Notes INTRODUCTION 1. Deceit, Desire and the Novel, trans. Yvonne Freccero (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), 212-13. 2. Virgil Nemoianu notes briefly that Scott struggled with similar problems and took approaches interestingly congruent to those of Girard. To Honor Rene Girard (Saratoga, California: Anma Libri, 1986), 12-13. 3. Rene Girard, 'To Double Business Bound' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 201. 4. Rene Girard, Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 31. 5. Girard has been unfairly attacked - notably by Hayden White in Diacritics 8 (1978), 2-9 - for his apparent Christian apologetics. His view of the Christianity of the Gospel narratives, it would seem to me, is that it is a kind of anti-religion, and his forceful association of the sacred with violence has also earned him the disapproval of believers: in his emphasis on imitation he neglects, Robert Cohn argues, emulation, which 'pertains to the holistic dimension of the vertical or metaphoric realm of faith, vision, tone, beauty, originality'. 'Desire: Direct and Imitative', Philosophy Today 33 (Winter 1989): 320. 6. Girard studies primitive societies world-wide, and he studies the West, but does not consider in detail other civilizations, whose successful development is surely to be attributed to their own transcendence of the sacrificial system. 7. 'Interview with Rene Girard' by Bruce Bassoff, Denver Quarterly 13 (Summer 1978): 38. 8. Deceit, Desire and the Novel, 93. 9. Rene Girard, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, trans. Stephen Bann (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987),391-4. 10. James Joyce, Ulysses (London: The Bodley Head, 1937),202. Discussed in A Theater of Envy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 260. CHAPTER 1 1. 'The once Great Unknown - now the not less great avowed author of the Waverley Novels, in the person of Sir Walter Scott ... did me the honour to adopt the style or class of novel of which "Thaddeus of Warsaw" was the first; - a class which ... formed a new species of writing in that day.' 'The Author to her Friendly Readers', in Thaddeus of Warsaw (London: Colburn and Bentley, 1831), vi. This view was also 176
Transcript
Notes
INTRODUCTION
1. Deceit, Desire and the Novel, trans. Yvonne Freccero (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), 212-13.
2. Virgil Nemoianu notes briefly that Scott struggled with similar problems and took approaches interestingly congruent to those of Girard. To Honor Rene Girard (Saratoga, California: Anma Libri, 1986), 12-13.
3. Rene Girard, 'To Double Business Bound' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 201.
4. Rene Girard, Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 31.
5. Girard has been unfairly attacked - notably by Hayden White in Diacritics 8 (1978), 2-9 - for his apparent Christian apologetics. His view of the Christianity of the Gospel narratives, it would seem to me, is that it is a kind of anti-religion, and his forceful association of the sacred with violence has also earned him the disapproval of believers: in his emphasis on imitation he neglects, Robert Cohn argues, emulation, which 'pertains to the holistic dimension of the vertical or metaphoric realm of faith, vision, tone, beauty, originality'. 'Desire: Direct and Imitative', Philosophy Today 33 (Winter 1989): 320.
6. Girard studies primitive societies world-wide, and he studies the West, but does not consider in detail other civilizations, whose successful development is surely to be attributed to their own transcendence of the sacrificial system.
7. 'Interview with Rene Girard' by Bruce Bassoff, Denver Quarterly 13 (Summer 1978): 38.
8. Deceit, Desire and the Novel, 93. 9. Rene Girard, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, trans.
Stephen Bann (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987),391-4. 10. James Joyce, Ulysses (London: The Bodley Head, 1937),202. Discussed
in A Theater of Envy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 260.
CHAPTER 1
1. 'The once Great Unknown - now the not less great avowed author of the Waverley Novels, in the person of Sir Walter Scott ... did me the honour to adopt the style or class of novel of which "Thaddeus of Warsaw" was the first; - a class which ... formed a new species of writing in that day.' 'The Author to her Friendly Readers', in Thaddeus of Warsaw (London: Colburn and Bentley, 1831), vi. This view was also
176
Notes 177
endorsed by James Fenimore Cooper: 'Commenting on Sir Walter Scott's assumed originality as a writer of romance, Cooper observed (Knickerbocker Mag. Apr. 1838) that Jane Porter's The Scottish Chiefs was a work of Scott's "own country, class, and peculiar subject, differing from Waverley merely in power": James Franklin Beard, 'James Fenimore Cooper', in Fifteen American Authors Before 1900, ed. Robert A. Rees and Earl N. Harbert (Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971),79.
2. This story was related in obituaries in several London papers at Porter's death in 1850. Ann H. Jones, Ideas and Innovations (New York: AMS Press, 1986), 132n. A. D. Hook also reports this 'admission', notes that 'most authorities' disbelieve it, but concludes that it is 'not wholly without plausibility' and might well have happened. 'Jane Porter, Sir Walter Scott, and the Historical Novel', Clio 5 (Winter 1976), 181. Neither Lockhart nor Hogg mention it.
3. The entry for 'The Historical Novel' in The Oxford Companion to English Literature (ed. Drabble, 1985,463), for example, cites the book, along with La Fayette's Princesse de Cleves and Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent. However, John MacQueen's The Rise of the Historical Novel (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1989) contains no reference to Porter at all.
As regards its popularity, The Scottish Chiefs went through many printings, fading, with Scott, only towards the end of the nineteenth century. Hook identifies a splendid children's edition of 1921, handsomely adorned by N. C. Wyeth, as its last appearance, but even this work has been re-issued as recently as 1991.
4. The Scottish Chiefs, A Romance, 5th ed. (London: Longman, Hurst, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1825), 4:250n. Some of these she later describes as having origina ted with' the maids in the nursery, and the serving-man in the kitchen' when she was a child - a source she treats with the reverence due a kind of oral history, as in Scott. The Scottish Chiefs, 'Retrospective Introduction' (London: Colburn and Bentley, 1831), viii.
