 1983).
15. Philip H. Tresize, 'Industrial Policy in japan', and Werner Menden, 'Industrial Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany', papers presented at a conference on 'Industry Vitalisation' in Minneapolis, Minnesota, 26-8 April 1981.
16. Ministry of Overseas Development, Overseas Development: the Changing Emphasis in British Aid Policies: More Help for the Poorest (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, October 1975).
17. This was the view of most US policy-makers, including both Secretary of State Kissinger and Treasury Secretary Simon, during the Ford Adminis-tration.
18. Howe, United States and World Development and Bergsten, 'Threat from
320 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
Third World' and 'Threat is Real'. 19. See, for example, Paul L. Eckbo, The Future of World Oil (Cambridge,
Mass.: Ballinger, 1976). 20. Robert 0. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1977) p. 8. 21. Robert W. Tucker, The Inequality of Nations (New York: Basic Books,
1977) pp. 97-100. 22. See, for example, Report of Japan-US Economic Relations Group (Tokyo
and Washington: Thejapan-US Economic Relations Group, January 1981): Francis Beer, 'The Political Economy of Alliances: Benefits, Costs, and Institutions in NATO', Sage Professional Papers in International Studies, 1 (1972) Series No. 02-008.
23. The Soviet Union needs its ties to Eastern Europe not just for security reasons, but also because of the cost advantages that a larger market creates for the production of key goods (especially technology intensive goods). The ties to Eastern Europe also provide the Soviet Union with greater flexibility in its international economic policies. One example of this is the recent shift in Soviet petroleum sales from Eastern Europe to other customers as a way of earning scarce convertible currencies.
24. A. Doak Barnett, China's Economy in Global Perspective (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981).
25. Tucker, The Inequality of Nations, pp. 97-100. 26. Miriam Camps, The Management of Interdependence (New York: Council
on Foreign Relations, 1974); Haas, Obsolescence.
Further Reading
The following list is meant to be a select guide to supplement the selections contained in this volume. It is no more than an indicative reading list. Apart from two important exceptions I have not included the texts from which the readings are taken.
THE EXPANSION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY
G. Barraclough, An Introduction To Contemporary History (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967).
H. Bull and A. Watson (eds), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
P. Calvocoressi, World Politics since 1945 (London: Longman, 5th edn 1987). C. Thomas, In Search of Security: The Third World in International Relations
(Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1987). T.E. Vadney, The World Since 1945 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).
2 NATIONALISM
B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983). E. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983). F.H. Hinsley, Nationalism and the International System (London: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1973). R. Munck, The Difficult Dialogue: Marxism and Nationalism (London: Zed,
1986). T.V. Sathyamurthy, Nationalism in the Contemporary World (London: Frances
Pinter, 1983).
3 THE STATE IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
H. Bull, The Anarchical Society (London & Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977). A. Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (London: Polity, 1985). A. James, Sovereign Statehood (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986). H.J. Morgenthau and K.W. Thompson, Politics among Nations (New York:
Knopf 6th edn 1985). R. Pettman, State and Class (London: Croom Helm, 1979).
322 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
4 WAR
G. Blainey, The Causes of War (London: Macmillan, 1988). B. Buzan, Peoples, States and Fear (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1983). D.G. Pruitt and R.C. Snyder (eds), Theory and Research on the Causes of War
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). A. Rapoport, Coriflict in Man-Made Environment (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1974). K.N. Waltz, Man, the State and War (New York: Columbia University Press,
1959).
5 REVOLUTION
P. Calvert, Revolution And International Politics (London: Frances Pinter, 1984). T.R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton University Press, 1970). B. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (London: Allen Lane,
1967). T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Anarysis of France, Russia
and China (Cambridge University Press, 1979). E. Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (London: Faber, 1971).
6 Il'iTERl'iATIONAL LAW
M. Akehurst, A Modem Introduction to International Law (London: Allen & Unwin, 4th edn 1982).
R. Falk, The Status of Law in International Society (Princeton University Press, 1970).
J.E.S. Fawcett, Law and Power in International Relations (London: Faber, 1982). M.A. Kaplan and N. de B. Katzenbach, The Political Foundations of Interna-
tional Law (New York: Wiley, 1961). T. Nardin, Law, Morality and the Relations of Nations (Princeton University
Press, 1983).
