Notes

Introduction: Historiography and theory

1. Archivio Centrale dello Stato [henceforth ACS], Ministero dell’Interno[henceforth MI] Divisione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza [henceforth DGPS],1935, b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice, 12 Nov. 1935. The islandsof Venice are divided into six districts or sestieri: San Marco, Castello,Cannaregio, Dorsoduro, San Polo and Santa Croce.

2. R. De Felice (1974) Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Turin:Einaudi) p. 82; P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened todictatorship?’ Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 332–3; R.J.B. Bosworth(2005) Mussolini’s Italy. Life Under the Dictatorship 1915–1945 (London: AllenLane) and idem. (2005) ‘Everyday Mussolinism: friends, family, locality andviolence in Fascist Italy’ Contemporary European History, vol. 14.1, pp. 23–4.

3. P. Corner “Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?” pp. 329–330,333. The idea of a ‘hidden transcript’ or indirect means and evidence ofdissent comes from J.C. Scott (1990) Domination and the Arts of Resistance:Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press); R.J.B. Bosworth‘Everyday Mussolinism’ p. 25.

4. ACS DGPS 1935 b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice 12 Nov. 1935.5. Ibid.6. In her inquiry into the representations of the imagined Mussolini, Luisa

Passerini noted the repeated emphasis made to his abstemiousness, as part ofthe construction of the Duce as an exemplar of virile masculinity. L. Passerini(1991) Mussolini Immaginario: storia di una biografia 1915–1939 (Rome-Bari:Laterza) pp. 122–3. Nevertheless, the osterie and bars of Venice frequentlyprovided the location for clashes – whether violent or verbal – between sup-porters and opponents of fascism. R. Vicentini (1935) A Il movimento fascistaveneto attraverso il diario di uno squadrista (Venice: Soc. Acc. Stamperia Zanetti)p. 113; A. Casellato (2002) ‘I sestieri popolari’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf(eds.) Storia di Venezia. L’Ottocento e il Novecento vol 2, (Rome: Istituto dellaEnciclopedia Italiana (Treccani)) pp. 1596–1607. The role of alcohol and itsassociated locations in the expression of consent/dissent for fascism deservesgreater attention.

7. See the introduction to M. Foucault (1975) Surveiller et punir (Paris:Gallimard).

8. The report noted that ‘in turn, Cadel, confirming the above-stated circum-stances, declared that it had been his impression that Pinzoni was singingthe communist hymn “The red flag will triumph” and it was only when hestopped him that he added the words: “over the toilets of the city”’. ACSDGPS 1935 b.7 report from the Prefecture of Venice, 12 Nov. 1935. Here, theterm ‘tactic’ is used in the sense in which it was used by Michel de Certeau,in response to Michel Foucault’s assertions of the ever-present networks of

203

204 Notes

power within society, to denote the methods by which individuals are ableto act autonomously and win back some degree of control in their every-day lives. M. de Certeau (S. Rendell trans.) (1988) The Practice of EverydayLife, (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press) pp. xviii–xx,34–7.

9. J. Revel (1996) Jeux d’echelles: la micro-analyse à l’experience (Paris: Gallimard).10. Many of these criticisms, and the responses of key everyday life histo-

rian, Alf Lüdtke to them, are set out in A. Lüdtke (1995) ‘Introduction:What is the history of everyday Life and who are its practitioners?’ in idem(ed.) (W. Templer trans.) The History of Everyday Life Reconstructing HistoricalExperiences and Ways of Life, (Princeton: Princeton University Press).

11. P. Steege, A.S. Bergerson, M. Heely & P. Swett (2008) ‘The history of everydaylife: a second chapter’ Journal of Modern History vol. 80, pp. 358–378.

12. See A. Lüdtke (ed.) (W. Templer trans.), The History of Everyday Life; idem(2000) ‘People working: Everyday life and German fascism’ History Work-shop Journal vol. 50 pp. 74–92; G. Eley (1989) ‘Labour history, social history,Alltagsgeschichte: Experience, politics and the culture of the everyday – anew direction for German social history?’ Journal of Modern History vol 61.2,pp. 297–343.

13. C. Lipp (1990) ‘Writing history as political culture. Social history ver-sus ‘Alltagsgeschichte’; a German debate’ Storia della Storiografia vol. 17,pp. 66–99; Kolloquien des Instituts für Zeitgeschichte (1988) Alltagsgeschichteder N-S Zeit: neue Perspektive oder Trivialisierung? (Munich: OldenbourgR. Verlag GmbH).

14. D. Peukert (R. Deveson trans.) (1989) Inside Nazi Germany. Conformity,Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

15. D.F. Crew (1992) ‘The Pathologies of Modernity: Detlev Peukert onGermany’s Twentieth Century’, Social History, vol. 17.2.

16. S. Fitzpatrick (1999) Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times:Soviet Russia in the 1930s (New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press).On the historiographical context, see S. Fitzpatrick (2007) ‘Revisionism inSoviet History’ History and Theory vol. 46.4 and idem. (2008) ‘Revisionism inretrospect: a personal view’ Slavic Review vol. 67.3.

17. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism, p. 3 for the quotation.18. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism. pp. 2–3; 54–8.19. Ibid p. 62.20. L. Passerini (1984) Torino operaio e fascismo: una storia orale (Rome-Bari,

Laterza), published in English as (B. Lumley & J. Bloomfield trans.) (1987)Fascism in Popular Memory. The Cultural Experience of the Turin Working Class,(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 129–149; A. Lüdtke “What hap-pened to the ‘fiery red glow’? Workers’ experiences and German fascism’ inidem. (ed.) The History of Everyday Life pp. 198–251.

21. See A. Lüdtke ‘Introduction: What is the history of everyday life and who areits practitioners?’ in idem (ed.) The History of Everyday Life. pp. 3–40.

22. L. Hunt (1989) The New Cultural History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Universityof California Press); V. Bonnell & L. Hunt (eds.) (1999) Beyond the CulturalTurn. New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley & Los Angeles:University of California Press).

Notes 205

23. For example, the authors of the recent review article setting out thestall of the ‘second chapter’ of the everyday life approach all work onGermany or German-speaking central Europe. P. Steege et al. ‘A historyof everyday life: a second chapter’. An obvious recent exception to thisis the co-authored chapter by Sheila Fitzpatrick and Alf Lüdtke (2009)‘Energising the everyday: on the breaking and making of social bondsin Nazism and Stalinism’ in M. Geyer & S. Fitzpatrick (eds.) BeyondTotalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press). Again, though, this reproduces the most common inter-national comparison, that of Nazi Germany and the Stalinist Soviet Union.We still await a broader comparative history of the lived experience ofdictatorships.

24. A.S. Bergeson (2001) ‘Listening to the radio in Hildesheim, 1923-53’ GermanStudies Review vol. 24, 83–113; J. Fürst (2006) ‘In search of Soviet salvation:Young people’s letters of confession to the Stalinist authorities” ContemporaryEuropean History, 15.3, 327–345; R. Koshar (2002) ‘Germans at the wheel:Cars and leisure travel in interwar Germany’ in idem (ed.) Histories of Leisure(Oxford: Berg).

25. On Franco’s Spain, see J. Gracia & M.A. Ruiz Carnicer (2004) La España deFranco (1939–1975): cultura y vida cotidiana (Madrid: Editorial Síntesis) andA. Cazorla Sánchez (2010) Fear and Progress. Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain,1939–1975 (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell). For historians working on the day-to-day experience of ‘really-existing socialism’ in the German DemocraticRepublic see, for example, K. Jarausch (ed.) (1999) Dictatorship as Experi-ence: Toward a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR (New York and Oxford:Berghahn Books) or the more recent study, J. Feinstein (2002) The Triumphof the Ordinary: Depictions of Daily Life in the East German Cinema 1949–1989 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press). See also the reviewarticle by Sandrine Kott which appraises these and other recent scholar-ship: (2004) ‘Everyday Communism: New Social History of the GermanDemocratic Republic’ in Contemporary European History vol. 13.2, 233–247.

26. G. Eley (2005) A Crooked Line. From Cultural History to the History of Society(Ann Arbour, MI.: University of Michigan Press) pp. xiii; 5.

27. Similar questions to these were posed in B. Gregory (1999) ‘Is small beautiful?Microhistory and the history of everyday life’ History and Theory vol. 38.1,100–110.

28. J. Kocka ‘Geschichte als Aufklärung?’ Frankfurter Rundschau, January 4 1988.29. Lüdtke’s analysis of worker attitudes towards Nazism following the takeover

of power in 1933 provides an example of the patchwork development ofsupportive stances towards the regime among particular pockets of theworkforce. A. Lüdtke ‘What happened to the fiery red glow?’ pp. 198–251.

30. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism pp. 62–6.31. C. Ginzburg (1976) Il formaggio e i vermi: Il cosmo di un mugnaio del ‘500

(Turin: Einaudi) published in English as (J. & A. Tedeschi trans.) (1992) TheCheese and the Worms (Harmondsworth: Penguin) pp. xiii–xxvi.

32. Ibid. See also A. Körner (2002) ‘Culture et structure’ Le Mouvement Social,200, pp. 55–63; M. Peltonen (2001) ‘Clues, margins and monads. Themicro-macro link in historical research’ History and Theory vol. 40.3,pp. 347–359.

206 Notes

33. On the idea of in-betweeness and hybridity see N. García Canclini (1995)Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity (London: Univer-sity of Minnisota Press) pp. 107–9, 135–44 and S. Santiago (2001) The SpaceIn-Between: Essays on Latin American Culture (London: Duke University Press)pp. 25–38.

34. In his novel, Fontamara, first published in translation in 1933, Ignazio Silonepresented an image of rural Italian life in which fascist authority effectivelyreplaced the remote and autocratic authority to which the wretched inhabi-tants of the village (cafoni) had long become accustomed and resigned. CarloLevi’s account of his time in internal exile in Basilicata in the mid 1930s sim-ilarly emphasises the supposed timeless character of rural Italian life and itsexploitations. I. Silone (1975) Fontamara (London: The Journeyman Press)p. 9; C. Levi (1982) Christ Stopped at Eboli (Harmondsworth: Penguin) p. 29.The historian R.J.B. Bosworth follows Levi in insisting that fascism and itsintrusions were only ever ‘part of [Italians’] lives’. R.J.B. Bosworth (2004)‘War, totalitarianism and ‘deep belief’ in Fascist Italy, 1935–43’ EuropeanHistory Quarterly vol. 34.4, p. 499. On semi stillness and ‘deep time’, seeF. Braudel (S. Matthews trans.) (1980) On History (Chicago: University ofChicago Press).

35. The quotation is from B.J. Davis (2000) Home Fires Burning. Food, politics andeveryday life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill, NC.: University of NorthCarolina Press) p. 5. See also P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’pp. 361; 363–8.

36. See P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ pp. 363–8.37. P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’

Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 325–7.38. R. de Felice (1974) Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso 1929–1936 (Turin:

Einaudi); S. Colarizi (2000) L’opinione degli italiani sotto il regime 1929–43(Rome-Bari: Laterza); P. Cannistraro (1975) La fabbrica del consenso: fascismoe mass media (Rome-Bari: Laterza).

39. R. de Felice (1975) Intervista sul fascismo (Rome-Bari: Laterza) publishedin English as: R. de Felice (M. Ledeen ed.) (1976) Fascism: An InformalIntroduction to its Theory and Practice (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction).For a summary of the polemics surrounding de Felice’s interpreta-tion of fascism, see Paul O’ Brien’s 2004 review of Emilio Gentile’s(2003) Renzo De Felice (Rome-Bari: Laterza) in Modern Italy vol. 9.1,pp. 121–124.

40. P. Corner ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ p. 325.41. R. de Felice Mussolini il Duce. Gli anni del consenso p. 55.42. P. Morgan (1999) ‘The years of consent? Popular attitudes and forms of

resistance to fascism in Italy 1925–40’ in T. Kirk & A. McElligott (eds.)Opposing Fascism. Community, Authority and Resistance in Europe (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press) pp. 163–179.

43. This point is made by Morgan in ibid and, in relation to protest in Franco’sSpain, by Michael Richards in (1999) ‘Falange, Autarky and Crisis: TheBarcelona General Strike of 1951’ European History Quarterly, vol. 29.4,pp. 543–585.

44. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’; idem. ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever hap-pened to dictatorship?’ pp. 328–330.

Notes 207

45. See D. Peukert (R. Deveson trans.) (1989) Inside Nazi Germany. Conformity,Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life, (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

46. A. Lüdtke ‘Introduction: What is the history of Everyday Life?’ pp. 3–40.47. The quotation is from P. Steege et al ‘The history of everyday life’

p. 370.48. Cited in P. Corner ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’

p. 349 (ft 71).49. See M. Franzinelli (1999) I tentacoli dell’OVRA: Agenti, collaboratori, e vit-

time della polizia politica fascista (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri) and V. de Grazia(1981) The Culture of Consent. Mass Organisation of Leisure in Fascist Italy,(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

50. Paul Corner makes this point in ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dic-tatorship?’ pp. 327–8; 340–8. In addition, Victoria de Grazia has shown thedualistic function, combining enticement and social control, of the fascistafter-work organisation (OND), as has Maria Quine with respect to fascistwelfare policies. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent; M.S. Quine (2002) Italy’sSocial Revolution. Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism (Basingstoke& New York: Palgrave Macmillan).

51. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’ p. 167.52. P. Corner ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ pp. 330–7.53. On ‘mediators’ see L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149.

On the creativity of consumption see M. de Certeau (S. Rendell trans.), ThePractice of Everyday Life pp. 15–42.

54. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149.55. Ibid.56. A. Lüdtke ‘What happened to the ‘fiery red glow’? Workers’ experi-

ences and German fascism’ in idem. (ed.) The History of Everyday Lifepp. 198–251.

57. Both Detlev Peukert, working on Nazi Germany, and Mary Vincent, workingon Franco’s Spain, have pointed to the tactic or mechanism of ‘withdraw-ing into oneself’ and retreating into more private and domestic worlds, aprevalent trope in the accounts of contemporaries written during and afterthe events depicted. This notwithstanding, as Mary Nolan has pointed out,the result of this retreat or withdrawal was effectively the prolongation inpower of the regime and therefore the prolongation of the repression andpersecution of the regimes’ perceived enemies. Peukert Inside Nazi Germanypassim; M. Vincent Modern Spain: The Problem of the State, 1833–2000(Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007) chapter 6; M. Nolan (1997) ‘Work,gender and everyday life: reflections on continuity, normality and agencyin twentieth-century Germany’ in I. Kershaw & M. Lewin (eds) Stalinismand Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress).

58. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–149.59. S. Colarizi L’opinione degli italiani; M. Franzinelli I tentacoli dell’OVRA;

R. Canosa (2000) I servizi segreti del Duce: I persecutori e le vittime (Milan:Mondadori).

60. See S. Colarizi (1994) ‘Metodo e strumenti di rilevamento per un’indaginesull’opinione degli italiani sotto il regime’ Ventesimo secolo, vol IV n. 10,pp. 77–87 and P. Morgan ‘The years of consent’ p. 172.

208 Notes

61. P. Morgan ‘The years of consent?’ pp. 166–7; idem. ‘Italian fascism: Whateverhappened to dictatorship?’ pp. 333–7. On minor or ‘non-militant’ crimesagainst the state see P.L. Orsi (1990) ‘Una fonte seriale: I rappporti prefet-tizi sull’antifascismo non militante’ Rivista di storia contemporanea no. 2pp. 280–304.

62. G. Albanese (2001) Alle origini del fascismo. La violenza politica a Venezia 1919–1922 (Padua: Il poligrafo); A. Lyttleton (1973) The Seizure of Power: Fascism inItaly 1919–1929 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson).

63. An example of the myth – that Italians are essentially good people, andbehaved as such during the Second World War – in action is provided bySusan Zuccotti’s (1987) The Italians and the Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue andSurvival (London: Halban) and by the popular films Mediterraneo (1991) andCaptain Corelli’s Mandolin (2001). The myth has been dissected and refutedin: N. Doumanis (1997) Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean; RememberingFascism’s Empire (Basingstoke: Macmillan); and D. Rodogno (2003) Il nuovoordine mediterraneo. Le politiche di occupazione dell’Italia fascista in Europa(1940–1943) (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri).

64. C. Friedrich & Z.K. Brzezinski (1956) Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press).

65. H. Arendt (1973) The Origins of Totalitarianism (San Diego, New York &London: Harcourt).

66. S. Fitzpatrick & A. Lüdtke ’Energising the everyday: on the breaking andmaking of social bonds in Nazism and Stalinism’ pp. 266–301.