5. Porter, 1825, l:v. The first edition preface was reprinted in the 1825 and other editions. Subsequent references to The Scottish Chiefs are to the 1825 edition.
6. Thaddeus of Warsaw, v. 7. P. James Goldstein, The Matter of Scotland: Historical Narrative in Medieval
Scotland (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993),221-2. 8. The Domestic Manners of Sir Walter Scott (Stirling: Mackay, 1909),111-12. 9. Hook,189-90.
10. The Historical Novel, trans. H. and S. Mitchell (London: Merlin Press, 1962),32-7.
11. Harry Shaw gives the fullest recent exposition of this particular connection in The Forms of Historical Fiction: Sir Walter Scott and His Successors (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983).
12. MacQueen, 7-8. 13. Erich Auerbach develops the same definition, from Scott through Balzac
and Stendhal, to embrace all 'modern realism', whose subject is merely 'contemporary history', an extension endorsed by many subsequent
178 Nationalism and Desire
critics. Mimesis, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968),454-92.
14. The Dialogic Imagination, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 91.
15. Porter, 1:1. 16. Sir Walter Scott, A Legend of Montrose, 15:3. Volume and page references
for Scott are to the 'magnum opus' edition (Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1829-33).
17. Porter, 2:296. 18. 'It's when the extinct soul talks, and the earlier consciousness airs itself,
that the pitfalls multiply and the "cheap" way has to serve.' Letters, ed. Leon Edel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984),4:208-9.
19. Hogg, 111. 20. Romantic Narrative Art (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1960),169. 21. Porter, 4:383. 22. Porter, l:viii. 23. Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983),48. 24. Porter, 4:258n. The preposterousness of this particular claim betrays the
importance of its legitimatizing effect, the risks Porter is prepared to run to achieve that effect.
25. 'Habitually, Ossian laments the loss of long-dead friends and recounts their heroic deeds, always with the implication that heroic practices are themselves in decline.' Kenneth Simpson, The Protean Scot (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1988),52.
26. Porter, 1:67. 27. Porter, 1:101. 28. Porter, 1:107. 29. Porter, 1:214-16. 30. Porter, 1:233--4. 31. Scott does describe the Scottish War of Independence in entirely
Porteresque terms: 'the grasping ambition of Edward I, gave a deadly and envenomed character to the wars betwixt the two nations; the English fighting for the subjugation of Scotland, and the Scottish, with all the stern determination and obstinacy which has ever characterized their nation, for the defense of their independence, by the most violent means.' The Talisman, 38:113. For the phrase 'manly intervention' see Ina Ferris, The Achievement of Literary Authority (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 79-94.
32. The Achievement of Literary Authority, chap. 1-2. Less still can The Scottish Chiefs be made to fit what Anne K. Mellor, quoting Carol Gilligan, refers to as the 'ethic of care' reflected by the women writers of this period, with its emphasis on 'gradual rather than violent social change, that extends the values of domesticity into the public realm'. These writers, it seems, also 'resisted' binary or 'oppositional' models, which may explain why Jane Porter's name does not appear on the fairly long list of female authors considered by Mellor. Romanticism and Gender (New York: Routledge, 1993), 2-3.
33. Porter, l:v.
Notes 179
34. The Achievement of Literary Authority, 42. 35. Rather than concentrating on the putative marginality of women, one
answer to this question might be sought in what Gellner, 63, calls the shift away from the old 'stable specializations' and identities, towards the 'social en tropy' and relative' equali ty' - or atomization - associa ted with the arrival of industrial society. May this shift, in his view the most fundamental cause of nationalism and nations, have been experienced early and with a particular intensity by educated women? In advance of their male contemporaries, they perhaps felt the hunger for a new source of identity, a new purpose in life, a new focus for their energies and desires.
36. Porter, 1:259. 37. Porter, 2:121. 38. Henry the Minstrel, The Wallace, ed. J. Jamieson (Glasgow: Maurice Ogle,
of 'pre-Reformation' Scotland, and attributes the rupture of its 'coherent civilization' to the 'rigours of Calvinism'. Scott and Scotland (London: Routledge, 1936), 61-73.
100. Porter, 1:326-9. 101. Porter, 1:329. 102. Porter, 2:154. 103. Porter, 2:179. 104. Porter, 2:255. 105. Porter, 2:101. 106. Porter, 1:203. 107. Porter, 4:98. 108. This term has also been used in various theories of early infancy, as
denoting the condition before the formation of the ego, or the intervention of the father.
109. 'A key work for the diffusion throughout Europe and America of the romantic image of Scotland and the Scots.' Hook, 191. Reasons for the book's popularity, and for the subsequent fashion for romantic and wild - or marginal- places like Scotland are of course several and complex.
110. Porter, 1:84-5.
Notes 181
111. Porter, 1:138-9. 112. The deliberate and consistent use of place names as chapter titles may
be a new device in prose fiction. An informal search of the shelves of pre-181O fiction produces no other example.
113. A Farewell to Arms (New York: Collier, 1986), 185. 114. Porter, 1:331. 115. vPorter, 3:197n. 116. Porter, 2:167. 117. Porter, 3:45. 118. Porter, 1:99. 119. Porter, 3:70. 120. Porter, 4:26. 121. The foggy apparition of Wringhim in the same location in Hogg's
Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) may continue the sequence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981),40-3.
122. Porter, 4:174-5. 123. Porter, 3:277. 124. Porter, 1:303. 125. Porter, 1:148. 126. Porter, 2:55. 127. Porter, 1:338. 128. Porter, 4:123. 129. Porter, 1:335. 130. The effect would largely have been lost had Wallace merely 'put his
helmet on'. 131. Embarrassment, as Christopher Ricks has interestingly proposed, has
certain potentialities. And, as the variable popularity of The Scottish Chiefs itself demonstrates, what embarrasses who and when has a history of its own. Keats and Embarrassment, London: Oxford University Press, 1976.