7 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION
J .A. Ansari, The Political Economy of International Economic Organisation (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1986).
I.L. Claude, Swords into Plowshares (New York: Random House, 4th edn 1971).
R.W. Cox and H.K. Jacobson (eds), The Anatomy of Influence (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1974).
E.B. Haas, Beyond The Nation-State (Stanford University Press, 1964). P. Taylor and A.J.R. Groom (eds), International Organisation: A Conceptual
Approach (London: Frances Pinter, 1978).
FURTHER READING 323
8 TRANSNATIONALISM AND INTERDEPENDENCE
R.J.B. Jones and P. Willetts (eds), Interdependence on Trial (London: Frances Pinter, 1984).
R.O. Keohane and J.S. Nye (eds), Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).
R. Maghroori and B. Ramberg (eds), Globalism vs Realism (Boulder: West-view, 1982).
E.L. Morse, Modernization and the Transformation of International Relations (New York: The Free Press, 1976).
J.N. Rosenau, The Study of Global Interdependence (London: Frances Pinter, 1980).
9 THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
S. George, A Fate Worse Than Debt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988). R. Gilpin, The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton University
Press, 1987). R.O. Keohane, After Hegemony (Princeton University Press, 1984). S. Mitter, Common Fate, Common Bond: Women in the Global Economy (London:
Pluto, 1986). S. Strange, States and Markets (London: Frances Pinter, 1988).
Index
Africa foreign intervention 113-14 and secession 109 and statehood 98-116
African independence 108-9 African nationalism 110-11 Albania 86 Aldrich, J. 268 Algeria 8, 9, 69, 90, 95 Amnesty International 232 Andean Group 34 Angola 9, 98, 102, 104, 106 anti-colonialism 32 apartheid 32 Arab League 67, 75 Ardrey, R. 94 Argentina 89 Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) 34, 35
balance of power 69, 73, 76, 112, 117 balance of terror 76 Bangladesh 59 Barbados 89 Belgium 106 Benin 104 Biafra 59, 99, 105 Bozeman, A.B. 19, 22 Brandt Commission 33 Britain see United Kingdom Brownlie, I. 100-2 Bull, H. 29 Burundi 102
Cameroon I 03 Canada 57 Cape Verde 109 Caribbean Common Market
(CARICOM) 34 Carr, E.H. 121 Central American Common Market
(CACM) 34 Chad 98, 99, 102, 103, 106
Chatterjee, P. 128 China 2, 4, 5, 20, 86, 89, 93, 187, 297 Christianity, and nuclear
weapons 129-32 Claude, I.L. 231 Cobban, A. 60 cold war 8 Colombia, Violencia
movement 157-82 colonialism 5, 11, 70 Comintern 5 Commonwealth 35, 41 Comoros 109 communist parties 5, 6 Congo 89 Congo-Brazzaville 104 Coplin, W.D. 259, 262, 270 Cordier, A.W. 236, 237 Council of Europe 34 Cuba 83, 86 Cyprus 8
Debray, R. 56 decolonisation 2, 3-12, 18, 32, 109 Denton, F. 268 Deutsch, K. 58, 62, 219, 231 diplomacy 2, 3, 20, 28-41, 189
Easton, D. 101 economic development 3, 5, 11, 71, 95 Egypt 5, 6 El Salvador 30 Equatorial Guinea 109 Ethiopia 69, 90, 98, 102, 105, 106,
108, 109, 112, 113 Europe, decline of 4 European Economic Community
(EEC) 35, 41, 67, 74-5, 282
INDEX 325
Fabian, L. 238 Federal Republic of Germany 289,