67. Roberts points to the establishment of the journal dedicated to Total-itarian Movements and Political Religions in 2000 as evidence of thisnew attention. D. Roberts (2009) ‘’Political religion’ and the total-itarian departures of interwar Europe. On the uses and disadvan-tages of an analytical category’ Contemporary European History vol. 18.4,pp. 381–414.

68. E. Voegelin (2000) Collected Works vol. 5 Modernity without restraint(Columbia & London: University of Missouri Press) pp. 19–73; E. Gen-tile (K. Botsford trans.) (1996) The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy,(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). See also idem ‘Fascism, totali-tarianism and political religions: Definitions and critical reflections on crit-icism of an interpretation’ in R. Griffin (ed.) (2005) Fascism, Totalitarianismand Political Religion (London: Routledge).

69. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics chapter 2.70. G. Mosse (1999) The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism

(New York: H. Fertig). Fascist leaders, most notably the intellectual GiuseppeBottai, articulated the idea that their regime and ideology were ‘nothingmore than a way of continuing the war, of transforming its values into acivic religion’. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics p. 20.

71. M.S. Stone (1998) The Patron State. Culture and Politics in Fascist Italy.(Princeton: Princeton University Press); S. Falasca-Zamponi (1997) Fas-cist Spectacle. The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, (Berkeley & LosAngeles: University of California Press); R. Griffin (2002) ‘The pri-macy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consen-sus within Fascist Studies’, Journal of Contemporary History vol.37.1,pp. 21–43.

Notes 209

72. See, for example, the work of David Kertzer (1988) Ritual, Politics and Power(New Haven: Yale University Press) passim. The quotation comes fromP. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ p. 369.

73. R.J.B. Bosworth, for example, voiced this criticism in ‘War, totalitarianism,and ‘deep belief’ in Fascist Italy 1935–43’ p. 476.

74. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics pp. 153–161.75. R. Griffin ‘The primacy of culture’. See, for example, the responses to Griffin’s

Journal of Contemporary History article by David Roberts, Alexander De Grand,Mark Antliff and Thomas Linehan, published in the April 2002 (vol. 37.2)issue of the same journal pp. 259–274.

76. Both Corner and Bosworth have made this argument, from different perspec-tives. P. Corner ‘Italian fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’ passim;R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Everyday Mussolinism’ especially pp. 25–7.

77. Renato Moro praised Gentile’s thesis, whilst expressing his concern in rela-tion to Gentile’s much used term of ‘imperfect totalitarianism’ which hebelieved tended, in a ‘de Felician’ manner, towards the positive relativisationof Italian fascism in comparison to more ‘perfect’ versions of totalitarianismsuch as National-Socialism in Germany. R. Moro (1995) ‘Religione e politicanell’età della secolarizzazione: riflessioni su di un recente volume di EmilioGentile’ in Storia contemporanea vol. 26.2, pp. 255–325.

78. On the ‘cultural turn’ in historical studies, see L. Hunt The New Cultural His-tory op. cit. and V. Bonnell & L. Hunt (eds.) Beyond the Cultural Turn. NewDirections in the Study of Society and Culture. On the British tradition of ‘historyfrom below’ see E.P. Thompson (1980 [1963]) The Making of the English Work-ing Class (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.), especially the prologue; R. Hoggart(1992 [1957]) The Uses of Literacy (New Brunswick: Transaction Publications);and R. Williams (1958) Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (London: Chatto &Windus) & idem. (1992 [1961])The Long Revolution (London: HogarthPress).

79. On the role of ritual in constructing social and political relationships see:D.I. Kertzer Ritual, Politics and Power op. cit.; E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (eds.)(1992 [1983]) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress); N. Zemon Davis (1975) ’The Reasons of Misrule’ in Society and Culturein Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press). On the structuresof power, see M. Foucault L’Archéologie du savoir & idem. Surveiller et punir.

80. On the ‘aesthetics of reception’ see: H.R. Jauss (1970) ‘Literary history asa challenge to literary theory’ New Literary History vol. 2.1, pp. 7–38; W. Iser(1974) The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (London: Routledge &Kegan Paul); P. Hohendahl (1977) “Introduction to reception aesthetics” NewGerman Critique n.10; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life passim.

81. M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life pp. xi–xxiv & 15–42.82. M. Foucault Surveiller et punir introduction; M. de Certeau The Practice of

Everyday Life p. xv.83. E.P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class prologue; A. Lüdtke

‘Introduction: What is the history of everyday life and who are its practition-ers?’ pp. 3–40.

84. This point is also made in P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ p. 375.85. C. Ginzburg The Cheese and the Worms pp. 51–3.86. See Andrew Goodwin’s introduction to R. Hoggart The Uses of Literacy p. xiii.

210 Notes

87. R. Chartier ‘Texts, Printing, Readings’ in L. Hunt (ed.) The New Cultural His-tory pp. 154–175 and idem (L.G. Cochrane trans.) (1987) The Cultural Uses ofPrint in Early Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press).

88. See ibid and H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’pp. 7–38.

89. D. D’Avray (1994) Death and the Prince. Memorial Preaching before 1350(Oxford: Clarendon Press) pp. 189–90.

90. R. Koselleck (K. Tribe trans.) (1979) Futures Past: on the Semantics of HistoricalTime (Cambridge, Mass. & London: MIT Press) pp. 267–288.

91. On ‘structures of thought’ see L. Febvre (B. Gottlieb trans.) (1982) The Prob-lem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais (Cambridge,Mass. & London: Harvard University Press). On ‘ideas materials’ seeE. Panofsky (1970) Architecture gothique et pensée scolastique (Paris: Gallimard).Further information on the development of these concepts can be found inR. Chartier (1982) ’Intellectual history or sociocultural history? The Frenchtrajectories’ in D. LaCapra & S. Kaplan (eds.) Modern European Intellectual His-tory. Appraisals and New Perspectives (Ithaca & London: Cornell UniversityPress) pp. 18–21 and in A. Körner ‘Culture et structure’ passim.

92. P. Steege et al. ‘The history of everyday life’ pp. 373–7.

1 ‘Elbow to elbow’: Venetian life between the wars

1. J. Pemble (1997) Venice Rediscovered (Oxford: Clarendon Press) pp. 73–5;D. Laven ‘Researching, producing and reproducing Venetian history in thelong nineteenth century’ unpublished research paper presented at ‘Spatialidentity, rhythm and modernity’ University of Santiago de Compostela,July 2009.

2. On the myths, and anti-myths of Venice, see M. Infelise (2002) ‘Veneziae il suo passato. Storie miti “fole”’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds) Storiadi Venezia. L’ottocento e il novecento vol 2 (Rome: Istituto della EnciclopediaItaliana fondata da Giovanni Treccani) pp. 967–988.

3. These figures are taken from the 1931 census and are citied inM. Reberschak (1986) ‘L’economia’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia (Roma-Bari:Laterza) p. 296. From 1926, the comune of Venice included not only thecentral islands of Venice, the Giudecca and the Lido but also the islandsof Pellestrina, Murano and Burano, as well as Mestre, Favaro, Chirignano,Zelarino and Malcontenta on the mainland.

4. R.J.B. Bosworth (1999) ‘Venice between Fascism and international tourism,1911–45’ Modern Italy, vol 4.1, pp. 5–23; S. Longo (2004) ‘Culture, tourismand Fascism in Venice, 1919–1945’ Unpublished PhD. thesis, University ofLondon, pp. 39–44.

5. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between Fascism and international tourism’ p. 18.6. The phrase belongs to Ruth Ben Ghiat. R. Ben Giat (2001) Fascist

Modernities. Italy 1922–1945 (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press) p. 15.

7. M. Infelise ‘Venezia e il suo passato. Storie miti “fole”’ p. 975.8. Foscari has been described as the ‘unofficial doge’ of the early twentieth

century; his ducal cap was taken up in the 1920s and 1930s by his long-time

Notes 211

friend Giuseppe Volpi. G. Pignatelli et al. eds. (1997) Dizionario Biograficodegli Italiani vol. 49 (Rome: Instituto della Enciclopedia Italiana (Treccani))pp. 338–340.

9. F.T. Marinetti (L. de Maria ed.) (1983) Teoria ed invenzione futurista (Milan:Mondadori) pp. 33–4.

10. On the Venetian group, see M. Reberschak (2002) ‘Gli uomini capitali: il“gruppo veneziano” (Volpi, Cini e gli altri)’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.)Storia di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1255–1311; F. Brunetta (1986) ’Figure e momentidel Novecento politico’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia p. 178.

11. G.L. Fontana (2002) ‘L’economia’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia diVenezia vol 2 pp. 1857–60.

12. Following the ‘night of 8 hours’ the Venetian patriarch, Cardinal PieroLa Fontaine, made a public pledge to offer a votive temple to the Vir-gin Mary in return for Venice’s safe deliverance from the dangers of thewar. This temple was subsequently built on the Lido and is discussed inChapter 5.

13. The city’s pre-war population, in July 1914, was 158,698. L. Pes (2002) ‘Ilfascismo adriatico’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 2p. 1315.

14. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 10.15. See R.J.B. Bosworth (1997) ‘Tourist planning in Fascist Italy and the

limits of a totalitarian culture’ Contemporary European History vol. 6.1,pp. 9–10.

16. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 10.17. G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1461.18. M. Reberschak ‘Gli uomini capitali’ pp. 1255–1311.19. Ibid.20. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 268 & G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1466.21. D. Howard (2002) The Architectural History of Venice (New Haven & London:

Yale University Press) p. 274.22. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 268 & G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1466.23. G.L. Fontana ’L’economia’ pp. 1457–60.24. Ibid p. 1463.25. Ibid. p. 1463–4.26. See G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1464 and M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’

p. 262.27. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 262–3.28. A. Casellato (2002) ‘I sestieri popolari’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia

di Venezia vol. 2 pp. 1586–7.29. G.L. Fontana ‘L’economia’ p. 1463.30. L. Magliaretta (1986) ‘La qualità della vita’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia

p. 368.31. Ibid. p. 369.32. For example, Cini set up home in Palazzo Loredan, near the Accademia,

from 1919 and Volpi, born in Venice to a Bergamasco family, lived from1917 in Palazzo Pisani in San Benedetto, close to the Rialto. M. Reberschak‘Gli uomini capitali’ p. 1291.

33. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna Archivio Nazionale Diaristico [AND] MP/And.34. The term ‘forced exodus’ is from M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 265.

212 Notes

35. Ibid.36. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 pp. 49–51.37. Ibid pp. 51–5.38. G. Sbordone (2003) Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita. Storie di un campo

veneziano nel primo Novecento (Portogruaro: Ediciclo Editore) pp. 51–2.39. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’ p. 9.40. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ p. 381. In 1910, in the poorest parishes

such as S. Pietro di Castello, 46 per cent of homes had no access to drinkingwater. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1589–90.

41. This was according to a 1903 inquiry by the local Camara del Lavoro,reproduced in L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ pp. 336–7.

42. L. Picchini (1933) Tentati suicidi e suicidi con particolare riguardo alla città diVenezia (Venice: Grafiche Sorteri), cited in R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice betweenfascism and international tourism’ p. 9.

43. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1589–90. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità dellavita’ p. 350.

44. M. Reberschak ‘L’economia’ p. 265.45. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 p. 30.46. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ p. 350.47. G. Bellavitis & G. Romanelli (1985) Venezia (Rome: Laterza).48. M. Reberschack ‘Gli uomini capitali’ p. 1293.49. Gazzettino 25 April 1933; Gazzetta 26 April 1933.50. Gazzettino 26 April 1933. On the vandalism of the lions of Trau, and other

Dalmation towns, see Gazzettino 3 January 1933.51. Gazzettino 13 July 1935.52. G. Bellavitis & G. Romanelli Venezia op. cit.53. Gazzetta 18 June 1933; 19 June 1933; Gazzettino 20 July 1938.54. Gazzettino 2 September 1938; Gazzetta 5 September 1938.55. E.R. Trincanato (1948) Venezia minore (Milan), cited in A. Casellato ‘I sestieri

popolari’ p. 1590.56. L. Magliaretta ‘La qualità della vita’ pp. 367–8.57. M. Fincardi (2001) ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ dell’antico leone. La moderna

realtà del mito di Venezia’ in Contemporanea n. 3, Bologna, Il Mulino,pp. 445–474.

58. The comment on the Venetian experience of the Great War comes fromMaria Damerini’s memoir of ‘the roaring years’ of the 1920s and 1930s.M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) (1988) Gli ultimi anni del Leone (Padua: Ilpoligrafo) p. 241.

59. On the ‘moral economy’ of eighteenth century England see E.P. ThompsonThe Making of the English Working Class passim; on ‘blat’ in Stalinist Russiasee S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism pp. 54–8, 62; on ‘mediators’ in fas-cist Turin see L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 129–141; andon clientalist networks in fascist Italy, see R.J.B. Bosworth (2005) ‘Every-day Mussolinianism: Friends, family, locality and violence in Fascist Italy’Contemporary European History, vol. 14.1, pp. 23–43.

60. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 52.61. J. Habermas (1989 [1959]) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere

(Cambridge: Polity).62. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And p. 202.

Notes 213

63. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607.64. J. Weintraub & K. Kumar (1997) Public and Private in Thought and Practice:

Perspectives on a Grand Dichotomy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).65. A. Vickery (1993) ‘Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories

and chronology of English women’s history’ The Historical Journal vol. 36.2,pp. 383–414; R.B. Shoemaker (1998) Gender in English Society, 1650–1850.The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (London & New York: Longmans). Theseparate spheres thesis is most commonly associated with L. Davidoff &C. Hall (1987) Family Fortunes. Men and Women of the English Middle Class1750–1850 (London: Hutchinson).

66. See, for example: V. de Grazia (1992) How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy 1922–1945 (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press); idem. (1981)The Culture of Consent; C. Helstosky (2006) Garlic and Oil. Food and Politicsin Italy (Oxford: Berg).

67. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 175–180.68. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And.69. The term ‘adriatic fascism’ is borrowed from L. Pes ‘Il fascismo adriatico’

pp. 1313–1354.70. Though he left active national politics in 1934, Giuriati remained a

significant figure within fascist and elite political and cultural circleslocally. G. Pignatelli et al. (eds) Dizionario biografico degli italiani vol. 57,pp. 120–3.

71. L. Pes ‘Il fascismo adriatico’ pp. 1313–4. See also G. Albanese (2003) PieroMarsich (Somacampagna: Cierre) passim.

72. A contemporary account of the early years of Venetian fascism andsquadrismo is provided by R. Vicentini (1935) Il Movimento fascista Venetoattraverso il diario di uno squadrista (Venice: Stamperia Zanetti). L. Pes ‘Ilfascismo adriatico’ pp. 1335–1347.

73. R. Vicentini Il Movimento fascista Veneto p.113.74. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1582.75. On the biennio rosso in Venice, see: G. Albanese Alle origini del fascimo. La

violenza politica a Venezia passim; Vicentini R. Il Movimento fascista Venetopassim; G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 217–228;A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607.

76. G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 228–9; G. Albanese Alleorigini del fascimo pp. 241–9; Il Gazzettino 31 October 1922.

77. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1583.78. E. Brunetta ‘Figure e momenti del novecento politico’ p. 163.79. For a discussion of Le Tre Venezie, see M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’

dell’antico leone’ p. 459.80. The undated nota di servizio from which these guidelines are taken was

found among the paper of Ennio Talamini and reproduced in M. de Marco(1976) Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano (Venice: Marsilio) pp. 84–5.

81. See Mario Isnenghi’s preface to M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 17.82. M. de Marco Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano p. 63; G. Boldrin (1976)

‘Aristocrazie terriere e finanziarie all’assalto della stampa (1919–25)’ inidem. et al. (eds.) Giornali del Veneto fascista (Padua, CLEUP); A. Curcione(1995–6) ‘La “Gazzetta di Venzia” e l’avvento del fascismo’ Doctoral thesis,Università degli Studi di Venezia, p. 24.

214 Notes

83. G. Albanese Alle origini del fascismo p. 25.84. M. de Marco Gazzettino. Storia di un quotidiano passim.85. G. Vian (2003) ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni

del consenso’ Storia e problemi contemporanei. Rivista dell’Istituto regionaleper la storia del movimento di liberazione nelle Marche (Bologna: Ed Clueb.)pp. 85–6.