132. Terry Eagleton and others have noted that many reception theories which speak of the reader's creation of new texts have a liberal humanist bias which 'ignores the position of the reader in history' and resists 'systematic thought'. Literary Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983),83. On the issue of the reader in history, this seems sound: one era's unsettling neologism is another's cliche - and a comprehensive history of desire needs still to be written. As to systematic thought, like Eagleton'S own preferred Marxism, perhaps in their enclosure of problem and solution, desire and satisfaction, such systems are at bottom kinds of romance.
133. Structural Anthropology, trans. C. Jacobson and B. G. Schoepf (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 229.
134. Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (London: Paladin, 1973), 132. 135. E. J. Hobsbawm paraphrasing Pierre Vilar in Nations and Nationalism
Since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 20. 136. 'Destiny ... by planting the heir of Plantagenet, and of Bruce, upon one
throne, hath redeemed the peace of Britain, and fixed it upon lasting foundations.' Porter, l:xxiv.
182 Nationalism and Desire
137. I choose this rather than the more tempting 'narcissistic' as the latter is typical to a later 'stage' in individual development and does not, generally, suit the analogy as well.
138. Quoted and explicated in Jane Gallop, Reading Lacan (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), 79.
139. In Girard's view the Oedipus complex is mimetic - and a great discovery on Freud's part - but still, in the end, only one example of a structure which is always operating in human desire. He asks, why do triangular effects most commonly seem to expand and intensify, if they are rooted in one primal crisis? For a fuller discussion of the issue, see Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, trans. Stephen Bann (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), 352--64.
140. Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, 313. 141. Rene Girard, Deceit, Desire and the Novel, trans. Yvonne Freccero
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 18. 142. Porter,2:206. 143. Porter, 2:205--6. 144. Porter, 2:317. 145. Porter, 2:337. 146. Porter, 2:147. 147. Porter, 3:155. 148. Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, 334. 149. The terminology is that of Alastair Fowler. Kinds of Literature
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 175-8. 150. Hook, 189. Peter Garside, after building a case for Scott having written
substantial portions of Waverley in 1810, notes that in the same year 'the potentialities of "Scotch" fiction' had been demonstrated by the success of The Scottish Chiefs, and argues that 'the supposedly fallow period between 1805 and 1814 has prevented later commentators from so much as proposing a negative connection'. 'Popular Fiction and National Tale: Hidden Origins of Scott's Waverley', Nineteenth-Century Literature 46 Oune 1991): 45.
CHAPTER 2
1. The Wild Irish Girl (London: Richard Phillips, 1806), l:xxxi. 2. The Wild Irish Girl, 1:38,53. 3. The Wild Irish Girl, 1:57,94. 4. The Wi/d Irish Girl, 1:100. 5. The Wi/d Irish Girl, 1:104. 6. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:224. 7. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:236. 8. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:259. 9. 'Sydney Owenson and the Fate of Empire', Keats-Shelley Journal 39
(1990): 42. 10. "'In Vishnu-land what Avatar": Sir William Jones, India and the English
Romantic Imagination', in Trapic Crucible, ed. Colin E. Nicholson and Ranjit Chatterjee (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1984),244.
Notes 183
11. Compare also the figure of the 'Indian Maid' in both Thomas Moore's Lalla Rookh (1817) and Keats's Endymion (1818).
12. Cited in Mary Campbell, Lady Morgan (London: Pandora, 1988),3. This little piece of self-praise is quoted with surprising credulity by almost every writer on Owenson. What indeed were the hazards and dangers, especially for a female wri ter? Probably, as Owenson herself points out, the biggest risk was that such writing would not be published at all. Still, John Wilson Croker did his worst and Glorvina flourished.
13. The Wild Irish Girl, 1:147-8. 14. Familiar, and ephemeral. The Girl fad resembles that initiated early in
this century by Iris Storm of Michael Arlen's The Green Hat (1924). The heroine was daring, new, and sexually startling; green hats were sold in the lobbies of the theaters where the stage version played. Harry Keyishian, Michael Arlen (Boston: Twayne, 1975),72.
15. Details can be found in any of the Morgan biographies. See, for example, Campbell, 70-2.
16. The Irish Novelists (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 110-18. See also Campbell, 58.
17. See in particular frontispiece to The Missionary (London: J. J. Stockdale, 1811). As to parties, even after the publication of The Wild Irish Girl, Owenson's harp was promptly and indignantly sent for by her hostess when the young author tried to pass herself off on her own intellectual and social merits at a celebrity rout in London. Lionel Stevenson, The Wild Irish Girl (London: Chapman and Hall, 1936), 101-7.
18. Lord Byron, Don Juan, 1:11. 19. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:248. 20. 'Maria Edgeworth and Lady Morgan: Legality versus Legitimacy:
Nineteenth-Century Literature 40 Gune 1985): 1-22. 21. Lew seems to confine this effect to the end of the novel: '[the] closing
letter transforms Lord M. and Horatio into each other's doubles, each locked into the escalating violence of mimetic desire' (60). I cannot detect such a trend in what seems to be a genuinely as well as an overtly stabilizing resolution. As long as both men sought Glorvina and Horatio's every move seemed obscurely to mimic his father, the threat remained. But in the end only one can have her - this very precisely is the pacifying effect of marriage, of the acknowledged triangle.
22. Tracy, 10. 23. In addition to Lew, see Tom Dunne, 'Fiction as the "Best History of
Nations": Lady Morgan's Irish Novels', in The Writer as Witness, ed. Dunne (Cork: Cork University Press, 1987), 135.
24. The Irish Novelists, 116-17. 25. Lew,64. 26. A Short History of Irish Literature (London: Hutchinson, 1986), 97-9. 27. Geoffrey Wheatcroft has mildly proposed that retention of the 1801
Union might better have protected Irish cultural and economic values than the Republic has in fact been able to do, drawing a storm, of course, of indignant rejoinders. 'The Disenchantment of Ireland', The Atlantic Monthly, July 1993, 84.