290, 293 Foote, W. 236, 237 France 4, 6, 9, 61, 74, 83, 87, 96, 106,
113,114
Gabon 103, 109, 114 Gaglione, A. 226 Gambia 89, 106, 109 Gandhi, Mahatma 66 Garvey, Marcus 63 Geertz, C. 61 Gellner, E. 65-6, 67, 69 General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) 7, 28, 33, 226, 227
German Democratic Republic 86, 91 Ghana 89, 104 global economy 274-97
Gosovic, B. 230 Greece 6 Gregg, R.W. 227, 229 Group of77 (G77) 33, 34,227,230 Guinea 103 Gutteridge, W. 105
Hackett, J. 120 Halevy, E. 123 Herder, J.G. 45, 46, 54 Hobsbawm, E. 164 Ho Chi Minh 63 Hoffman, S. 226 Holsti, K. 272 Hudson, M. 266 Hungary 83, 86, 93 Hunter, R. 273
imperialism 2, 3, 4, II, IS, 52, 84 India 5, 7, 57, 69, 83, 87, 89 Indonesia 61 industrialisation 3, 22, 67 interdependence 76, 198, 209-11,
241-74, 295-7 characteristics of 243-8 and international
organisations 253-4 measurements of 263-5
political processes 248-54 international actors 257-60 International Court of Justice 30,
192-3, 200--1 internationalism 43-4, 66--77 international law 88, 183-204
development of 195-204 and in terna tiona! organisations 190,
197-9 and international society 183-4 limitations of 192-4 and nuclear weapons 132-3 varieties of 186--91
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 7, 33, 40, 72, 226, 227
international organisations 205-40, and interdependence 253-4 and international law 190, 197-9 and the international
system 209-11 networks 21 7-18 roles 221-40 and state sovereignty 219-21 types of 211-17
international society 1-41,78,79, 80, 107, 109
and Africa II 0--14 and international law 183-4
international system II, 27, 70, 73, 84, 115
and change 269-73 and international
organisations 209-11 and war 119-28
intervention 91-4 Iran 22 Islam 16, 17 Israel 83, 95, 97 Italy 6, 57 Ivory Coast 102, 103, 104, 106
Japan 4, 6, 7, 69, 287, 289, 290, 293 Jones, W. 267
Kaplan, A. 209 Kaplan, M. 273 Katzenstein, P. 263, 264 Kautksy, K. 58-9, 65 Keens-Soper, M. 13 Kenya 100, 103, 104, 106, 109, 112
Mau Mau uprising 157-82 Kenyatta, J. 167-8
326
Keohane, R.O. 121 Kihl, Y.W. 259 Kissinger, H. 120, 245 Klein, P. 265 Knorr, K. 268 Korea 86, 93 Kressley, K. 265
Lasswell, H.D. 209 Latin American Common Market
(LAFTA) 34 League Of Nations 6, 67 Lenin V.I. 5, 58, 64, 83
and revolution 149-50, 153 Lesotho 108, 110 Leys, C. 179 Liberia 108 Lippmann, W. 224 Lorenz, K. 94 Luxemburg, R. 57
Malawi 103, 104, 106 Mali 104 Mandel, E. 128 Mansbach, R.W. 258, 262, 270, 272 Mauritania 20 Mazrui, A. 291 Mazzini, G. 49 McCormick, J.M. 259 military coups 103-4 modernisation 3, 23, 67, 95, 97 Montevideo Convention 100 Morgenthau, H.j. 84, 253, 273 Morocco 20, 26, 69, 106 Morse, E.L. 269, 271 Moynihan, D. 228 Mozambique 106 Myrdal, G. 104, 221, 223
national interest 23 nationalism 3, 7, 10, 11, 22,42-77,
85 marxist theories of 56-66
New International Economic Order (NIEO) 40, 226-30, 276, 286
marxist theories of 144--54 Romania 83 Rosecrance, R. 263, 264 Rosen, S. 267 Rosenau, J. 270 Rousseau, J.-J. 45, 46 Ruggie, J.G. 230 Russia see Soviet Union Russian Revolution 2, 4, 5 Rwanda 102
Sao Tome and Principe 109 Satow, E. 29 Saudi Arabia 90 Scott, A.M. 92 Second World War and