86. Ibid. pp. 86–7.87. Ibid. pp. 85–115.88. M. Reberschak ‘Gli uomini capitali’ pp.1255–6.89. The functions of the podestà replaced within a single individual (albeit

advised by the consulta) the competencies previously carried out by the sin-daco, giunta and consiglio comunale in the liberal period. S. Barizza (1987)Il comune di Venezia 1806–1946: l’istituzione, il territorio, guida-inventariodell’Archivio municipale (Venice).

90. Damerini and Cini served from mid-1930 to 1935 and again from 1939.S. Barizza Il comune di Venezia.

91. Alverà was elected to the 1914 consiglio comunale in Venice as part ofGrimani’s moderate clerical list. R. Camurri (2002) ‘La classe politicanazionalfascista’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2pp. 1412–3.

92. A. Körner (2008) Politics of Culture in Liberal Italy: From Unification to Fascism(London: Routledge).

93. See, for example: R. Drake (1981) ‘The theory and practice of Italiannationalism 1900–6’ in Journal of Modern History vol. 53.2, pp. 213–241;R.J.B. Bosworth (1997) ‘The “Touring Club Italiano” and the nation-alisation of the Italian bourgeoisie’ European History Quarterly 27.3,pp. 371–410.

94. A. Körner Politics of Culture in Liberal Italy pp. 177–8.95. A. Confino (1997) The Nation as a Local Metaphor. Württemberg, Imperial

Germany and National Memory 1871–1918 (Chapel Hill & London: Univer-sity of North Carolina Press); C. Applegate (1990) A Nation of Provincials. TheGerman Idea of Heimat (Oxford & Berkeley: University of California Press);I. Porciani (1997) La festa della nazione. Rappresentazione dello stato e spazisociali nell’Italia unita (Bologna: Il mulino); A. Körner Politics of Culture inLiberal Italy op. cit.

96. See A. Confino The Nation as a Local Metaphor op. cit. & C. ApplegateA Nation of Provincials op. cit.

97. Cited in M. Infelise ‘Venezia e il suo passato’ p. 975.98. P. Ginsborg (1979) Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–9

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp. 51–8.99. M. Isnenghi (1986) ‘La cultura’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia p. 453.

100. L. Passerini (1991) Mussolini immaginario. Storia di una biografia 1919–39(Roma-Bari: Laterza).

101. This was according to contemporary historian, Giuseppe Maranini. Seethe introduction of G. Maranini (1931) Costituzione di Venezia dopo laserrata del Maggior Consiglio (Venice) and also C. Povolo (2000) ‘The cre-ation of Venetian historiography’ in J. Martin & D. Romano (eds.) VeniceReconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State 1297–1797(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) p. 508.

Notes 215

102. Gazzettino 18 July 1935 ‘Curiosità storiche veneziane – Quattro nomi’.103. Ibid.104. The first written accounts of the ‘republic of Santa Margherita’ date

from 1919 and, it is suggested, were subject to some mythologisation.G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita pp. 153–166.

105. Giovanni Sbordone provides an eclectic list of well-to-do clients of theosterie around Campo Santa Margherita, especially the famous Capon, fromD’Annunzio to Lloyd George to Jimmy Carter. Ibid. pp. 177–8.

106. Ibid. p. 28.107. E. Zorzi (1967 [1928]) Osterie veneziane (Venice: Filippi) pp. 99–100, cited in

G. Sbordone Nella Repubblica di Santa Margherita p. 22.108. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone pp. 96–100.109. A. Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ p. 1583.110. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C ‘ai suoi comandi’ AND MP/86 p. 48.111. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 87.112. Ibid. pp. 87–8.113. Ibid. p. 87.114. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna AND MP/And.115. E. Franzina & E. Brunetta (1986) ‘La politica’ in E. Franzina (ed.) Venezia

pp. 135–146.116. On ‘rites of passage’ see A. van Gennep (M.B. Vizedom & L.G. Caffee

trans.) (1977 [1909]) The Rites of Passage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul),especially chapter 1 and T.S. Turner (1977) ‘Transformation, hierarchy andtranscendance: a reformulation of Van Gennep’s model of the structures ofrites de passage’ in S.F. Moore & B.G. Meyerhoff (eds) Secular Ritual (Assen:Von Gorcum).

117. S. Tramontin (1979) ‘Il Cardinal La Fontaine. Patriarca di Venezia e I fascistidopo la Marcia su Roma’ Storia contemporanea vol. 3, pp. 481–519; G. Vian‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’ p. 12.

118. Renzo de Felice described La Fontaine as a ‘philofascisct’, an evaluationwith which Silvio Tramontin vehemently disagreed. See S. Tramontin ‘IlCardinal La Fontaine’ pp. 481–3.

119. Gazzetta 10 July 1936.120. S. Tramontin ‘Il Cardinal La Fontaine’, especially p. 519; idem. (1970) ‘Il

fascismo nel diario di Cardinal La Fontaine’ Storia contemporanea vol. 1,pp. 359–378.

121. Reported in Gazzetta 20 July 1938. On Cardinal Piazza, see L. Nardo (2002)‘Il tessuto cattolico’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2pp. 1523–1580.

122. G. Vian ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del consenso’.123. Tramontin suggests that this was not necessarily the opinion of AC

held by fascists locally, for example, by the provincial Party Secretary,Giorgio Suppiej, although the anti-Azione Cattolica campaign was sanc-tioned by Giuriati, then national Party Secretary. S. Tramontin (1975)Cattolici, popolari e fascisti nel Veneto (Rome: Edizioni Cinque Lune)pp. 257–261. On the ‘events’ of 1931 see also L. Nardo ’Il tessuto cattolico’pp. 1546–7.

124. ACS PNF b. 1183 Guido Giacomini (Political Secretary of the Venetian GUF)to Carlo Scorza (GUF national secretary), 26 May 1931.

216 Notes

125. S. Tramontin Cattolici, popolari e fascisti nel Veneto pp. 299–300.126. S. Levis Sullam (2002) Una comunità immaginata. Gli ebrei a Venezia (1900–

1938) (Milan: Edizioni Unicopli) p. 50.127. It is Simon Levis Sullam who described the Venetian Jewish community as

an ‘imagined community’. Ibid.128. ibid. pp. 67–8.129. On the ‘invention’ of leisure time, see A. Corbin et al. (1995) L’avènement

des loisirs 1850–1960 (Paris: Aubiers).130. V. de Grazia (1996) ‘Nationalising women. The competition between Fas-

cist and commercial cultural models in Mussolini’s Italy’ in V. de Graziawith E. Furlough (eds.) The Sex of Things, (Berkeley & Los Angeles: Uni-versity of California Press) pp. 337–358. On comparable discourses in NaziGermany see S. Baranowski (2004) Strength through Joy. Consumerism andMass Tourism in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)especially the introduction & chapter 5 and R. Koshar (2000) German TravelCultures (Oxford: Berg), introduction and chapter 3.

131. Of course, for Adorno & Horkheimer, leisure and consumptive policyand practice in Mussolini’s Italy or Hitler’s Germany was simply a moreextreme and overt form of a wider capitalist ‘culture industry’. Theyargued that leisure, or ‘amusement’ was effectively the ‘prolongation ofwork’. M. Horkheimer & T. Adorno (1972) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Philo-sophical Fragment (New York: Herder and Herder) ‘The culture industry:Enlightenment as mass deception’.

132. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent pp. 180–1.133. M. Fincardi (2002) ‘I fasti della tradizione. Le ceremonie della nuova

venezianità’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2pp. 1495–9.

134. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent p. 55.135. See, for example, R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Everyday Mussolinism’ pp. 23–4 and A.

Casellato ‘I sestieri popolari’ pp. 1596–1607.136. V. de Grazia The Culture of Consent passim.137. M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ del antico leone’ pp. 445–474.138. Il Ventuno March 1934 ‘Anti-funzione del caffè di piazza’.139. Il Ventuno January 1934 ‘Notizia sui salotti’.140. Ibid.141. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187. The reception of the anti-

sanctions resistance by Damerini and her social circle is discussed inChapter 4.

142. See P. Morgan (1995) Italian Fascism 1919–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan)p. 143.

2 ‘Make way for the young’: Youth in fascist Venice

1. Michele Sarfatti argues that these early fascist policies, which dismantledLiberal Italy’s insistence on secularism and instead privileged Catholicism,amount to ‘the persecution of religious equality’ and thus hint at the fascistregime’s anti-Semitism from the start. See M. Sarfatti (2000) Gli ebrei nell’Italiafascista: una comunità tra persecuzione e rinascita (Turin: Einaudi), chapter 3.

Notes 217

2. For a full discussion of fascist secondary education, see T. Koon (1985) Believe,Obey, Fight: Political Socialisation of Youth in Fascist Italy 1922–1945 (ChapelHill: University of North Carolina Press) chapter 2 or M. Isnenghi (1979)L’educazione dell’italiano. Il fascismo e l’organizzazione della cultura (Bologna:Nuova Capelli), passim.

3. An exception to this is A. Gibelli’s important volume (2005) Il popolobambino. Infanzia e nazione dalla Grande Guerra a Salò (Turin: Einaudi).On education under fascism see: M. Isnenghi L’educazione dell’italiano;J. Charnitzky (1999) Fascismo e scuola. La politica scolastica del regime (1922–1943) (Florence: La Nuova Italia); M. Galfré (2005) Il regime degli editori. Libri,scuola e fascismo (Rome-Bari: Laterza). Victoria de Grazia’s important work onThe Culture of Consent (op. cit) addressed the regime’s attempts to influenceItalians’ recreational activities and to organise ‘consensus’ through the OperaNazionale Dopolavoro, and the limitations of these attempts, but, of course,focused upon the experience of adults rather than children.

4. R. Zangrandi (1962 [1947]) Il lungo viaggio attraverso il fascismo: contributoalla storia di una generazione (Milan: Feltrinelli), passim; T. Koon Believe, ObeyFight, chapter 1. See also S. Colarizi (1991) L’Opinione degli italiani sotto ilregime 1929–1943 (Rome-Bari: Laterza), and T.M. Mazzatosta (1978) Il regimefascista tra educazione e propaganda 1935–43 (Bologna: Cappelli).

5. L. La Rovere (2003) Storia dei GUF. Organizzazione, politica e miti della gioventùuniversitaria fascista 1919–1943 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri). R. Ben Ghiat(2004) Review. Journal of Modern Italian Studies vol 9.2.

6. The ideas of Chartier, Hoggart, Jauss and de Certeau are important in thisregard, for their recognition of the act of reading as a productive act, inwhich the reader absorbs and responds to a text in the light of what theyalready know, or according to their pre-existing world-views and mental ref-erence points. See R. Chartier (L.G. Cochrane trans.) (1987) The Cultural Usesof Print in Early Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press) passim;R. Hoggart (1992 [1957]) The Uses of Literacy (New Brunswick, TransactionPublications, 1992) passim; H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to lit-erary theory’ in New Literary History op. cit.; M. de Certeau The Practice ofEveryday Life op. cit.

7. T. Koon Believe Obey, Fight p. 149.8. T. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight pp. 95–6.9. In 1936, 66 per cent of 8 to 14 year old girls were Piccole Italiane, dropping

to just 15 per cent of young women enrolled in the Giovani Fasciste. Statis-tics from Istituto Centrale di Statistica VIII Censimento Generale, populationfigures at 2 April 1936; PNF membership figures at 28 October 1936, fromIstituto Centrale di Statistica, Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1936. Cited inT. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight p. 179.

10. T. Koon Believe, Obey, Fight p. 181–3.11. This figure covers the Venetian comune and thus includes Mestre and

Marghera on the mainland in addition to the islands of Venice.12. Rivista di Venezia March 1931 ‘La scuola comunale a Venezia nel 1930’

pp. 112–20.13. For example, in the summer of 1936, 70 children of fishermen from Venice,

Pellestrina and Chioggia were sent to an EOA-run camp on the mainland.ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie I b. 1187.

218 Notes

14. On the topics explored in children’s literature under fascism, see P. Palumbo(2003) ‘Orphans for the empire: colonial propaganda and children’s litera-ture during the imperial era’ in idem (ed.), A Place in the Sun. Africa in ItalianColonial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present (Berkeley & Los Angeles:University of California Press).

15. J. Neubauer (1992) The Fin-de-Siècle Culture of Adolescence (New Haven &London: Yale University Press) introduction.

16. Il Balilla 10 Jan. 1935 p. 3.17. Ibid.18. Gazzetta 13 Nov. 1938. The first Italian comics to include the Walt Disney

creation Mickey Mouse, or Topolino in Italian, were published by the Nerbinipublishing house in 1932. The Disney franchise was then taken over bythe Mondadori subsidiary, API, in 1935. David Forgacs has suggested thatthe exception made for Walt Disney characters in the 1938 decree, whichremained in force until the USA’s entry to the Second World War in 1941,was due partly to the popularity of these characters among the Italian public,but principally to the negotiating powers of Arnoldo Mondadori and his sonAlberto, whose ability to find accommodation with the regime’s censorshipregulations was well known. D. Forgacs (1990) Italian Culture in the Indus-trial Era 1880–1980. Cultural Industries, Politics and the Public (Manchester:Manchester University Press) pp. 57–8; 62–3.

19. A. Faeti (1997) “Il Corriere dei Piccoli” in M. Isnenghi (ed.) I Luoghidella Memoria. Personaggi e Date dell’Italia Unita (Rome-Bari: Laterza)pp. 151–163.

20. Corriere dei Piccoli 4 Nov. 1934, p.1; 11 Nov. 1934 p. 12; 18 Nov. 1934 p. 2; 2Dec. 1934 p. 1; 23 Dec. 1934 p. 4.

21. Faeti ‘Il Corriere dei Piccoli’ p. 158.22. N. Marsich ‘Giuochi e cantilene’ in Italia Nova 31 July 1933 pp. 24–6.23. Il Balilla 22 Nov. 1934 p. 10.24. Il Balilla 31 Jan. 1935 p. 14.25. Ibid.26. Ibid.27. Il Balilla 4 Oct. 1934 ‘La ultima arma’ p. 11.28. Il Balilla 22 Nov. 1934.29. Il Balilla 18 Oct. 1934 p. 2.30. Il Balilla 3 Jan. 1935 p. 6.31. See, for example, Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 1 March 1936 p. 11.32. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 10 November 1935 p. 11.33. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 1 December 1935 p. 4.34. Corriere dei Piccoli 2 February 1936 p. 8.35. Corriere dei Piccoli 16 February 1936 p. 8.36. Ibid.37. Corriere dei Piccoli 9 February 1936 p. 12. The cartoon characters, Trilli and

Trulli, two Italian girls, were depicted freeing a group of enslaved Ethiopianchildren by outwitting their captors, leaving Trilli and Trulli to first feed andthen educate the freed children.

38. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 8 December 1935 p. 6.39. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 15 December 1935 p. 7.40. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 22 December 1935 p. 6.

Notes 219

41. See, for example, the visit of an ‘Eskimo doctor’ in Gazzettino dei Ragazzi1 March 1936, in which the visiting doctor is treated with similarly cruderacial stereotyping as the Ethiopian, but in which the usual pattern ofpunishment being directed towards the family is observed.

42. See, for example, H.R. Jauss ‘Literary history as a challenge to literary theory’pp. 7–38; W. Iser The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response pas-sim; P. Hohendahl (1977) ‘Introduction to reception aesthetics’, New GermanCritique n.10; M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Life passim.

43. A. Scotto di Luzio (1996) L’appropriazione imperfetta. Editori, biblioteche e libriper ragazzi durante il fascismo (Bologna: Il mulino) passim.

44. The archival material relating to the Premio da Ponte is held in the ArchivioMunicipale ‘la Celestia’ in Venice (AMV), Quinquennio (Quin.) 1931–5, IX-IV-8. The first reference to the Premio da Ponte appears in documents fromthe quinquennio 1920–5. It is possible to surmise that the premio might havebeen established as part of a bequest by the local Da Ponte family, as was thecase with the Premio da Maria – given each year to a young girl of primaryschool age – also mentioned in the archival material.

45. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8.46. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by L.S., Scuola A. Gabelli; essay by

S.M., Scuola A. Gabelli.47. AMV Quin. 1931-5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.P., Scuola A Diaz; essay by A.B., Scuola

S Samuele.48. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 32.49. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.V., Scuola Diedo.50. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 18.51. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 6.52. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 25.53. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 27.54. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay 37.55. Corriere dei Piccoli 13 Jan 1935 pp. 14–5.56. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by G.V., Scuola Diedo.57. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli.58. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.B., Scuola Priuli, anonymous essay

no. 10.59. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 8.60. Of those for whom their gender is known, five boys and seven girls preferred

the Corriere, whilst one boy and one girl preferred the Gazzettino.61. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 Anonymous essay no. 32.62. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8 essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli.63. As such the conferring of Sansepolcrista status was not made lightly. By way

of example, one Venetian fascist wrote to Starace in October 1936 to requestposthumous Sansepolcrista status for his ex-teacher, Giulia Marconi, who hesaid ‘sent her adhesion to the rally in Piazza S. Sepolcro’. Intransigent, thePNF replied that not having been physically present at the rally, this statuscould not be granted. ACS PNF Serie 1 b.1188 9.89.13.

64. See L. Passerini (1992) ‘Youth as a metaphor for social change: Fascist Italyand America in the 1950s’ in G. Levi & J.C. Schmitt (eds.) (C. Volk trans.)A History of Young People in the West. Vol 2 (Cambridge, Mass. & London:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press) pp. 292–4.

220 Notes

65. G. Bottai ‘Giovani e più giovani’ Critica Fascista 15 November 1930; C. Pelizzi‘Aprire le finestre’ Critica Fascista 1 September 1929; G.P. Gallegari G. ‘Elogiodel vecchio’ Critica Fascista 15 November 1930: all cited in L. Passerini ‘Youthas a metaphor for social change’ pp. 294–5.

66. On il Ventuno: ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie 1. B. 362 6.1.71 and A. Follin &M. Quaranta (eds.) (1973) Le riviste giovanili del periodo fascista (Treviso:Canova).

67. Il Ventuno Feb. 1934 ‘Ieri e oggi’.68. Ibid.69. Ibid.70. ACS PCM Fascicolo 14.2 n. 7736, Raccomandata (30 Sept. 1936).71. Gazzetta 19 Oct. 1936 ‘La consegna del gonfalone alla nuova legione

Marinara’. See also ACS PCM Fascicolo 14.2 n. 7736, Raccomandata(30 Sept. 1936), Appunto per il Duce (7 Oct. 1936) and telegram from theUndersecretary of State to the President of the Council of Ministers to theVenetian Prefect (7. Oct. 1936).

72. Gazzetta 19 Oct. 1936 ‘La consegna del gonfalone alla nuova legioneMarinara’.

73. Ibid.74. Whilst not wishing to digress into a broad discussion of ‘generation’ and its

problematic use as a historical category, it is worth noting that ‘generation’is used here to indicate a set of people who are bound by (imagined) sharedexperience, which is subject to evolution and variation over time, and is notused either in the sense of an age-bound cohort group or a fixed stage in thelife-course. The notion of generation as key to explaining societal dynamicsand change was, of course, a prominent preoccupation of inter-war scholarsin Europe, including Jose Ortega y Gasset and Karl Mannheim. J. Ortega yGasset (1923) El tema de nuestro tiempo, published in English as (J. Cleughtrans) (1931) The Modern Theme (London: C W Daniel Co); K. Mannheim(1928) ‘Problem der Generationen’ in Kölner Vierteljahresschrift für Soziologievol. 7. The significance of a shared formative experience, which shapes thesubsequent experiences and collective identity of a generation, has also beencentral to later scholars’ understandings of the impact of the experience ofthe Great War on post-war society. R. Wohl (1980) The Generation of 1914(London: Wiedenfeld & Nicholson).

75. ACS PNF Serie 1. B. 1184, letter for Ranieri to Starace 11 Oct. 1932.

3 Remembering the Serenissima: Festivalsand celebrations in 1930s Venice

1. Gazzetta 22 August 1936.2. The 1936 festa notturna was due to be broadcast on US as well as national

radio, though in the event this was thwarted when the festival had to bepostponed by a week due to adverse weather. The Istituto LUCE (L’UnioneCinematografica Educativa) was the fascist organisation, inaugurated in1924, to house the blossoming national cinema industry, under the controlof the regime.

3. See, for example, Gazzetta 25 August 1935; Gazzettino 31 August 1936.4. Gazzettino 25 August 1935.

Notes 221

5. Ibid.6. Gazzetta 31 August 1936.7. See, for example, S. Cavazza (1997) Piccole patrie: feste popolari tra regione e

nazione durante il fascismo (Bologna: Il Mulino), M. Berezin (1997) Makingthe Fascist Self. The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca: Cornell Uni-versity Press) chapter 5, and on Venice, M. Fincardi (2002) ‘I fasti dellatradizione. Le ceremonie della nuova venezianità’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf(eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 2, pp. 1485–1522.

8. M. Horkheimer & T. Adorno Dialectic of Enlightenment.; V. de Grazia TheCulture of Consent passim.

9. D.I. Kertzer and Power See also E. Durkheim (K.E. Fields trans.) (1995 [1912])The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press), especiallyp. xlix.

10. This broad point is made in M. Rolf (2006) ‘Die Feste der Macht unddie Macht der Feste. Fest und Diktatir – zur Einleitung’ Journal of ModernEuropean History vol. 4.1, pp. 39–59.

11. J. & J. Cormaroff (1991) Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity,Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago: University ofChicago Press) p. 199.

12. F.T. Marinetti (1910) ‘Against past-loving Venice’ in F.T. Marinetti (R. Flinted.) (1971) Marinetti. Selected Writings (London).

13. On the ‘popular trains’ bringing daytrippers and holidaymakers to Venicesee, S. Longo (2004) “Culture, tourism and fascism in Venice, 1919–1945”Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of London.

14. Le Tre Venezie April 1931 ‘Venezia, città di vita’.15. R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’

p. 11.16. M. Fincardi ‘Gli ‘anni ruggenti’ dell’antico leone’ pp. 445–74. On the

Venetian tourist office see S. Longo ‘Culture, tourism and fascism’pp. 39–44.

17. M. Fincardi (1995) ‘La secolarizzazione della festa urbana nell XIX secolo.L’immaginario del progresso nei carnivali italiani e d’oltrealpe’ Memoria eRicerca 5, pp. 11–27; G. Turnaturi (1996) ‘Divertimenti italiani dall’Unità alfascismo’ in A. Corbin (ed.) L’invenzione del tempo libero 1850–1960 (Rome-Bari: Laterza) pp. 183–212.

18. G. Maranini Costituzione di Venezia dopo la serrata del maggior consiglio op.cit. p. 30. See also C. Povolo ‘The creation of Venetian historiography’p. 508.

19. Italia Nova 31 December 1932.20. Gazzetta 1 January 1933 ‘Un altro leone Veneto abbatuto’; Gazzettino

3 January 1933.21. Gazzettino 26 April 1933.22. ACS PNF Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1184 9.98.9. Letter from the Sindicati

Fascisti dei Trasporti Terrestri e Navigazioni interni to PNF headquarters,22 January 1933.

23. AMV Determinazioni Podestarili [henceforth DP] 1934 Trim. 2.‘L’Amministrazione del comune di Venezia dal 15 luglio 1930-VIII al 15luglio 1934-XII’ pp.53–4.

24. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938 ‘Spetacolo di Potenza marinara nelbacino di San Marco’.

222 Notes

25. This link was made in Manlio Dazzi’s 1937 study of Feste e costumidi Venezia (Venice: Zanetti) p. 7. M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione”’p. 1486.

26. Gazzetta 26 April 1936. See also M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione’ p. 1487.27. Gazzetta 1 September 1938.28. M. Fincardi ‘La secolarizzazione della festa urbana nell XIX secolo’

pp. 11–27.29. The decree was published in the Gazzetta on 18 January 1936.30. Gazzetta 18 January 1936.31. Italia Nova 28 February 1933.32. M. Fincardi ‘I fasti della ‘tradizione’ pp. 1499–1500.33. Dizionario di politica vol. 1 (Rome, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1940)

pp. 596–599.34. Gazzetta 3 February 1934.35. Reports of the festa delle Marie appearead in the Gazzetta on 3 and 4 February

1934 and 1 February 1935. After 1935 there is silence in relation to thefestival in both the archival material and local press. I have therefore beenunable to ascertain why the festa delle Marie ended almost as abruptly as itbegan. The records of the Venetian podestà reveal that the provincial ONDtwice sent written requests, in late 1933 and 1934, asking the comune tocontribute to the ‘dowries’ of the Marie. On both occasions, the communeacquiesced to the OND’s request, noting in 1934 the ‘first-rate success’ ofthe previous year’s festival. No mention in the podestà’s records of late 1935is made of the festival, suggesting that no requests for funds were made bythe OND. (AMV DP 1933 Trim. IV n. 74138 & 1934 Trim IV. N. 68947.)One might conjecture that the coming of the Ethiopian War in the autumnof 1935 and associated drive for autarky could have prompted the ONDto shelve any plans to re-stage the festival a third time. Historian SilvioTramontin, who wrote an article on the medieval festa delle Marie in the1960s, suggested that the reason for the festival’s return to obscurity wasperhaps due to ‘the wars and also perhaps because it was by now little felt bythe people’. S. Tramontin (1966) ’na pagina di folklore religioso venezianoantico: La festa de “Le Marie’ in La religiosità popolare nella valle padana.Atti del II convegno di studi sul folklore padano, Modena 19–21 marzo 1965(Modena: ENAL) p. 417.

36. On the evolution of fascist welfare and pronatalist policies see M. Quine(2002) Italy’s Social Revolution. Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism(Basingstoke: Palgrave).

37. Gazzetta 1 Feb 1935.38. C. Viviani ‘La Festa delle Marie nella storia e nell’arte’ in Rivista di Venezia

January 1934 p. 12. The podestà’s records noted that alongside the comune’sdonation of L.300 to each couple, ‘other fascist organisations will maketheir own contributions, offering the wedding breakfast and furniture forthe bridal room’. AMV DP 1933 Trim IV. N. 74138 & 1934 Trim IV. N. 68947.

39. AMV DP 1933 Trim IV. N. 74138; Gazzetta 2 February 1934.40. B. Mussolini (E. & D. Susmel eds.) (1951) Opera Omnia vol. 22 (Florence: La

Fenice) p. 367.41. V. De Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women. pp. 41–76.

Notes 223

42. Gazzetta 1 February 1935.43. Gazzetta 4 February 1934.44. Gazzetta 2 February 1934.45. Reported in ibid.46. AMV DP 1934 Trim. 1 n. 8870.47. Reported in Gazzetta 4 February 1934.48. Reported in Gazzetta 3 February 1934.49. Ibid.50. La Settimana Religiosa 8 February 1934 ‘La festa delle ”Marie”’.51. Descriptions of the medieval festival have been continually re-elaborated

and retold over the centuries. The most recent attempts by historians toreconstruct the festival are those of Silvio Tramontin and Lina Urban.S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ op. cit.;L. Urban (1988) Tra sacro e profano. La festa delle Marie (Venice: Centrointernazionale della grafica).

52. S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’ pp. 403–9.53. L. Urban Tra sacro e profano p. 33; S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore

religioso veneziano antico’ pp. 405 & 409–16. Tramontin notes that onlyfrom around 1400, and therefore after the festival had ceased to be cel-ebrated, did the Venetian chronicles begin to refer to the Marie as realpeople, leading him to conclude that they were never real.

54. Lina Urban even suggests that the lavish celebrations of the Marian fes-tival of the Marie may have provided the impetus for the attack, ratherthan the attack providing the motive for the festival. L. Urban Trasacro e profano p. 37. Tramontin, however, dismisses any link whatso-ever between the Marian festival and the legend of the kidnapped bridgesin the medieval incarnation of the festa. He suggests that it was onlyafter the festival ceased to be observed that the two merged in localmemory. S. Tramontin ‘Una pagina di folklore religioso veneziano antico’pp. 409–16.

55. M. Dazzi Feste e costumi di Venezia p. 4.56. Gazzetta 4 February 1934; Gazzettino 4 February 1934.57. Rivista di Venezia January 1934 p. 3.58. Gazzetta 3 February 1935.59. Gazzetta 4 February 1934.60. La Settimana Religiosa 8 February 1934.61. Gazzetta 4 February 1934.62. Gazzetta 3 February 1934.63. J. Perry (2005) ‘Nazifying Christmas: Political culture and popular

celebration in the Third Reich’ Central European History vol. 38.4,pp. 573–4.

64. Gazzetta 24 December 1933.65. Gazzetta 21 December 1935 ‘Come verrà celebrata a Venezia la Giornata

della Madre e del bambino’.66. Ibid.67. Gazzetta 24 December 1939.68. M. Quine Italy’s Social Revolution pp. 129–172 and idem. (1990) ‘From

Malthus to Mussolini. The Italian Eugenics Movement and Fascist

224 Notes

Population Policy 1890–1938’ Unpublished PhD Thesis, University ofLondon, p.104.

69. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 46.70. Ibid p. 47.71. Le Tre Venezie December 1935 p. 592.72. Ibid.73. R. Pickering-Iazzi (2003) ‘Mass-mediated fantasies of feminine conquest,

1930–1940’ in P. Palumbo (ed.) A Place in the Sun. Africa in Italian Colo-nial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present (Berkeley & Los Angeles:University of California Press) p. 207; R.J.B. Bosworth Mussolini’s Italyp. 385.

74. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 54.75. Le Tre Venezie December 1936.76. La Settimana Religiosa 24 December 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’.77. La Settimana Religiosa 20 December 1936 ‘Fecondità perenne’.78. Ibid.79. La Settimana Religiosa 20 December 1936 ‘Fecondità perenne’.80. La Settimana Religiosa 24 December 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’.81. Ibid. This chimes with the findings of Giovanni Vian’s review of the

Settimana Religiosa during the ‘years of consent’. G. Vian ‘La stampacattolica e il fascismo a Venezia’ pp. 85–115.

82. Bolletino Mensile dell’Ufficio di Statistica del Comune di Venezia (Venice1930–4).

83. AND MP/And V. A. Me g’ha contà la nonna p. 218.84. AND MP/And V. A. Me g’ha contà la nonna p. 165.85. See: V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp. 49–51; M. Nash (1994)

‘Pronatalism and motherhood in Franco’s Spain’ in G. Bock. & P. Thane(eds.) Maternity and Gender Policies. Women and the Rise of the EuropeanWelfare States 1880s–1950s (London & New York: Routledge) pp. 160–175.

86. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. AND MP/86 p. 49.87. M. Quine ‘From Malthus to Mussolini’ p. 247.88. Gazzetta 25 December 1930 ‘Giornata di folle e di compere’.89. Gazzetta 2 January 1936 ‘L’assedio economico e le feste’.90. Gazzetta 2 December 1930.91. Gazzetta 23 December 1932.92. Gazzetta 26 December 1935.93. Il Balilla 20 December 1934 p. 5.94. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 29 December 1935 ‘Il fuoco natalizio’ p. 9.95. AND DP/94 D.S.. Quaderni dei diarii 7 January 1941.96. AND MP/91 E.S. Saper sorridere p. 54.97. In this respect, he follows Berezin’s notion of fascist self-fashioning. J. Perry

‘Nazifying Christmas’ p.575.98. Gazzetta 17 June 1938.99. Ibid.

100. Gazzetta 17 June 1938.101. Ibid.102. Gazzettino 19 June 1938; Gazzetta 18 June 1938.103. Gazzettino 19 June 1938.104. Gazzetta 19 June 1938.

Notes 225

105. Gazzetta 19 June1938 & 20 June 1938.106. See, for example, Gazzettino 20 June 1938.107. For more on this, see C. Fogu (2003) The Historic Imaginary Politics of History

in Fascist Italy. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press) pp. 8–13.108. Gazzettino 20 June 1938.109. Each Ascension Day, the Venetian Doge would ride out to the waters of

the Lido with his entourage in the Bucintoro, the state gondola, and dropa wedding ring into the water to symbolise Venice’s marriage to the sea.However, it must be acknowledged that the 1938 ceremony to honour thosewho died at sea with a laurel wreath was by no means peculiar to Venice – asimilar ceremony took place on the same day at Civitavecchia, for example.

110. M. Isnenghi ‘La Grande Guerra’ in idem (ed.) I luoghi della memoria: Struttureed eventi dell’Italia unita vol. 2. pp. 275–309.

111. Reported in Gazzetta 18 June 1938.112. Gazzettino 18 June 1938.113. For any Venetians not aware of the significance and heroic histories of these

individuals, their deeds were reported in the Gazzetta on 20 June 1938 andin the Gazzettino on 19 June 1938.