28. Tracy, 9.
184 Nationalism and Desire
29. Andrews does later allow that Owenson's message was in a different sense also what the Irish wanted to hear. 'Aesthetics, Politics and Identity: Lady Morgan's Wild Irish Girl', Canadian Journal of Irish Studies 12 (December 1987): 8.
30. The Wild Irish Girl, 1:35. 31. The Milesian progenitors of the Irish were supposed to have originated
in ancient Phoenicia. See Robert Lee Wolff's introduction to Maturin's The Milesian Chief (New York: Garland, 1979), xxi, note 4.
32. Lew,41. 33. The Oriental Renaissance, trans. Gene Patterson-Black and Victor Reinking
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), xxiii. 34. Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 118-19. Lew feels, in
contrast, that Horatio already 'draws upon the conventions' of the later 'discourse'. Lew, 63.
35. 'The novel progressively deconstructs these attitudes.' Lew, 63. 36. See Judith Wilt's discussion of this issue in the context of Scott. Secret
Leaves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 116. 37. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:109. 38. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:169-70. 39. Not that her qualifications shielded the book or its author from the rants
of Croker: 'an unchristian author who substitutes for God a power that she dignifies with the name of Nature' and promotes 'libertinism in women, disloyalty in men, and atheism in both'. Quoted in Ina Ferris, The Achievement of Literary Authority (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991),49.
40. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:179-80, 200. 41. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:224-5. 42. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:226, 229. 43. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:250. 44. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:232. 45. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:258. 46. The Wild Irish Girl, 2:244. 47. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:4-5. 48. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:83. 49. The Wild Irish Girl, 3:109. Italics added. 50. 'Only after 1771 does the world become truly round ... A civilization
believing itself unique [found] itself drowned in the sum total of civilizations.' Schwab, 16-18.
51. Campbell, 115. 52. Lew,42. 53. Deane, 90-1. 54. English Fiction of the Romantic Period (London: Longman, 1989), 94. 55. Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983), 128. 56. Andrews, 7. 57. The Achievement of Literary Authority, 98. 58. Secret Leaves, 4. 59. 'I would willingly embrace your offer of curry-combing Miss Owenson,
who, judging by her "Wild Irish Girl", seems to deserve such discipline very heartily.' To Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe, February 17,1809. In the
Notes 185
context of an affable refusal to write such a review, however, this can hardly be called a definitive critical opinion. Scott was to other correspondents politely complimentary about Owenson, while admitting he preferred her later O'Donnell to the Girl. The Letters of Sir Walter Scott, ed. H. J. c. Grierson (London: Constable, 1932-7), 2:166, 284; 3:465.
60. Edgeworth's slide from polite distancing to repudiation and outright 'horror' of Owenson is traced in several places. See, for example, Tracy, 7.
61. Scott admits this in many of the introductions he added to the 'magnum opus' edition. See, for example, The Pirate, where he apologizes for making Norna of the Fitful-Head too much like Meg Merrilies.
62. Old Mortality, 11:131. References for Scott's fiction are to the 'magnum opus' edition of the Waverley Novels (Edinburgh: Cadell, 1829-33).
63. Old Mortality, 11:130. 64. William Hazlitt, 'Scott and the Spirit of the Age', in John O. Hayden,
ed., Scott: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 283. 'He may have created the genre of the nationalist novel, but in Scotland', Christopher Harvie confidently asserts, 'he is still regarded as deferential, commercially minded, reactionary, the celebrant of the eccentric and archaic in national life.' 'Scott and the Image of Scotland', in Alan Bold, ed., Sir Walter Scott: The Long-Forgotten Melody (London: Barnes and Noble, 1983), 19.
65. See, for example, the unsigned review of Waverley (British Critic, August 1814; reprinted in Hayden, ed., 67-9), remarks made by Scott himself (The Letters of Sir Walter Scott, 3:457), or numerous references in Lockhart's Life.
66. P. H. Scott (see below) also notes the use of the phrase 'federative union', but perhaps underemphasizes Walter Scott's approval of such a structural connection to England, of which 'the Scottish nation ... were extremely desirous'. There can be no doubt of his pride in Scottish independence, but nor also in his view that these were 'two high spirited nations' whose 'true interest was to enter into the strictest friendship and alliance'. The Miscellaneous Prose Works of Sir Walter Scott, ed. John Gibson Lockhart, vol. 25, Tales of a Grandfather (Edinburgh: Cadell, 1834-46),66, 57, 97.
67. P. H. Scott's slightly one-sided case for Scott's specifically anti-Unionist sentiments rests particularly on the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther. He does not, however, examine the pointed satire of an anti-Unionist meeting in The Black Dwarf Walter Scott and Scotland (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1981). Harvie sketches a politically evolving Scott, whose alarm at the consequences of industrial progress after about 1820 produces a 'conservative nationalism'. Overall, his 'Jacobitism was sentimental; his attachment to the Union deep and sincere. But he regarded the Union as a type of fundamental law within an AngloScottish constitutional arrangement which was essentially federalist.' 'Scott and the Image of Scotland', in Bold, ed., 19-42.
68. The Letters of Sir Walter Scott, 2:284n.
186 Nationalism and Desire
69. I have indicated that I am not sure this was so for Owenson, and have mentioned Scott's dialogue with his readers. But all novels are generated out of the interaction of authorial and readerly desires, and a novel in which the latter predominate remains an object of interest.
70. Jane Millgate, Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984),36.
71. To John B. S. Morritt, July 28,1814. The Letters of Sir Walter Scott, 3:478. 72. Waverley, 1:29. 73. The Implied Reader (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974),84. 74. The Implied Reader, 94. 75. Waverley, 1:29. 76. Alan Bold, ed., Sir Walter Scott: The Long-Forgotten Melody (London:
Barnes and Noble, 1983), 181. 77. Waverley, 1:9-11. This teasing is recapitulated at the end of Chapter 5,
with Scott's authorial intervention to the effect that his narrative is 'an humble English post-chaise' not' a flying chariot drawn by hippogriffs'. Waverley, 1:54.
78. Compare Hart: 'Scott's first readers found him a "wizard" precisely because he ... brought story and fact into a temporary, vivid unity of experience: In Bold, ed., 190.
Hopkins University Press, 1961), 17. 83. See also Ina Ferris on the way this new quality in Waverley - obediently
identified as based on 'fact' and 'accuracy' by the powerful reviewsinteracted with the reception of current forms of mainly female novelwriting. The-opposite-of-that-which-is-desired always possesses a context and in Scott's case that context implied an opposition - which his early chapters suggest and encourage- to the perceived indulgences in desire (and Gothic fear) by female writers and readers. The Achievement of Literary Authority, 81-3.
84. Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist, Chap. 3. 85. Scott's Novels: The Plotting of Historic Survival (Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1966),6. Hart's later discussion of these issues (in the article previously cited) speaks of Scott's ability 'to see history as adventure', which suggests a somewhat different emphasis. Bold, ed.,189.
86. Waverley, 1:264,66. 87. Waverley, 1:175. The Wild Irish Girl's references to classical antiquity are
also echoed in, for example, the comparisons made to the Odyssey in the descriptions of Fergus Mac-Ivor's Highland feast, in Chapter 20.
88. Waverley, 1:185-6, 188. 89. Waverley, 1:221. 90. Quotations in this section are all from 'Chapter XXII: Highland
Minstrelsy', Waverley, 1:228-40. 91. This connection has occasionally been noticed, but is underanalyzed.
See, for example, Peter Garside, 'Popular Fiction and National Tale:
Notes 187
Hidden Origins of Scott's Waverley'. Nineteenth-Century Literature 46 (June 1991): 51.
92. Alexander Welsh treats this as a fairly arbitrary boundary between realms. The Hero of the Waverley Novels (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963),83.
93. There is, of course, also a larger structural irony of which Scott was doubtless conscious. The banquet is rather appalling, and as Edward might have told his readers, you really had not to be there to enjoy it.
94. Maria Edgeworth's family, though, reading aloud the newly arrived novel, was ready to have Edward marry Flora. 'But with what inimitable art you gradually convince the reader that she was not, as she said herself, capable of making Waverley happy.' Quoted in John O. Hayden, ed., Scott: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 78.
95. A Theater of Envy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 43. For a discussion of Twelfth Night, see Chapters 12 and 13.
96. Waverley, 1:284. 97. Waverley, 1:223. 98, Hayden, ed., 78. 99. Waverley, 1:292-3. Some critics have argued that Flora sends Waverley
south because he will be more useful to the rebellion there. But there is no immediate evidence for this in the text and it is c1earlynot Fergus's wish.
100. Avrom Fleishman, The English Historical Novel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), ix. J. Th. Leerssen, in The Clash oflreland, ed. C. C. Barfoot and Theo D'haen (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), 116.
101. For a remarkable reading of these two streams - in which are to be seen 'the unrecognized innovation of Waverley', namely 'the wedding of a proto-structuralist hermeneutic to a proto-historical one' - see Joseph Valente, 'Upon the Braes: History and Hermeneutics in Waverley'. Studies in Romanticism 25 (Summer 1986): 262. Some aspects of Valente's discussion of the topos of boundaries and the 'accommodation of circumstance to desire' is comparable to my own argument, I think.
102. Waverley, 1:232-40. 103. Waverley, 1:228. 104. Waverley, 1:224. 105. Waverley, 1:242-4. 106. See also Kenneth Simpson's discussion of the 'histrionic quality of the
Forty-five'. The Protean Scot (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1988),46.
116. Waverley, 1:133. 117. Hart, 30. 118. The Forms of Historical Fiction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 182. 119. Waverley, 2:235. 120. Waverley, 2:216. 121. Waverley, 2:229. 122. Waverley, 1:13~. 123. A similar point is made by Hart in his discussion of Waverley. Scott's
Novels, 21. 124. Waverley, 1:146. 125. Waverley, 2:221. 126. Waverley, 2:216. 127. Douglas Gifford, in Scott and His Influence, ed. J. H. Alexander and
David Hewitt (Aberdeen: Association for Scottish Literary Studies, 1983),180.
128. Of the Author of Waverley's later orchestration of the first visit of an reigning English monarch to Scotland for more than a hundred years A. O. J. Cockshutwrites: 'Scott's great political success here was achieved by a bold, even reckless stroke. To reconcile the Lowlands to England and its dynasty by an extravagant glorification of the Highlands ... was a most dangerous course.' The Achievement of Sir Walter Scott (London: Collins, 1969), 17.
129. Waverley, 2:373. 130. Waverley, 2:403-4. 131. In Scott and His Influence, 181. 132. Daniel Cottom, The Civilized Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1985), 129. 133. Hart, 30-1. 134. Hart, 30. 135. Waverley, 2:415. 136. The Secular Scripture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 134-6. 137. Waverley, 2:412-13. Beside it, like the trophies on the walls of Abbotsford,
will be hung the weapons Edward used in the Forty-five. 138. Waverley, 2:414. 139. Cornhill Magazine (September, 1871). Reprinted in Scott: The Critical
Heritage, 452. 140. 'The. visit of George IV in 1822, in arranging which Sir Walter Scott
showed such energy and enthusiasm, was something of a spectacle in which clans and families paraded in the kilt. The monarch donned the kilt and judging from the speech he made at a banquet in the Parliament Hall may well have been under the impression that the government of the country was still largely a matter of chiefs and clans.' J. D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (London: Penguin, 1978), 333-4. The royal kilt, others say, was perhaps too short, and produced sensations of dismay. See Basil C. Skinner, 'Scott as Pageant-Master - The Royal Visit of 1822', in Alan Bell, ed., Scott Bicentenary Essays (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1973),228-37.