114. These were Bragadin, Marcello, Calvi and Farinati degli Uberti Tolosetti.115. Gazzettino 19 June 1938.116. Cardinal Piazza, sermon, 19 June 1938, reproduced in the Gazzetta

20 June 1938.117. Ibid.118. Gazzetta 20 June 1938.119. Reported in Gazzetta 19 June 1938.120. For example, Gazzetta 18 June 1938.121. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 241.122. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938.123. Speech, reported in ibid.124. Reported in Gazzetta 20 June 1938.125. See, for example, Gazzetta 20 June 1938 and Gazzettino 19 June 1938.126. Gazzettino 19 July 1938.127. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 241.128. Ibid.

4 ‘Make every Italian family a fortress’: Consumption,family and constructing the ‘home front’ in Veniceduring the Ethiopian War

1. Reported in Gazzetta 19 December 1935. The population of Venice was165,856 in 1932 according to the Bolletino Mensile dell’Ufficio di Statisticadel Comune di Venezia.

2. Gazzetta 19 December 1935.3. Gazzetta 19 December 1935.4. See Italia Nova 22 December 1935; 29 December 1935; 8 January 1936;

2 February 1936. In a recent article, Paul Corner observed the quick estab-lishment of a market in steel rings following the ceremonies and continuedpressure to donate wedding rings to the war effort. P. Corner (2010) ’Italian

226 Notes

fascism: organization, enthusiasm, opinion’ Journal of Modern Italian Studies15.3, pp. 378–389.

5. On ‘tactics’ in everyday life see M. de Certeau The Practice of Everyday Lifepp. 29–39.

6. P. Willson (2007) ‘Empire, gender and the ”home front” in Fascist Italy’Women’s History Review vol. 16.4, p. 488.

7. Ibid.8. See, for example the Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo

ad ogni costo’.9. In this way, there are parallels with Belinda Davis’ research into the home

front in First World War Berlin. B. Davis (1996) ‘Food scarcity and theempowerment of the female consumer in World War One Berlin’ in V. deGrazia with E. Furlough (eds.) The Sex of Things. pp. 287–310.

10. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 78.11. B. Mussolini (E. & D. Susmel eds) Opera Omnia vol. 27 p. 266.12. The dichotomy in how the impact of increased consumerism and the emer-

gence of a mass consumer culture in interwar Europe has been interpretedhas been set out by Victoria de Grazia in ‘Nationalising women. The compe-tition between fascist and commercial cultural models in Mussolini’s Italy’in idem. with E. Furlough E. (eds.) The Sex of Things pp. 337–9. See alsoM. Daunton & M. Hilton (eds.) (2001) The Politics of Consumption. Mate-rial Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America (Oxford & New York:Berg).

13. E. Weber (1976) Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress); R. Bendix (ed.) (1964) Nation-Building and Citizenship (New York:Wiley).

14. A. Appadurai (1990) ‘Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural econ-omy’ Public Culture vol. 2.3, pp. 1–24; S. Hall & M. Jacques (eds.) (1989)New Times: The Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s (London: Lawrence &Wishart); D. Harvey (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: BasilBlackwell).

15. V. de Grazia ‘Nationalising women’ pp. 340–2.16. See ibid.17. See the speech by Mussolini to the National Assembly of Corporations

on ‘Il Piano Regolatore della nuova economia italiana’ in B. Mussolini(E. & D. Susmel eds.) Opera Omnia vol 27 pp. 241–8. See also P. Morgan(1995) Italian Fascism 1919–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan) p. 166.

18. On the sanctions see G. Federico (2003) ‘Le sanzioni’ in V. deGrazia & S. Luzzatto (eds.) Dizionario del fascismo vol. 2 (Turin: Einaudi)pp. 590–2.

19. P. Morgan Italian Fascism p. 143; C. A. Ristucia (2000) ‘The 1935 sanctionsagainst Italy: would coal and oil have made a difference?’ European Reviewof Economic History vol. 4.1, pp. 85–110.

20. G. Federico ‘Le sanzioni’ pp. 590–2.21. G. Fontana ‘L’economia’ pp. 1472–3.22. S. Falasca Zamponi Fascist Spectacle p. 172.23. See the Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 17 November 1935; 25 November 1935.24. Le Tre Venezie November 1935 p. 543.25. Il Ventuno September–October 1935 pp. 1–2.26. P. Morgan Italian Fascism p. 143.

Notes 227

27. See S. Falasca-Zamponi S. Fascist Spectacle p. 173.28. Gazzetta 19 November 1935 ‘La prima giornata della rivolta all’assedio’.29. Ibid.30. Gazzetta 19 November 1935 ‘Le sanzioni e le scuole’.31. Gazzetta 6 November 1935.32. Ibid 31 October 1935.33. Gazzetta 17 November 1935 ‘La resistenza contra l’ofensiva sanzionistica’.34. Ibid.35. Ibid.36. Italia Nova 12 January 1936; Gazzetta 17 November 1935.37. Gazzetta 17 November 1935 ‘La resistenza contra l’ofensiva sanzionistica’.38. Similarly, the local fascist party bulletin, Italia Nova, stipulated that ‘foreign

goods already paid for and in our homes are now part of the national pat-rimony and should therefore be consumed’ while urging shopkeepers whohad stocks of such goods remaining to sell these at discounted prices. ItaliaNova 15 December 1935 ‘parlar chiaro’.

39. Gazzetta 12 November 1935; 13 November 1935.40. Gazzetta 21 November 1935 ’L’implacabile resistenza alle sanzioni’.41. Ibid.42. The description is from the Gazzetta 17 November 1935.43. Commandments 1–4 and 7 in full:

1) Eliminate meat from meals on Tuesdays and Wednesdays and do notmake provisions for meat in the preceding days.

2) Only purchase Italian products, both in foodstuffs and clothing, fur-nishings etc. Always refuse what comes from abroad.

3) Try to economise as much as possible in everything: lights, gas, heat-ing, foodstuff, especially luxury objects and eliminate ‘caprices’. This isdirected particularly to the better-off because it’s those who have a lotof money who can make the greatest savings!

4) Choose foods which represent the highest nutrition value for the lowestcost. Here too caprices are forbidden. [...]

7) FOR THOSE WITH LAND OR EVEN A MINUTE GARDEN. Plant – atthe appropriate time - carrots, potatoes, beans, tomatoes; build a littlechicken run so as to make use of even the least kitchen scraps and tohave fresh eggs for your family. If the land permits it, keep a pair of kidgoats. You will have the best milk, superior to cow’s milk, for your littleones and for the less fortunate children of the neighbourhood. Gazzetta17 Nov. 35.

44. Commandments 5–6 in full:

5) Devote your activities not to useless pastimes and frivolous entertain-ments but to the strict observance of order and economy both withinyour own family and among acquaintances and friends. Help those whohave less experience than us with your own experience and wise advice.

6) Dedicate at least an hour a day to the making of clothing for those whohave less than we do and for our soldiers in East Africa. Specifically: out-fits for newborns and children, for all the children whose fathers are faraway. For our soldiers: body belts, woolen socks and scarves, balaclavasetc. Ibid.

228 Notes

45. Gazzetta 17 November 1935.46. Ibid.47. Gazzettino 9 May 1936.48. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 17 November 1935 ‘Pik e Puk’ p. 6.49. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 8 March 1936 ‘Distrattoni e ‘linglese’ p. 8.50. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 12 June 1936 ‘Toni è molto discreto . . . ’.51. See, for examples of such stereotypical depictions, the illustrations in

R. Segrè (1995) Gli ebrei a Venezia. Una comunità tra persecuzione e rinascista(Venice: il cardo).

52. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 26 April 1936 ‘Topolino e il medico sanzionista’.53. See, for example, Gazettino dei Ragazzi 8 December 1935 ‘Roberto e le

sanzioni’ p. 9.54. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo ad agoni costo’ p. 4.

On the memory of 1848 in Venice, see E. Cecchinato (2003) La RivoluzioneRestaurata: Il 1848–1849 a Venezia fra memoria e oblio (Padua: il poligrafo).

55. Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 24 November 1935 ‘Resisteremo ad agoni costo’ p. 4.56. This observation is made in V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 78.57. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women p. 83.58. Ibid pp. 88–94.59. The recourse of German women to the repressive apparatus of the Nazi

state as attempts to resolve family crises is described by Vandana Joshi in(2002) ‘The ‘private’ became ‘public’: Wives as denouncers in the ThirdReich’ Journal of Contemporary History vol. 37.3, pp. 419–435.

60. De Grazia discusses the idea of the family as a ‘private haven’ in fas-cist Italy: V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp.79–82. In the caseof Nazi Germany, the thesis of the family unit as a shield from Nazismwas advanced by Diewald-Kerkmann, although the impenetrability of thisshield has been called into question by Joshi’s research. See G. Diewald-Kerkmann (1996) Politische Denunziation im NS-Regime (Bonn) p. 126 andV. Joshi ‘The “private” became “public”’ pp. 433–4.

61. L. Passerini Fascism in Popular Memory pp. 138–144.62. V. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women pp. 112–5.63. On the evolutions of Fascist food policy see C. Helstosky (2004) Garlic and

Oil: Politics and Food in Italy (Oxford: Berg) and idem (2004) ‘Fascist foodpolitics: Mussolini’s policy of alimentary sovereignty’ in Journal of ModernItalian Studies vol. 9.1, pp. 1–26.

64. See Gazzetta 7 November 1935; 12 November 1935; 14 November1935.

65. Lists of fixed maximum prices, both wholesale and commercial, wereregularly published in local newspapers in order that consumers couldensure for themselves that the fixed-price directives were being observed.See, for example, the Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 14 November 1935;22 November 1935.

66. AMV Quin. 1931–5. XI-5-1. Circular from the Venetian prefecture to thepodestà no. 3152, 2 Dec. 1935. See also Gazzetta 30 October 1935.

67. ‘Il Bolletino federale’, reproduced in Gazzetta 27 October 1935; see alsoGazzetta 7 November 1935.

68. Italia Nova 15 December 1935.69. Gazzetta 8 November 1935.

Notes 229

70. Gazzettino 14 December 1935 ‘Saponi e sanzioni’.71. Il Gazzettino Illustrato 1 December 1935; 15 December 1935; 22 Decem-

ber 1935.72. See T. Plebani (1995) Sapori del Veneto: Note per una storia sociale

dell’alimentazione (Rome: Edizioni De Luca).73. Il Gazzettino Illustrato 24 December 1935 ‘Il consiglio del medico: Frutta e

verdure nostrane’.74. Ibid.75. Gazzetta 20 November 1935 ‘La “Salute” senza castradina’.76. Ibid.77. Ibid.78. With pointed symbolism, the Venetian podestà donated the gold medal

awarded to Mestre in recognition of its citizens’ valour during the 1848siege, as well as other medals from the Risorgimento era, as part of the goldcollection ceremonies. AMV Det. Pod. n. 69230, 13 December 1935.

79. Gazzetta 17 November 1935. ‘Aquistate prodotti italiani’.80. Gazzetta 16 & 17 November 1935.81. Gazzetta 2 December 1935; 9 December 1935.82. Reported in Gazzetta 21 November 1935 p. 4. Further lists of shopkeep-

ers who had disobeyed the fixed-price directives were published, as partof their punishment, on 12 November, 15 November, 16 November and5 December.

83. Italia Nova 19 January 1936.84. AMV Quin. 1931–5 XI-5-I letter from prefecture to the podestà 25

November 1935; Italia Nova 12 April 1936; 19 January 1936.85. Italia Nova 15 December 1935.86. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187.87. A.B. Ricordi di guerra di un diciassettenne 1940–45 AND MP/02 p. 20.88. Gazzetta 20 November 1935 ‘Il metodico sviluppo della lotta contro le

sanzioni’.89. Letter from Michele Pascolato to Giovanni Marinelli, 13 November 1935

ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12.90. Letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Michele Pascolato, 23 November 1935

ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12.91. Letter from Michele Pascolato to Giovanni Marinelli, 21 January 1936 ACS

PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12.92. Letter from Giovanni Marinelli to Michele Pascolato 30 January 1936 ACS

PNF DG Servizi vari, Servie 1 b. 1187, 9.89.12.93. Gazzetta 10 November 1935.94. Gazzetta 8 November 1935; 12 November 1935.95. Italia Nova 22 December 1935.96. See Gazzetta 14 December 1935 ‘Per la nostra vita indipendente dale

sanzioni’.97. Ibid.98. Ibid.99. See, for example, E. Paulicelli (2004) Fashion under Fascism. Beyond the Black

Shirt (Oxford: Berg) and S. Gnoli (2000) La donna, l’eleganza, il fascismo. Lamoda italiana dalle origini all’Ente nazionale della Moda. (Catania: Edizionidel Prisma).

230 Notes

100. M. di Giorgio (2003) ‘Moda’ in Dizionario del fascismo vol. 2,p. 140.

101. Ibid. pp. 141–2.102. S. Gnoli La donna, l’eleganza, il fascismo p. 68.103. Ibid. pp. 30–1.104. V. de Grazia ‘Nationalising women’; M. Vincent (2002) ‘Camisas Nuevas:

Style and Uniformity in the Falange Española 1933–43’ in W. Parker(ed.) Fashioning the Body Politic. Dress, Gender, Citizenship (Oxford: Berg)pp. 167–187.

105. Vita Femminile April 1936 p. 9, cited in S. Gnoli La donna, l’eleganza, ilfascismo p. 93.

106. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 82.107. Gazzetta 2 December 1935 ‘Eleganze, consigli e posta delle lettrine: Parliamo

alle donne’.108. Ibid.109. Ibid.110. Gazzetta 23 December 1935 ‘Eleganze, consigli, posta delle lettrine’.111. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 186.112. Ibid. p. 187.113. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 187.114. R.J.B. Bosworth Mussolini’s Italy.115. M. Damerini (M. Isnenghi ed.) Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 186.116. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. ADN MP/86 pp. 55–6.

5 Death in Venice: The ‘fascistisation’ of funeralsand the rituals of death

1. Gazzetta 3 June 1936.2. Gazzetta 11 June 1936 ‘Le esequie del cap. Eugenio Manetti’.3. Ibid.4. Ibid.5. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from

Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej.6. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina

Codré to Benito Mussolini.7. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from

Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej, 20 May 1930.8. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self, chapter 6.9. E. Gentile The Sacralisation of Politics in Fascist Italy p. 27.

10. For this argument in full, see ibid, passim.11. These themes are explored in C. Fogu (2003) The Historic Imaginary op.

cit. and M. Neocleous (2005)’ “Long live death!” Fascism, resurrection,immortality’ Journal of Political Ideologies vol. 10.1 pp. 31–45.

12. See M. Neocleous ‘Long live death!’, especially pp. 40–6 and C. Fogu (1996)‘Fascism and historic representation. The 1932 Garibaldian celebrations’,Journal of Contemporary History vol. 31.2 especially pp. 333–5.

13. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, 9.89.6 ‘Inventory of furniture,machinery etc. bought for the headquarters of the Venetian Fascio in the

Notes 231

year VIII’. Giovanni Cattelan was a Venetian squadrista who transferred hisallegiance from communism to fascism and was killed at the age of 19 byVenetian communists as punishment for his defection. In retaliation for hisdeath, a group of Venetian squadristi attacked the Castello branch of theCommunist Party, ‘punishing’ the 30 communists found there, two of whomwere taken to the local fascio for further interrogation. The leader of theVenetian fascio ordered shops and public services to shut and tricolours tobe displayed in every home during the ‘grandiose funerary ceremonies’ ofthe newly martyrised Cattelan. M. Franzinelli (2003) Squadristi: Protagonisti etechniche della violenza fascista 1919–1922 (Milan: Mondadori) p. 55. See alsoR. Vicentini Il movimento fascista pp. 260–1 and G. Albanese Alle origini delfascismo p. 237.

14. AMV DP Trim. III n. 30613.15. E. Gentile The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy pp. 117–9.16. On Italy, see, for example, B. Tobia (1991) Una patria per gli italiani:

spazi, itinerari, monumenti nell’Italia unita (1870–1900) (Rome-Bari: Laterza)and A. Banti (2000) La nazione del risorgimento (Turin: Einaudi). On theroots of the post war cultures of death in Europe more widely, seeJ. Winter (1995) Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning. The Great Warin European Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press)passim.

17. R. Koselleck (2002) The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History, SpacingConcepts (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press) pp. 265–84; D.I. Kertzer.Ritual, Politics and Power chapter 4.

18. G. Mosse (1990) Fallen Soldiers. Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars(Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press) p. 4.

19. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self p. 206.20. P. Ariès (1974) Western Attitudes towards Death: From the Middle Ages to the

Present (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press); E. Becker(1973) The Denial of Death (New York: Free Press); G. Gorer (1965) Grief andMourning in Contemporary Britain (London: Cresset).

21. R. Griffin (1993) The Nature of Fascism (London, Routledge).22. L. Riall (2007) Garibaldi. Invention of a Hero (New Haven & London: Yale

University Press) pp. 357–361.23. B. Tobia (1999) ‘Urban space and monuments in the “nationalization of the

masses”: The Italian case’ in S. Woolf (ed.) Nationalism in Europe. 1815 to thePresent (London & New York: Routledge) pp. 171–191; idem. Una patria pergli italiani; D. Atkinson, D. Cosgrove & A. Notaro (1999) ‘Empire in modernRome: shaping and remembering an imperial city 1870–1911’ in F. Driver &D. Gilbert (eds.) Imperial Cities. Landscape, Display and Identity (Manchester &New York: Manchester University Press); I. Porciani (1997) La festa dellanazione: rappresentazione dello stato e spazi sociale nell’Italia unita (Bologna:Il mulino), M. Isnenghi (1994) L’Italia in piazza: I luoghi della vita pubblicadal 1848 ai nostri giorni (Bologna: Il mulino); U. Levra (1992) Fare gli italiani:memoria e celebrazione del Risorgimento (Turin: Comitato di Torino dell’Istitoper la storia del Risorgimento italiano).

24. C. Fogu ‘Fascism and historic representation’ pp. 331–5.25. For more on the commonplaces of the Great War, see M. Isnenghi ‘La Grande

Guerra’ in idem. (ed.) I Luoghi della Memoria vol 3 pp. 275–309.

232 Notes

26. For a contemporary account of the inseparability of D’Annunzio and Venice,see G. Damerini (1943) D’Annunzio e Venezia (Milan: Mondadori). See alsoE. Mariano (ed.) (1991) D’Annunzio e Venezia: atti del convegno, Venezia28–30 ottobre 1988 (Rome: Lucarini) and M. Leeden (1975) D’Annunzioa Fiume (Rome-Bari, Laterza) published in English as The First Duce:D’Annunzio at Fiume (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press,1977).

27. M. Isnenghi (1991) ‘Venezia e l’ideologia della venezianità’ in E. Mariano(ed.) D’Annunzio e Venezia: atti del convegno, Venezia 28–30 ottobre 1988(Rome: Lucarini) p. 231; Gazzettino 2 September 1938; Gazzetta 5 September1938.

28. G. D’Annunzio (1995 [1921]) Notturno (Milan: Mondadori).29. G. D’Annunzio Notturno pp. 26–7. English translation from: G. D’Annunzio

(R. Rosenthal trans.) (1993) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death(London: Quartet Books) pp. 223–5.

30. G. D’Annunzio Notturno p. 28. English translation: G. D’Annunzio(R. Rosenthal trans.) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death p. 226.

31. M. Puccini ‘Un giorno alla Città universitaria’ in Il Ventuno June 1938 p. 45.32. Ibid.33. G. D’Annunzio Notturno p29. English translation: G. D’Annunzio

(R. Rosenthal trans.) Nocturne and Five Tales of Love and Death p. 227.34. Gazzetta 16 February 1937 ‘Cronache funebre’.35. In Spain during the civil war both the Falange and members of the JAP

(the youth wing of the Catholic party before it was subsumed into theFalange) would reply ‘Present’ or ‘Present and Forwards!’ when the namesof their dead comrades were called out. During Franco’s dictatorship, JoseAntonio’s name was always followed by ‘Presente’. In Germany, the roll callis recorded as having taken place in 1935 at the Ehrentempel in Munichas part of the commemorative celebrations for the reburial on 8 November1935 of the exhumed corpses of the 13 ‘blood martyrs’ of the Munich Putsch.’At the Ehrentempel the names of the sixteen “blood witnesses” were calledout individually, the chorus of Hitler Youth responded to the intonation ofeach name with the cry, “Here!” and after each cry there shots rang out insalute.’ P. Connerton (1989) How Societies Remember (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press) pp. 42–3.

36. Dizionario della politica vol 1. (Rome, 1940) pp. 146–7.37. C. Fogu Fascism and Historic Representation: pp. 331–5.38. In this regard, this study finds itself in agreement with Claudio Fogu’s inter-

pretation of the roll call and at odds with that of Emilio Gentile. C. FoguFascism and Historic Representation p. 335; E. Gentile The Sacralization ofPolitics p. 27.

39. All death notices carried in the Gazzetta and Gazzettino newspapers andall funerals reported in the Gazzetta between the months of January toMarch, 1929–1939, were surveyed; a total of 1,429 death notices and 19funeral reports. It must be acknowledged that these statistics can only incor-porate those funerals that were reported in the newspapers. As might beexpected, these tended to be the funerals of individuals who were prominentprofessionally, politically, socially or culturally, those who were killed incombat, either in Ethiopia or Spain, or those who died in otherwise untimely

Notes 233

or unusual circumstances. Given that these people are perhaps more likely tobe considered to have ‘actively contributed to the reconstruction of Italianlife promoted by Fascism’, one might surmise that the percentage of theentire cohort of funerals held in Venice during the 1930s which includedthe roll call must be even lower.

40. For example, Gazzetta 2 September 1930 and 3 September 1930.41. Gazzetta 13 September 1936.42. Ibid.43. The notion of the regime ‘colonising time’ is borrowed from Mabel Berezin’s

Making the Fascist Self chapter 5 ‘Colonizing time: Rhythms of fascist ritualin Verona’.

44. T. Edensor (2006) ‘Reconsidering national temporalities: institutional time,everyday routines, serial spaces and synchronicities’ in European Journal ofSocial Theory vol. 9.4 pp. 525–545.

45. Gazzetta 15 February 1936 ‘La ferocia abyssina. Un feroce episodio narratoda un legionario veneziano’.

46. Ibid.47. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina

Codré to Benito Mussolini.48. The phrase ‘suicide state’ belongs to Mark Neocleous (M. Neocleous “‘Long

live death!” Fascism, resurrection, immortality’ p. 41). In discussing fas-cism’s suicidal tendency, Foucault referred primarily to Nazi Germany. SeeM. Foucault (D. Macey trans.) (2003) Society Must Be Defended. Lectures at theCollège de France, 1975–76 (London: Allen Lane) p. 260.

49. B. Mussolini, in collaboration with G. Gentile ‘Foundations and Doctrineof Fascism (1932)’ in J.T. Schnapp (ed.) (2000) A Primer of Italian Fascism(Lincoln, Ne.: University of Nebraska Press) p. 52. Cited in M. Neocleous‘Long live death!’ p. 41.

50. Gazzetta 6 February 1938 ‘L’eroica morte in Spagna d’un Padre Francescanodi S. Michele’.

51. Ibid.52. Gazzetta 30 March 1936 ‘L’eroico sacrificio di padre Reginaldo Giuliani/

Rievocato dal Dominicano Acerbi in Palazzo Ducale’.53. M. Stone The Patron State pp. 213–4.54. Ibid.55. In this context, ‘official’ participation refers to the presence of uniformed

fascist groups, with or without flags etc., who played some kind of activerole in the funereal rites, or the including of ‘fascist’ elements within therites, such as the anthem ‘Giovinezza’.

56. Gazzetta 11 June 1936.57. Gazzetta 30 March 1936 ‘L’eroico sacrificio di padre Reginaldo Giuliani/

Rievocato dal Dominicano Acerbi in Palazzo Ducale’.58. Ibid.59. M. Isnenghi ‘Monte Grappa’ in idem (ed.) I luoghi della memoria vol 1.

passim.60. La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935; Gazzetta 10 July 1935.61. Gazzetta 10 July 1935.62. See, for example, Gazzetta 10 July 1935; Gazzettino 10 July 1935; La Settimana

Religiosa 14 July 1935.

234 Notes

63. Gazzetta 10 July 1936.64. S. Tramontin (1979) ‘Il cardinal La Fontaine, Patriarca di Venezia e I fascisti

dopo la marcia su Roma’ Storia Contemporanea vol. 3, pp. 481–519; G. Vian(2003) ‘La stampa cattolica e il fascismo a Venezia negli anni del con-senso’ in Storia e problemi contemporanea (Bologna, Rivista dell’Institutoregionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione nelle Marche, Ed. Clueb)passim.

65. Gazzetta 12 July 1935 ‘Il commosso omaggio dei veneziani’; Gazzettino12 July 1935.

66. La Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935.67. Gazzetta 12 July 1935.68. Gazzetta 13 July 1935; Gazzettino 13 July 1935; La Settimana Religiosa

14 July 1935.69. Gazzettino 13 July 1935.70. Ibid.71. Speech by Mario Alverà, podestà of Venice 12 July 1935, reproduced in the

Gazzetta 13 July 1935.72. Gazzettino 13 July 1935.73. Cardinal Pietro La Fontaine, sermon 25 December 1916, reproduced in La

Settimana Religiosa 14 July 1935.74. Gazzetta 1 March 1936.75. Gazzetta 16 February 1934.76. Gazzetta 18 February 1936.77. See for example Gazzetta 27 February 1933. More on Maria Pezzè Pascolato’s

life can be found in N.M. Fillippini (2002) ‘Storia delle donne: culture,mestieri, profili’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol. 2pp. 1623–1662. On the establishment of the Fasci femminili nationally, seeV. de Grazia How Fascism Ruled Women. Italy 1922–1945 pp. 30–5.

78. Gazzetta 24 February 1933.79. Gazzetta 28 February 1933 ‘Il cordoglio per la morte di Maria Pezzè

Pascolato’.80. Ibid. See also Gazzettino 28 February 1933.81. Gazzetta 28 February 1933.82. See, for example, the Gazzetta 1 March 1933 ‘L’imponente manifestazione di

omaggio alla salma di Maria Pezzè Pascolato’.83. Ibid.84. ibid.85. Gazzetta 27 February 1935.86. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from Rina

Codré to Benito Mussolini.87. ACS PNF DG Servizi vari, Serie 1 b. 1183, corrispondenza, letter from

Giovanni Marinelli to Giorgio Suppiej, 20 May 1930.88. M. Berezin Making the Fascist Self pp. 236–242.

Epilogue and conclusion

1. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite AND MP/99 p. 11. That said, because of thechemical, steel and petroleum plants, Porto Marghera and Mestre on themainland were targeted by allied bombers. On two occasions the centro

Notes 235

storico also came under aerial attack: on 14 August 1944 a German hospi-tal ship moored off the Punto della Dogana at the entrace to the GrandCanal was hit, along with two vaporetti which happened to be along-side, killing over 30 people. On 13 October 1944 a commuter ferry boatwas sunk off Pellestrina with the loss of more than 100 lives. R. Liucci(2002)’“Il ‘43 – ‘45’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol 3.pp. 1741–1768.

2. The Ministry of Public Works, part of the Foreign Ministry and theInstituto LUCE all made their home in Venice between September 1943 andApril 1945.

3. R. Liucci ‘Il ’43 – ‘45’ p. 1750.4. Gazzettino 23 January 1941 & 25 August 1941. On tourist Venice during the

war see R.J.B. Bosworth ‘Venice between fascism and international tourism’pp. 13–17. See also E. Franzina (2002) ‘Il ‘fronte interno’ sulle lagune. Veneziain Guerra (1938–1943)’ in M. Isnenghi & S. Woolf (eds.) Storia di Venezia vol3 pp. 1685–1739.

5. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite ADN MP/99 p. 11.6. R.d.C. Mi chiamo R.d.C. ai suoi comandi ADN MP/86.7. B.M. Il tempo delle Margherite ADN MP/99 p. 11.8. V.A. Me g’ha contà la nonna ADN MP/a p. 229.9. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 266.

10. Maria Damerini’s account of the end of the Gazzetta is described in hermemoir. See Mario Isnenghi’s preface to M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni delLeone pp. 13–17 and also I cento anni del “Gazzettino”. 1887–1987. (Turin,Gutenberg 2000, 1987) p. 24.

11. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone p. 272–3.12. C. Fogu The Historic Imaginary. Politics of History in Fascist Italy, passim.13. Speech made by the Venetian podestà, Mario Alverà, on the occasion of

the 20th anniversary of the Battle of the Piave, reported in the Gazzetta 18Jun.1938 ‘Venezia acclamerà oggi il Re Imperatore’. See Chapter 3.

14. AMV Quin. 1931–5 IX-IV-8. Essay by M.d.S., Scuola SS Apostoli. SeeChapter 2.

15. This compares with 46 per cent of Corriere readers who made no mention offascism whatsoever and 12 per cent who explicitly wrote of fascism in theiressays. See Chapter 2.

16. F. Pasinetti ‘Ieri e oggi’ Il Ventuno Feb. 1934.17. Letter from Ranieri to Starace 11 Oct. 1932. ACS PNF Serie I, b. 1184.18. Introduction to G. Maranini Costituzione di Venezia dopo la serrata del Maggior

Consiglio, cited in C. Povolo ’The Creation of Venetian Historiography’p. 508.

19. Rivista di Venezia Jan. 1934, p. 3. See Chapter 3.20. Venezia. (Venice, Comune di Venezia, Ufficio per il turismo, 1938).21. Gazzetta 4 Feb. 1934.22. From Mario Alverà’s speech reported in the Gazzetta 18 Jun. 1938. See

Chapter 3.23. Gazzetta 19 Dec. 1935 ‘Unanime di fervida passione il popolo veneziano ha

compiuto il sacro rito dell’offerta della “fede” alla patria’. See Chapter 4.24. Patriarch, Cardinal Piazza’s speech, reported in the Gazzetta 20 Jun. 1938

‘Spettacolo di potenza marinara in Bacino di San Marco’. See Chapter 3.25. See Chapter 5.

236 Notes

26. Such as the violent scuffles that broke out between members of the Venetianbranches of the GUF and FUCI during the ‘crisis’ of 1931; see Chapter 2.

27. Settimana Religiosa 24 Dec. 1933 ‘Il Fanciullo e la Madre’. See Chapter 3p. 155.

28. P. Corner (2002) ‘Italian Fascism: Whatever happened to dictatorship?’Journal of Modern History 74.2, pp. 325–51.

29. The quotation is from R. Ben Ghiat ‘Review of L. La Rovere (2003) Storia deiGUF. Organizzazione, politica e miti della gioventù universitaria fascista 1919–1943 (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri) in the Journal of Modern Italian Studiesvol. 9.2, 2004.