Notes 189
CHAPTER 3
1. Old Mortality, 9:270-3. 2. Old Mortality, 9:298. 3. Old Mortality, 11:127. 4. Old Mortality, 10:48-50. 5. Jane Millgate, Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist (Toronto: University
of Toronto Press, 1984), 128. 6. Old Mortality, 11:131. 7. The Hero of the Waverley Novels (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress,l963),
253. 8. Old Mortality, 10:351. 9. Millgate, 130.
10. Old Mortality, 9:324. 11. Hart paraphrasing Coleridge, Scott's Novels (Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1966), 86. 12. James Reed, Sir Walter Scott: Landscape and Locality (London: The Athlone
Press, 1980), 4. 13. Old Mortality, 9:324. 14. Millgate, 124, and, in slightly different form, Hart, 84. 15. As in the 'Highland Minstrelsy' chapter of Waverley, Spenserian
references are prominent here. This is from the epigraph to the chapter in which Morton confronts Burley. Old Mortality, 11:96.
16. Waverley, 1:238. 17. Gary Kelly describes the various fictional forms this project took in
several chapters of English Fiction of the Romantic Period (London: Longman, 1989). See in particular his discussion of Hannah More's use of 'standard English' in her Cheap Repository tracts,61-2.
18. Old Mortality, 10:194. 19. Judith Wilt aptly observes that 'Morton talks like a man building a
careful bridge of words over the abyss.' Secret Leaves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 81.
20. Old Mortality, 10:351. 21. 'Informing the narrative act of Old Mortality ... was a distrust of ...
reenactment and memory.' Ina Ferris, The Achievement of Literary Authority (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 164-5.
22. Rob Roy, 7:64. 23. Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist, 141. 24. The Prelude (1805), 1:389. 25. Rob Roy, 7:61-3. 26. Rob Roy, 7:67-71. 27. Rob Roy, 7:71. 28. Rob Roy, 7:259. 29. Rob Roy, 7:66. 30. And not just Frank. This is one of Scott's most effective characteriza
tions precisely because it has been able to engage readerly desires (mainly male) in just the same kind of dance. Die has had many admirers. To John Buchan she was Scott's' one satisfactory portrait of a young gentlewoman'. But others a little too sharply deny her, Donald
190 Nationalism and Desire
Davie complaining of her 'woodenness', A. O. J. Cockshut calling her a mere 'day dream', Robert Gordon protesting that she 'is simply too much ... an amalgam ... of Flora Mac-Ivor, Lady Wortley Montagu and Buffalo Bill'. More recent critics, of course, shy away from personal involvement, or at least from acknowledgment of such. Still, there is something paradoxically reasonable in Nassau Senior's or George Saintsbury's response: they simply capitulate and 'fall in love' with her, which may be the only way fully to understand the operation of this text. Sir Walter Scott (New York: Coward-MaC ann Inc., 1932), 182; The Heyday of Sir Walter Scott (London: Routledge, 1961), 63; The Achievement of Sir Walter Scott (London: Collins, 1969), 155; Under Which King? (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1969), 81. Nassau Senior's 1821 review in the Quarterly Review can be found in Scott, the Critical Heritage, 215-55; see especially 221; Saintsbury declares himself in Sir Walter Scott (Edinburgh: Oliphaunt, Anderson and Ferrier, 1897), 85. W. M. Parker provides a thumbnail history of responses to Die in his preface to the 1962 Everyman edition of Rob Roy.
31. Rob Roy, 7:238-41. 32. Rob Roy, 7:71. 33. Rob Roy, 7:249-50. 34. Rob Roy, 7:164. 35. Rob Roy, 7:190. 36. Rob Roy, 7:207. 37. Rob Roy, 8:109. 38. Rob Roy, 7:175. 39. Rob Roy, 7:178. 40. Rob Roy, 8:272-3. 41. Aspects of the Novel (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), 38. See also H. J.
c. Grierson, Sir Walter Scott, Bart.: A New Life (London: Constable, 1938),159.
42. Gordon, 72. 43. Rob Roy, 8:106. 44. Rob Roy, 7:198. 45. This nightmare is reinforced by the apparent doubling of identities even
in the 'external' world: the soldiers searching for her father mistake Frank for Die.
46. The.proliferation of other doubles cannot be explored in depth here. As examples: the echoing of Diana and Helen has the effect of doubling Frank with Rob Roy, but may also suggest the sense in which Rob Roy and Osbaldistone Sr are connected, as Frank's two fathers, pulling him in opposite directions, yet not without having their own similarities. Frank is united to Diana partly through their common plight with regard to mortally rivalrous and interfering parents. Diana's terrifying Scottish 'mother' and her archaic and oppressive father are paired in Frank's literal nightmare, as the executioners of himself and Die.
47. Rob Roy, 8:211. 48. Rob Roy, 7:162. 49. Rob Roy, 8:211. 50. Rob Roy, 7:xxxvi.
Notes 191
51. Rob Roy, 8:131. 52. Rob Roy, 8:317. 53. Rob Roy, 8:315. 54. Rob Roy, 8:377. 55. See Bruce Beiderwell, Power and Punishment in Scott's Novels (Athens,
Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 47. 56. Rob Roy, 8:374. 57. Rob Roy,8:376-7. 58. Rob Roy, 8:354. 59. Rob Roy, 8:367. 60. Rob Roy, 8:359. 61. This perhaps is Wilt's 'transition to a new psychology ... a loosening of
the harmony between ego and superego ... the shrinking, or numbing, of libido'. Secret Leaves,57.
62. MiIlgate, 133. 63. Secret Leaves, 20. 64. Welsh's observations are extended generally to Scott's 'tentative fiction'
but are made as part of a discussion of Rob Roy and are, in fact, more appropriate to this work than to the others I have discussed. The Hero of the Waverley Novels (1963), 189-92.
65. Georg Lukacs, The Historical Novel, trans. H. and S. Mitchell (London: Merlin Press, 1962), 35.
66. See Wilt's discussion in Secret Leaves, 49-70. 67. Rob Roy, 8:25. 68. One can well imagine this line of reflection emerging for a wri ter whose
simpler, early enthusiasm for his own country's culture and poetry catapulted him into fame in neighbouring England, forcing into the foreground the question of the role played by a huge, attentive - even addicted - foreign audience in his own relationship with his national material.
69. Welsh,120-1. 70. The old Highland cultural system presumably had its own means of
survival, of limiting violent feuds, for example, before they spread to destroy the entire community. But this was only ever a temporary solution, dependent on isolation. The arrival of the Other, through the Union, like the injection of a rival into an unstable sexual relationship, required a wholesale abandonment of the status quo and are-imagining of the basis of collective life. Nothing guarantees, either for a nation or for individuals, that such an adjustment will not need to be made again.
71. Critical interest in the later Waverleys is quickening, however. Judith Wilt, for example, gives a central place to The Talisman in her thematic system, and Gary Kelly has produced an excellent appreciation of Woodstock. English Fiction of the Romantic Period, 165-74.
72. James Anderson even calls it an 'anti-Scotch' novel. Sir Walter Scott and History (Edinburgh: Edina Press, 1981), 79.
73. Scott's Novels, 290. 74. Scott's Novels, 300-5. 75. The Scottish Novel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 14-21.
192 Nationalism and Desire
76. The Pirate, 24:38. 77. The Pirate, 24:38. 78. The Pirate, 24:27. 79. The Pirate, 24:32. 80. The Pirate, 24:154. 81. The Pirate, 24:177. 82. The Pirate, 24:208. 83. The Pirate, 24:207. 84. The Pirate, 24:212-13. 85. The Pirate, 24:346. 86. The Pirate, 24:354. Wilt makes a similar point; see below. Secret Leaves,
143--4. 87. The Pirate, 24:359. 88. The Pirate, 24:362-3. 89. The Pirate, 24:32. 90. The Pirate, 24:4. 91. The Pirate, 24:12. 92. The Pirate, 24:364. 93. The Pirate, 24:34. 94. Minna, unlike Norna, will perhaps avoid the fate of The Heart of
Midlothian's Effie Deans, but her sister Brenda becomes another Jeanie. 95. The Pirate, 24:88. 96. The Pirate, 24:86. 97. The Pirate, 25:368. 98. Although it should be noted that Scott's sympathies, here as elsewhere,
are not too much to be taken for granted: in Count Robert of Paris (1831) the highly developed but evil philosopher Agelastes is strangled by a likeable ourang-outang named Sylvan.
99. The Pirate, 24:228-30. 100. Secret Leaves, 120-1. 101. The Secular Scripture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 85. 102. Secret Leaves, 122. 103. Secret Leaves, 143--4, 121. 104. Jana Davis, 'Scott's The Pirate', Explicator 45 (Spring 1987): 22. 105. The Pirate, 24:127. 106. The Laird of Abbotsford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 118. The
term is derived, of course, from Ulysses' speech in Liii of Troilus and Cressida.
107. James Fenimore Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans; A Narrative of 1757, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 157.
108. Forrest G. Robinson perhaps comes closest to my view here, noting the way Heyward is a 'bumbler' and 'a little thick', and decidedly inferior to other characters. But he fails to register the positive anger vented against the young soldier. 'Uncertain Borders: Race, Sex and Civilization in The Last of the Mohicans', Arizona Quarterly 47 (Spring 1991): 16-17.
109. I make the case in more detail in 'The Worthlessness of Duncan Heyward: A Waverley Hero in The Last of the Mohicans', forthcoming (Spring or Summer 1997) in Studies in the Novel.
110. The Hero of the Waverley Novels (1963), 35, 156.
Notes 193
111. The Last of the Mohicans, 173. 112. The Last of the Mohicans, 11. 113. The Last of the Mohicans, 207. 114. The Last of the Mohicans, 129. 115. The Last of the Mohicans, 23. 116. The Last of the Mohicans, 41. 117. A World By Itself (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 138-9. 118. The Last of the Mohicans, 197. 119. The Last of the Mohicans, 331n. 120. The Last of the Mohicans, 161. 121. The Last of the Mohicans, 158. 122. The Last of the Mohicans, 151, 159. 123. The Last of the Mohicans, 159. 124. And presumably knows what he is doing, in contrast to Thomas Sutpen
in William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom!, a book whose ancestral situation subtly reworks, and perhaps subverts, that of The Last of the Mohicans, as well as several Scott patterns.
125. The Last of the Mohicans, 159. 126. This reading, as well, needs to be argued in more detail, as it runs counter
to frequently expressed views to the effect that Munro shares with Heyward, and with Cooper and his readership, an unshakable prejudice. I would argue that when Munro uses words like 'misfortune' and 'degraded' in this passage, he does so in a bitter but dignified recognition of his interlocu tor's (common) attitude, and that when he speaks of the injustices of slavery he is not merely expressing the conventional pieties of an embarrassed racism. This case is developed below, but I might anticipate by asking, why would racism create a heroine as admirable as Cora Munro? 'Uncas and Cora represent the noblest ideals of their respective cultures.' Robert E. Long, James Fenimore Cooper (New York: Continuum, 1990),58.