30. Motta E ‘La scuola comunale a Venezia nel 1930’ in Rivista di Venezia,Mar. 1931, pp. 112–20.

31. M. Damerini Gli ultimi anni del Leone. p. 52: see Chapter 1.

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Index

Abyssinia see Ethiopian WarAccademia 28Acerbi, Padre 175, 176Adalberto, Folador 142Adamo Bazzani, Ada 136Adriatic fascism 33–8, 191Adriatic Sea 79, 116

Venice’s ‘right’ to dominate 87see also Eastern Adriatic lands

agrarian fascism 34Albania 40alcohol 1, 12, 31

spaces associated with 2, 48Alexandria 94Alltagsgeschichte 3, 4, 6Alpini 176Altino (ferry ship) 41Alverà, Mario 29, 38, 85, 88, 93,

113–14, 116, 160, 180, 196Anghiar (Garibaldi’s negro) 61anti-bourgeois campaign 34, 49, 127,

130, 201anti-fascism 2, 32, 33, 201

activities deemed 151resistance size and contribution

of 9youth and 53

appello fascista/rito fascista 169–71,176, 182, 183

Applegate, C. 39Aquileja (ferry ship) 41Arditi 176Arendt, H. 13Ariès, P.G. 162aristocracy 18, 21, 30, 36, 40, 48,

143, 184, 188Armando Diaz primary school 67, 71Arsenale 24, 110, 112, 115, 195arsenalotti 89Assicurazioni Generali (insurance

company) 46Association of Infantrymen 176

Association of Mothers and Widows ofFallen Soldiers 129

Associazione Famiglie Caduti 112–13Associazione Nazionalista Italiana

21, 39Ateneo Veneto 101Audisio, Serafino 37Austria 40, 109, 116, 136

air-raids from 22, 29, 178, 180uprising against (1848) 115, 196

Austrian Consulate in Venice 133autarky 109, 123, 124, 143, 148, 151,

199patriotic 138sanctions and 125–8, 137, 152

auto-consumption 146, 147Avanguardisti 54, 62, 89, 179, 183avogadori 42Azzurri di Dalma 176

Baldinelli, Armando 175–6Balilla organisations 54, 69, 72, 114,

179, 183, 200, 201see also ONB

Bandiera Rossa 1barbarity 4, 79, 94, 173–4

supposed 64bars 2, 8, 34, 42, 43, 48Battle of the Piave (1918) 88

anniversary celebrations 29, 30,50, 85, 109–20, 193, 195, 197

Becker, E. 162Bellavitis, G. 30Belluno 31, 88Ben Ghiat, R. 53Benghazi 88Berezin, M. 186Bergamo 23, 88Bersaglieri 176Biadene, Galeazzo 49Bianchi, Franco 58Bielefeld school 3

244

Index 245

Biennale exhibitions 23, 148, 175,176, 188

biennio rosso 22, 34, 35, 89, 159, 184birth-rates 103Bisacco, Alfonso 37black market 189Blackshirts 42, 61–2, 112, 156

deaths/funerals 169, 172, 174–7,180, 184

political violence against real andimagined opponents 12

blat 5, 6, 31bocolo 89Bologna 37Bonfanti, Aldo 71Bonmartini, Ninetto 190Bortolon, Padre 174Bosworth, R. J. B. 20, 27, 86Bottai, Giuseppe 53, 77, 78–9, 81,

106bourgeoisie 42, 43, 96, 151, 188

imagined lifestyle 130tirade against unpatriotic practices

131upper 30, 143see also anti-bourgeois campaign

Bragadin, Marcantonio 114–15Brandolin Marcello, Contessa

Vendramina 49, 102, 129, 131Brass, Italico 83Brass, Sandro 89Bressan, Giorgio 71Britain 127, 135Brunetta, Padre 174Bucca, Captain 176Bucintoro society 115Burano 24, 183

Ca’ Foscari University 167Ca’ Littorio 112, 113, 115, 121,

128–9, 134, 160Cadel, Angelo 1, 2Caduti del Mare 112, 116caduti fascisti 160

see also Associazione Famiglie Caduti;Caduti del Mare

Calvi, Pier Fortunato 115Camera del Lavoro 27, 42Camicie Nere (III gruppo) 174

Campo San Bartolomeo 26, 107Campo San Maurizio 166Campo Santa Margherita 27, 42

Casa del Popolo, Casa rossa delMalcanton 35

Cannaregio 27, 35, 42, 46, 92, 129population growth 28

Canzone del Piave 110, 112, 180, 197capitalism 3, 34, 159Capon (osteria) 42Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 22, 113,

165Caprera 163carabinieri 176, 183Carnival celebrations 43, 63, 87,

89–90Carta della Scuola (1939) 53Casanova, G. 40Case della Madre e dei Bambini 101,

102Case Rurali 35castellani and nicolotti 89Castello 28, 92, 93, 129, 142

Calle Mora, near Campiello dellaMadoneta 26

Ponte de la Comenda 26, 32Via Garibaldi 35, 42see also San Pietro di Castello

castradina 140, 143Catalano, Ada 117Catholic Action 37, 44, 48, 55

brought under direct control ofbishoprics 45–6

group outlawed by decree 45Catholic Church 17

fascist regime and 44, 51, 119,179–80, 192, 196

symbols and rites 96, 116, 119,163, 164, 192

see also church and stateCatholic parties/associations see Case

Rurali; Catholic Action; FUCI;Leghe Bianchi

Cattelan, Giovanni 160Cavalchina ball 43, 89cenerentolo dei campi 25

246 Index

centro storico 24, 26, 27, 30–1, 35, 36,189

decline of traditional industries126, 150

economic life at virtual standstill22

poorer inhabitants cajoled out of85–6

unemployment rise 25centurie marinari 179Certeau, M. de 4, 11, 15, 199Chanel, Coco 150Children’s Library 185child-bearing

cost of 106outside marriage 105

Chioggia, Battle of (1380) 18Chirignino 24Christianity 64Christmas 27, 85, 119, 181

appropriation of 50, 99–109, 179,193, 196, 200

church and state relationship 44, 45collaboration 104conciliation (1929) 196conflict and contested space 197–8shared aims and values 197

CIGA (Compagnia Italiana degli GrandiAlberghi) 23, 36, 48–9, 86, 87,89, 91

Cinevillaggio 188Cini, Vittorio 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 38,

194Circolo di Cultura Ebraica 46Circolo Fascista 1città-franca status 22, 188città-vetrina projection 20, 86, 119Civil Resistance Committee 184clientelist networks 31clothing 22, 24, 132

certified 147–8, 150shortages of 4wearing of a red item 12

Codré, Gesù & Rina 156–8, 174, 185Codroma (osteria) 42cohesion 9, 31, 48

common purpose and 159national 47, 124

colonie estive 55–6

comics see publicationscommemorative cults 113, 161, 162,

201communism 35, 47complaisance 12, 13Concordia (ferry ship) 41Confino, A. 39confraternities 43, 179consent for fascism 8–9, 11–13, 103,

199apparatus geared towards

engendering 10, 198attempts to foster culture of 84high point of support and 50, 128political 48see also ‘years of consent’

Constantinople (sacking 1204)79, 91

consumption 18, 20, 106, 130, 141,145, 150, 152–3, 198

conspicuous 129creativity of 11, 15curbing of 136, 142–3, 151difficulties of 4–5, 6family 123, 132, 136, 138fascist ritual 85local 83, 87, 127mass 46–7, 48, 124national 109, 127, 128, 138, 142,

146, 149, 193, 199nationalist-imperialist models of

137patriotic 138, 139, 147, 192, 200politicised 125popular 87regulating 142, 144, 151resistant 124see also auto-consumption

consumption-production 15, 16, 50,199, 202

Cormaroff, J. & J. 85Corradini, Enrico 39Corriere dei Piccoli 53, 57, 59, 63,

69–70, 72, 73, 74–5, 193, 194Corso, Amadeo 142Corte Michiel 166costumes 63, 83, 89, 90, 95, 113Cotonificio Veneziano 24, 25

Index 247

Cottin, Monsignor, archpriest ofCastello 93

Council of Ministers 42Critica Fascista 77, 79crocerossine 89cucina della memoria 139, 140cultural products 17, 125, 193, 200

ambivalence in 58dominant 15, 67fascist(ised) 41, 53, 67, 192, 198,

199, 201, 202reception and 54, 76, 199, 201

cultural resistance 5, 12

Dal Fiume, Captain 173–4Dal Tedesco, Angelo 171Dalmatia 40, 140, 178

see also Fiume; Nona; TrauDamerini, Maria & Gino 31–2, 36,

38, 43, 49, 89, 118, 120, 143, 144,148, 150, 151–2, 153, 189–91, 201

Dandolo, Emilio 60–1Dandolo, Enrico, Doge of Venice 79,

114, 195Daniele (grand hotel) 42D’Annunzio, Gabriele 21, 22, 30, 34,

36, 165–8, 175, 190, 191, 194Dardanelles 115D’Avray, D. 17, 200Dazzi, M. 95De Bono, Emilio 116De Felice, Renzo 9, 12, 178, 198De Grazia, Victoria 47, 48, 123,

124–5, 148death/funerals 13, 18, 155–87, 189,

192, 193, 197, 200–1Decalogo delle Donne Italiane 131,

132, 133, 138, 145, 146democratic governments 124demographic campaign 37, 89, 91,

93, 94, 96, 196Christmas a vehicle for 100, 119failure of 120imperialist-racist justifications

which informed 193possible radicalisation of policies

103women coopted into procreation

92, 108–9

Depression years (1930s) 20, 24, 90,126, 150

Des Bains (grand hotel) 23, 42, 86Dettori, Giovanni 171dictatorship 2–5, 7–13, 16, 18–20,

58, 199ambiguities and ambivalences of life

under 53avoiding the impositions of 137banning of mask-wearing 89brutal 11, 198characteristics of 33coercive and repressive 201identities and narratives out of line

with ideals of 109mass consumerism a potential

threat to 124Dictionary of Politics (1940) 90, 170Directory of Italian Tailors 147–8Disdottona (ceremonial gondola)

112, 115dissent 1, 8, 10, 11, 13, 198

absence of 9importance placed on 12inferring consent from lack of 12

Dodesona (ceremonial gondola) 112,115

Donne fasciste 113Dorsoduro 28, 35, 42, 142, 182dowries 92, 95Dugnani (provincial OND Secretary)

93

East Africa 56, 63, 84, 102, 108argument used to justify fascist

colonial and imperial ambitionsin 92

recognition of regime’s conquestsin 89

see also Ethiopian WarEastern Adriatic lands 87, 88

irredentist claims in children’scomics 195

education 67, 81abandonment of secularism 52–3moral and physical 55patriotic, militaristic and racist 53religious 44

Eigensinn 5

248 Index

England 31ENM (Ente Nazionale della Moda) 147EOA (Ente Opera Assistenziale) 56Eraclea (ferry ship) 41Eroi della Grande Guerra 59Ethiopian War (1935–6) 9, 18, 37,

50, 62–6, 81, 155, 157, 159, 169,173, 174, 175, 177, 182, 183, 186,198, 199

children born of Italian men andEthiopian women 102

consumption and family during121–54

League of Nations’ punishment forItaly’s invasion 106

Excelsior (grand hotel) 23, 42, 43, 86,190

Faccetta Nera (popular song) 62, 151,176

Faeti, A. 58Famagosta 115Families of the Fallen for Fascism 79,

159, 176Farfusola, Giovanni 169, 201Fascio femminile 55, 87, 91, 102, 129,

148, 151, 183–4Fascist Confederation of Industrialists

171Fascist Exhibition (Mostro del Fascismo)

(1932) 80, 159, 160Fascist Federation 36, 101fashion 151, 200

foreign 108, 150, 153high-society 148impact on choices of wealthier

women 150national 147, 148, 149patriotic 148sanction-resistant 149see also clothing

Favaro 24Favini, Giunio 156fecundity 96, 106, 195, 196

disregard of Mussolini’sexhortations on 105

promotion of 101feminine virtues 59

Fenice, La (opera house) 42, 46, 49Cavalchina ball 43, 89

festivals 18, 48, 83–120, 137, 139,140, 192

film 23, 148local 47, 85, 143reinvented and novel 200religious 43, 50, 85, 91, 100see also Carnival celebrations;

Christmas; Marie festival;marriage (festival of)

Figli(e) della Lupa 54, 56Fincardi, M. 89Fitzpatrick, S. 4–5, 6Fiume 21, 34, 165, 175, 190, 191Florence 78, 88, 150Florian (gran caffé) 42Fogu, Claudio 164Folin, Giovanni 142Fondamente Nuove 43Fontane, T. 17food 22, 23, 127, 135, 140, 151, 200

finding on the black market 189fixed prices for 137foreign 141important 142local 139, 141low cost but highly nutritious 132luxurious 142–3nationally-produced 141political-cultural significance

attached to 106provision and availability of 141sanction-busting regulations on

distribution 122shortages of 4, 189unpleasant 136

food consumptionpatriotic 139reduced 146women urged to restrict 138

foreign goods 141, 146, 149, 150, 151foreign languages/names 130, 131forze di Ercole 89, 90Foscari, Piero 21, 38, 42Foucault, M. 2, 15, 174Fourth Crusade (1202) 29, 91, 114Fradaletto, Antonio 42France 36, 60, 127, 162, 189

Index 249

Franco, Gen. Francisco 5, 105, 169Fraschetti, Lieutenant 176Friuli 7, 26, 31, 34, 156FUCI (Federazione Universitaria

Cattolica Italiana) 45funereal roll call see appello fascista

Gaggia, Achille 26Galli, Blanche 189Gallipoli 115Garda, Lake 138Garibaldi, Anita 164Garibaldi, Giuseppe 61, 163Gazzettino dei Ragazzi 53, 57, 59, 64,

65, 69, 70, 74, 108, 133, 134, 135,193

GDR (German Democratic Republic)5

gender 6, 7, 32, 52, 54, 55, 74–5, 76,170, 180, 183–7, 192

Genoa 88, 164Gentile, Emilio 13–14, 159, 198Gentile, Giovanni 52Germany see GDR; heimat; Nazi

GermanyGiardini 97, 111, 166

Biennale pavilions 188GIL (Gioventù Italiana del Littorio) 54,

110Ginocchietti, Port Captain 79, 81, 82Ginzburg, C. 7Giolitti, Giovanni 23Giornata della Fede 121, 123, 134,

151, 153, 160, 196–7Giornata della Madre e del Fanciullo

100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 116,120, 178, 193, 197

Giovani Fascisti 54, 55, 80, 81, 100–1,102, 113, 176

Giovani Italiani 54–5, 61, 89, 179, 194Giovinezza (fascist anthem) 176Giudecca 24, 28, 68, 181Giuliani, Padre Reginaldo 174–5, 176Giuriati, Giovanni 25, 29, 34, 36,

38, 39glass industry 24, 25, 126Gorer, G. 162Gorizia (battle cruiser) 110graffiti 1, 35

Gran Consiglio 128, 129, 133Grand Canal 29, 83, 91, 95, 111,

121, 140, 143, 179, 185Casetta Rossa 165fascist party headquarters 160

Granzotto, Gianni 10Gray, E. M. 22Graziani, Gen. Rodolfo 88Great Britain 103Great War (1914–18) 13, 21, 34, 41,

69, 78, 81, 140–1, 155, 194deliverance from Austrian bombing

raids 29devastating effect on economic life

22heroics/heroes of 59, 70, 177, 193industrial sector given seismic boost

in the final years 22patriarch’s conduct during 178,

180, 197rituals of death rooted in experience

of 155–63, 165, 177, 182see also Battle of the Piave; war

veteransGregorian calendar 172Griffin, R. 14, 163Grimani, Filippo, Mayor of Venice 44gruppo veneziano 22

see also Cini; VolpiGuadalajara 174Guerra dei pugni 89GUF (Gruppo Universitario Fascista)

10, 49, 53, 54, 77, 129, 138, 145,168

attacks on local Catholics by youngfascists and members of 45

see also Ventuno

Habermas, J. 32, 33health-care see Case della Madre e dei

Bambiniheimat 39History Workshop movement 3Hitler, Adolf 4, 36, 57Hoggart, R. 16, 199Hollywood 8, 125, 148House of Savoy 45, 75, 111, 118, 197housing stock 28

overcrowded and unsanitary 26, 27

250 Index

industrial developments 21–6, 124infant deaths 28irredentism 21, 34, 87, 88, 140, 165,

191, 195‘israelitic contamination’ 102Istituto LUCE 83, 86Italia Nova 87–8Italian Red Cross 129italiani brava gente myth 13

Jews 46, 135see also Circolo di Cultura Ebraica;

‘israelitic contamination’journals see publicationsJunghans matchmakers 24, 25

Kocka, J. 6Koon, T. 53Körner, A. 39

La Fontaine, Cardinal Pietro, Patriarchof Venice 29–30, 44–5, 91,177–82, 185, 196, 197

La Rovere, L. 53lace-making 24–5, 126, 183Lateran Pact (1929) 44League of Nations 195

see also sanctionsLeghe Bianchi 35Leonardi, Countess Giulia 173Leonardi, Lorenzo 173–4Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 115Libreria Tarantola 145Libya 88licei femminili 52Lido 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 41, 68, 91,

112, 143destination of choice for

international beau monde 86grand hotels 23, 42, 43, 43, 86, 190locations: Casa Bianca area 27;

Malamocco 169; San Nicolòairport 42, 86

recreatorio estivo transferred to 55votive temple 162, 180, 181, 182,

197worldly entertainments 188

Lombroso, Ester 148Lucatello, Maria 182

LUCE (L’Unione CinematograficaEducativa) 83, 86

Lüdtke, A. 4, 5, 6, 12Luke, St 91luoghi comuni 116, 119, 120, 191,

195, 201powerful 181religious, principal 196

luxury hotels see Excelsior; Daniele; DesBains

Luzzatti, Luigi 42

madrine 116–17magazines see publicationsMagliaretta, L. 30–1Maison du Livre Français 145Majer Rizzioli, Elisa 184Malamocco Fasci 169Malcontenta 24Malibran Theatre 101Malipiero, Anna & Francesca 143,

144Manara, Luciano 60–1Manetti, Capt. Eugenio 155–7, 158,

172, 176Manfren (bar) 43Manin, Daniele 21, 39, 40, 136, 195,

196Mann, Thomas 27, 40Manzini, Lorenzo 83–4Maranini, Giuseppe 87marca di garanzia 147–8Marcello del Mayno, Countess Marisa

117see also Brandolin Marcello

Marcello, Lorenzo 115March on Rome (1922) 35, 57, 184,

191anniversary celebrations 2, 27,

79–80, 172violent early months and years

before 76Marie festival 50, 85, 90–9, 103, 116,

119, 120, 179, 193, 195, 197, 201Marinelli, Giovanni 145Marinetti, Filippo 21, 85Maritime Command for the Upper

Adriatic 79

Index 251

marriage 50, 105, 112, 192buying into patrician families

through 26child born outside 105exaltation of 92, 93, 94, 95, 102,

195fecundity within 96, 195, 196festival of 85, 92, 94, 95, 96, 119,

179, 195local regime initiatives celebrating

motherhood and 44mixed 46Mussolinian and fascist policy in

support of 92procreation and 92, 93, 96, 120,

200promotion of 96

Marsich, Nahyr 58Marsich, Piero 34, 36, 42masks 43, 83

decree banning 89–90massaie rurale 113maternity see Giornata della Madre e del

Fanciullo; ONMIMedaglio d’oro 15Mediterranean 9, 41, 92, 112, 139,

194Mestre 24, 25, 26, 31, 35, 40, 156

population rise (1921/1931/1936)26

middle classes 36, 49, 89, 129,152–3

lower 68; see also V.A.newspapers for 130, 148–9preoccupation with financial cost of

child-bearing 106upper 48, 184

Milan 8, 40, 88, 145, 150inaugural fascist rally in Piazza San

Sepolcro (1919) 33, 77Ministries 188

Education 52, 54Finance 23Interior 38Popular Culture 36, 56–7Press and Propaganda 36

Miraglia, Giovanni 166–7, 168,175

Mirano 26

miscegenation 151Mocenigo Faà di Bruno, Countess

Costanza 117Modellina 70, 75Molin, Attilio 183, 201Molmenti, Pompeo 39, 40Mondadori, Arnaldo 57Monte Grappa 165, 177Mosse, G. 13–14, 162, 199Mostra del Fascismo see Fascist

ExhibitionMostra della Vittoria 110Mulino Stucky 24, 25Murano 24, 28, 68, 83

mass defection of Socialist Party tofascism 35

Mussolini, Benito 12, 13, 23, 28,38, 41, 84, 86, 89, 95–6, 119,127, 153, 156, 164, 182, 195,199

accession to power 191alignment of church leaders behind

social policies of 44Ascension Day speech (1927) 92Baldinelli’s Biennale depiction

purchased by 176children’s comics and 56–67, 69,

70, 71, 72, 76, 82conscious disregard of his

exhortations on fecundity105

Decalogo preface by 131determination to rule ‘totally’ 19eulogy to the women of Italy (1936)

123first ceremonious act as prime

minister 162imperialist-racist justifications

which informed hisdemographic campaign 193

invasion of Ethiopia justified 125Machiavellian pretender to his

throne 34military spending increased 126portraits of 45, 72, 133,

160rallying cry in Milan (1919)

33, 77see also March on Rome

252 Index

Mutilati 113, 176MVSN (Milizia volontaria per la

sicurezza nazionale) 156, 174,179

Nani, Countess Carola 117Nani, Giacomo, Provveditore al Mare

115, 195Napoleon Bonaparte 18, 196Nastro Azzuro 171, 176nation-building 47, 39, 124National Association for the Wounded

79National Institute of Insurers 94National Socialism see Nazi Germanynationalist unification movement

157see also Venetian nationalism

Nazi Germany 13, 14, 105, 169disagreement over perceived

influence of 45racial rhetoric 102, 104re-making of Christmas 100trivialising of crimes 4see also Third Reich

newspapers see publicationsNicopeja Virgin 197Noale 115Nona 88Noncommissioned Officers’

Association 176notturna festival 83, 84nouveau riche 26, 130

oath of allegiance 129, 133, 158–9ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) 54, 55,

56, 79attacks on local Catholics by young

fascists and members of 45oath of allegiance 129, 133official comic (Il Balilla) 57–61, 69,

70, 71–2, 108, 193OND (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro)

58, 84, 89, 91, 93, 97, 129, 179folklore section 90non-fascist sporting and

recreational associationsreplaced or subsumed by 47–8

see also Starace; Turati

ONMI (Opera Nazionale per la Maternitàed L’Infanzia) 72, 87, 101–2

Opera dei Congressi 35Orsi, Pietro 38osterie 2, 32, 35, 42, 48OVRA (Organizzazione vigilanza

repressione antifascismo) 12

Padua 110, 181Palazzo della Pescheria 47, 89, 97Palazzo Ducale 175Palazzo Falcon 37Palazzo Venezia 123Palladio, Andrea 181Paris 8, 125, 145, 148, 150

cosmopolitan fashion plateproclaimed by 147

Pascolato, Maria Pezzè 183–7, 202Pascolato, Michele 145Pasinetti, Franco 49, 78, 82, 194Passerini, L. 5, 11–12, 77patrician families 30, 31, 34, 42, 43,

74, 83, 89, 90, 151, 165enduring pre-eminence of 20humble girls, dressed and adorned

by 95illustrious 21, 102marriage into 23, 26old 38, 40, 116–17paternalistic relations 92rich 21

patriziato-popolano connections 31Pauletti, Pietro 182Pellestrina 24Perry, J. 109Peukert, D. 4, 16philanthropic initiatives 184Piave river 196

see also Battle of the PiavePiazza, Cardinal A. G., Patriarch of

Venice 44, 45, 112, 115, 116,197

Piazza San Marco 21, 29, 85, 86, 88,90, 110, 114, 136, 140, 141

electrical lighting 22gran caffés 42, 49student demonstrations 128, 133see also St Mark’s Basilica

Piazzale Roma 29, 179

Index 253

Piccole Italiane 54, 58, 59, 70, 179Pini, Giorgio 37Pinzoni, Bortolo 1–2, 12Pius IX, Pope 60PNF (Partito Nazionale Fascista) 38,

45, 54, 91, 110, 157–8, 169headquarters 112, 113, 115, 121,

128–9, 134, 160see also Marinelli; Starace

podestà function 31, 140see also Alverà; Orsi; Zorzi (Ettore)

Pola (battle cruiser) 110Polacco, Vittorio 141–2political religion 13, 14, 159, 181,

196, 198, 199political socialisation 52, 75political violence 12, 13, 35Polverelli, Gaetano 147Ponte delle Guglie 2Ponte dell’Littorio 29Ponti, Gio 110Pontine marshes 72popolani families 20, 31, 47, 119,

129–30, 139, 150, 153exodus to newly-constructed houses

24funerals of 182–3important cause of mobility 27staple diet of 143see also R.d.C.

popular opinion 12, 32Porciani, I. 39port-worker ambassadors 42Porto Marghera 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,

31, 38, 85poverty line 27PPI (Partito Popolare Italiano) 27, 35pragmatic acceptance 5, 12, 13prefecture 1, 2, 29, 118Premio da Ponte essays 67–76, 193,

194Press Office 36, 147Primate of Dalmatia title 178procreation 94, 106, 108–9

determining choices about 105fascist and religious authorities in

agreement about 94marriage and 92, 93, 96, 120, 200mass 92

only-child model of 105patriotic 101

Promessi Sposi, I. 131propaganda 11, 15, 36, 64, 66, 68,

101, 128, 199anti-sanctions 151comic books and children’s

magazines as vital tools 81continual 102demographic 93important medium used to convey

to youngest inhabitants 56interiorised messages 76local and national 125perfect fodder for 123pro-natalist 104reaction to 142–3resistance 129, 130, 153tactic which allowed women to defy

122totalitarian, obvious exercise in

excesses of 100traditional children’s pastimes

infused with 56value of sanctions as 127visual 139

Protestant countries 103Prozeßgeschichte 3PSI (Partito Socialista Italiano) 35publications 41, 49–50, 53–77, 81–2,

84, 92, 95–111, 116, 118, 120,130, 133–41, 144–9, 151–2,155–6, 169, 171–4, 180, 190, 193,196–7

see also Corriere dei Piccoli; CriticaFascista; Gazzettino dei Ragazzi;Modellina; Resto del Carlino;Rivista di Venezia; SettimanaReligiosa; Tre Venezie; Ventuno

Puccini, Massimo 167–8Punta della Dogana 111Punta Sabbioni 41

Quadri (gran caffé) 42Querini society 115Questura 89, 90

racial superiority 62, 66Ranieri, Peppino 80–1, 194

254 Index

Ranke, L. von 18Rapallo, Treaty of (1920) 23, 34R.d.C. (popolano family member)

26–7, 28, 42–3, 105–6, 152,189

Reberschak, M. 25recreatori fascisti 55recreatorio estivo 55Red Flag, The 2Redentore church 181Redentore festival 29, 139, 143Redipuglia military cemetery 160Regata storica 89, 115Reggimento Marina 116religious education 44repression

apparatus of 10, 11coercion and 11, 201

Repubblica Sociale Italiana 188see also Salò Republic

Resto del Carlino, Il 37Revel, J. 2revisionism 4Rezzonico, Elisabetta Widmann 21Rialto 22, 23, 26, 83, 86, 97, 139,

142, 144rio nuovo 28Risorgimento 13, 41, 59, 60, 76, 81,

158, 161, 192, 193, 194beliefs and practices 177national founding myth 163

rituals 15, 16–17, 41, 52, 84–5, 96,102, 115, 120

baptism 196belligerent 90death/funereal 13, 18, 113,

155–87, 189, 192,193, 197, 200–1

marriage 94, 95, 112, 195, 196political 14regime’s penchant for 110religious 50, 94, 100, 103, 106,

109, 116, 119sacrificial 122staged simultaneously 112warrior 89

Riva dell’Impero/Riva degli Schiavoni29, 30, 111, 115

Rivista di Venezia 36

Romanelli, G. 30romanità 90Rome 8, 39, 54, 81, 150, 192, 194,

197Cinecittà actors transferred from

188defence of Aurelian walls (1849)

60Fascist Exhibition (1932) 160idea of bond between Venice and

41imperial potency of 104Palazzo Littorio 80, 88re-internment of Anita Garibaldi on

Gianicolo hill 164secession to Italian nation-state

(1870) 44see also March on Rome

Rotary club 48rowing clubs 115Royal Navy 110, 180

submarines 111, 112, 114, 115,116, 117

torpedo boats 111, 112, 114, 115,116

rural villages 28Russia see Soviet Union

Sabauda 72SADE (Società Adriatica della’Elettricità)

23Salizzada San Simeon 1Salò Republic 188

see also Repubblica Sociale Italianasalotti 49, 78Salute festival 140, 143San Angelo Raffaele church 182San Benedetto 83San Geremia 46San Giorgio Maggiore 110San Marco 41

Jewish Venetians clustered in sestieri46

vaporetto pontoon 97see also Piazza San Marco

San Marco battalion 111San Martino (torpedo boat) 112San Maurizio church 155

Index 255

San Michele (cemetery island)106, 156, 160, 169, 174,175

San Pietro di Castello 91, 94, 95, 97,196

sanctions 12, 18, 50, 121, 122, 123,124, 199

autarky and 125–8, 137, 152mobilising families against

128–37resistance to 137–54, 192

Sanctuary of the Martyrs 159–60Sant’ Elena 26, 27, 28, 29, 105, 114

Casa del ragazzo 184Santa Croce 1, 92Santa Lucia train station 110Santa Margherita 27, 35, 42Santa Maria della Salute church 140,

181Santa Maria Formosa 95Santa Marta 26, 27, 28Sante, Scarpa 142Santo Stefano church 133Sardinia 163Sbordone, G. 27Scarpa, Aristide 142Scotto di Luzio, A. 67Scuola SS Apostoli 74Second World War (1939–45) 159,

188, 189self-sufficiency 146

see also autarkySerenissima Republic 18, 38, 42, 43,

140, 165invocations of sagacious rulers 188remembrance and myth 17, 20,

40, 41, 51, 79, 83–120, 194,195

title which belonged to patriarch of178

transformation and return to 20,21, 22, 23, 29, 31

votive temples 181sestieri 1, 32, 46, 68, 80, 91, 102

population density in poorest andmost crowded 28

relocation between differentparishes and 27

working-class 92

Settimana Religiosa, La 37, 94, 97,103–4, 109, 177, 179

shopkeepers 122, 127, 128, 138,140–2, 153, 201

Slavic pirates 91, 94–5, 195Slavs 120soap 138Soccimarro, Giuseppe 84sociability

ambiguous places of 48anti-fascist 32important locations of 43political 42popular 42see also bars; osterie; salotti; trattorie

Socialist International 1socialists 2, 42, 57

encounters between fascists and22, 35

Soviet Union 4, 6, 14, 47, 124see also blat; Stalinism

Spain Blackshirts 174, 177Falange Sección Femenina 148see also Franco; Spanish Civil War

Spanish Civil War (1936–9) 150, 159,169, 172, 173, 174, 177, 182, 183,186

veterans of 112Special Tribunals 12Sposalizio col Mare 29, 112St Anthony of Padua 181St Mark’s Basilica 91, 94, 103, 117,

128, 179, 196, 197annual mass baptism 100Christmas Day mass (1917) 181Pala d’Oro jewels 79

St Mark’s bay 110, 114, 115, 162, 195St Mark’s Square see Piazza San MarcoStalinism 5, 13, 31

everyday 4Starace, Achille 47, 49, 80, 127, 148,

184stazione marittima 23strike-breakers 184suicide 27, 174Suppiej, Giorgio 25, 49symbolic language 161, 168, 177,

187

256 Index

Tagliapietra, Giuseppe 183Talamini family 37terror 4, 13Thaon di Revel, Count

Paolo 126Third Reich 4, 109Tolosetto Farinati degli Uberti, P.

115Torres, Giuseppe 182totalitarianism 4, 44, 48, 198

excesses of propaganda 100imperfect 14relativising 9social atomisation as prelude to

terror 13Toti, Enrico 59–60Touring Club Italiano 39tourism 20, 40, 84, 188

battlefield 47, 162bourgeois market 87international 18, 86, 119islands dedicated to 23return after end of war 22trades linked to 31

Tourist Office 83, 86, 87trades distribution/stratification 31trattorie 1–2, 42, 138, 141

popular 143Trau 29, 88Tre Venezie, Le (journal) 35–6, 86,

103, 127Treviso 109, 116Trieste 59Tripolitana 23Turati Augusto 47Turin 31Turks 114, 115, 120

United States 46, 103, 161, 162university students see GUFunknown-soldier monuments 162upper classes 49, 148–9, 152–3

V.A. (lower-middle-class familymember) 26, 32, 33, 43, 104–5,106, 189

Valcarenghi (wounded man) 175Valli, Lina 61Vallona 115

Venetian nationalism 39, 40,187

Venetian Naval League 112venezianità 39, 42, 117, 178

fascism and 29, 85, 181Veniero, Sebastiano 115ventennio 1, 7, 26, 31, 38,

123, 151Ventuno, Il (GUF magazine) 78,

127–8, 167, 194Verona 115Versailles peace conference

(1919) 23Via Ventidue Marzo 166Vianello, Angelo 42Vicentini, R. 34, 35Vicenza 40Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy

30, 110, 111, 114, 152nation imagined through the figure

of 194orchestrated pilgrimage to his

tomb at Pantheon (1884)163–4

ubiquitous portraits of 160Villa Fietta 177, 179visitattrici fasciste 129Vittoriano monument 162, 164Voegelin, E. 13Volpi, Giuseppe, Count of Misurata

21, 23, 25, 26, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40,46, 49, 83, 85, 86, 190, 194

role as Primo Procuratore di San Marco179

votive temples 80, 162, 180, 181,182, 197

Wall Street crash (1929) see Depressionyears

Walt Disney creations 57war veterans 54, 112, 155, 156,

169–70, 183deaths/funerals of 173, 177, 186,

201special status accorded to 76–7see also Nastro Azzuro

White Leagues see LegheBianchi

women’s magazines 147, 148

Index 257

working-class society 92, 106, 124,143

care of children 55focal point for Venetian political

organisation and sociability42

need to target resistancepropaganda towards 129

rebelliousness in 12simple and sincere women 151

‘years of consent’ 9, 18young people 45, 49, 52–82

regime’s exaltation of 50, 162–3Yugoslavia 140

Zangrandi, R. 53Zelarino 24Zorzi, Elio 42Zorzi, Ettore 38