127. The Last of the Mohicans, 159. 128. Indeed, one of her descendants features in Cooper's The Prairie (1827). 129. Studies in Classic American Literature (New York: Thomas Seltzer,
1923),57. 130. The Last of the Mohicans, 19. 131. The Last of the Mohicans, 150. 132. The Last of the Mohicans, 104. 133. The Last of the Mohicans, 316. 134. The Last of the Mohicans, BO. 135. Studies in Classic American Literature, 58. 136. The Last of the Mohicans, 19. 137. The Last of the Mohicans, 80. 138. The Last of the Mohicans, 109. Emphasis added. 139. The Last of the Mohicans, 109. 140. The Last of the Mohicans, 150. 141. Unless one adds a third adversary, modern critical opinion, which
doggedly asserts, for example, that 'no woman in the Leatherstocking Tales belongs to herself'. Nina Baym, 'The Women in Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales', American Quarterly 23 (1971), 703. Baym makes
194 Nationalism and Desire
a partial exception of Judith Hutter of The Deerslayer, after disqualifying the admirable Mabel Dunham of The Pathfinder on the grounds that her strengths are essentially male, and that, besides, she is lower-class. But Cora resembles both these women, and has a kinship as well with other self-assertive Cooper heroines, such as Anneke Mordaunt of Satanstoe or Katherine Plowden of The Pilot.
142. The Last of the Mohicans, 337. 143. The Last of the Mohicans, 67. 144. The Last of the Mohicans, 104. 145. The Last of the Mohicans, 215. 146. The Last of the Mohicans, 112. 147. A transformation noticed by several critics. See, for example, James
Franklin Beard, 'Historical Introduction' to The Last of the Mohicans (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), xxxiv. Or, Long,60.
148. The Last of the Mohicans, 217. 149. The Last of the Mohicans, 227. 150. The Last of the Mohicans, 65. 151. See also Robinson, 24-5. 152. Donald Davie, The Heyday of Sir Walter Scott (London: Routledge, 1961),
111. It should be noted that Edwin Fussell takes a view of this passage quite the opposite of Davie's. Frontier: American Literature and the American West (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), 42-3.
153. The Last of the Mohicans, 159. 154. The Last of the Mohicans, 160. 155. The Last of the Mohicans, 108. 156. The Last of the Mohicans, 337. 157. The Last of the Mohicans, 130. 158. The Last of the Mohicans, 316. 159. The Last of the Mohicans, 315. 160. The Last of the Mohicans, 337. 161. Robinson, 23-4. 162. And one must agree with T. A. Birrell that Hawk-eye is not a 'mouthpiece
for the novelist'. From Cooper to Philip Roth, ed. J. Bakker, and D. R. M. Wilkinson (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1980), 7.
163. The Eccentric Design (London: Chattow and Windus, 1959), 77. Compare, also, Richard Chase: 'When the American novel attempts to resolve contradictions, it does so in oblique, morally equivocal ways.' The American Novel and Its Tradition (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1957), 1.
164. The Last of the Mohicans, 347-8. 165. Beard is among the critics who feel that the love of Uncas and Cora is
'an aberration' in Cooper's writings. 'Historical Introduction', xxxvi. But desires which reach across the boundaries of racial and other kinds of difference, whether fulfilled or not, are a constant feature of his fiction. See also Alide Cagidemetrio's discussion of Cooper and the 'alterna ting modes of homogenization and rejection which characterize the representation of racial relationships in the American historical novel.' 'A Plea for Fictional Histories and Old-Time "Jewesses"', in The Invention of Ethnicity, ed. Werner Sollors (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989),23.
Notes 195
166. Sensational Designs (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 106. 167. Cagidemetrio, 42. 168. Compare, for example, sociologist David Riesman's warnings of a
trend towards American 'other-directedness', his worry over ways to develop' a more autonomous type of social character'. The Lonely Crowd (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 19-22, 368.
Hopkins University Press, 1986). Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1973).
171. For a discussion of tragedy in this context, see in particular Chapter 3 of Girard's Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), and Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971),40-2.
CHAPTER 4
1. The Civilized Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985),127-32.
2. The Civilized Imagination, 146-7. Cottom also resorts to the familiar explanation of a 'division of ... sympathies'. 128.
3. These, of course, are the bare bones of a familiar debate. Cottom suspects a conservative fear of 'social chaos' of being a defense of privilege. Conservatives, in this characterization, suspect the breakdown of Degree of being mere anarchy loosed upon the world. One of the contentions of the present study is that Scott was capable of sensing, if not defining politically, processes and ends beyond this binary.
4. The Achievement of Literary Authority (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991),43-5.
5. The Scottish Chiejs,4:12. 6. Alexander Welsh, The Hero of the Waverley Novels (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1963), 115. Jane Millgate, Walter Scott (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984),83-4.
7. This in itself is not untypical of New Comedy as well. See Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971),163-7.
8. And is this not, even in an age dominated by myths of rebellious and creative youth, a familiar strategy? Yeats mocked at 'youth / Restraining reckless middle-age'. ('On Hearing that the Students of Our New University Have Joined the Agitation Against Immoral Literature', 1912.) But one must sympathize with modern children. What could be more oppressive, in such a world, than a parent kicking up his or her heels? How is a child to obey the already dreadful and urgent injunction to display his or her own freedom in the face of such formidable models - or, since the child hardly expects successfully to imitate them, such formidable opposition? This dilemma is an aspect of what Girard calls the I double bind' of imitative desire, from which the stricter behavioural codes of earlier societies protected children. Violence and the Sacred,
196 Nationalism and Desire
trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977),147-9.
9. Secret Leaves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 57. 10. Jean-Paul Sartre might call such an attribution mauvais foi, at one
remove. 11. Wolfgang Iser, The Implied Reader (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1974), 100. 12. This transition in Cooper is constantly occurring, or about to occur, or
being established by comparisons to remembered or legendary conditions. Its trajectory follows neither the published order of the Tales, nor even, with exactitude, their implied chronological sequence. Here, as well, the fatherly status of Natty and the Indians is established through the perspectivism of younger characters, even in the final Deerslayer (1841), where youthful admiration of the young-but-old Natty is partly a function of the now fully-initiated Cooper reader.
13. A sketch of the novel's 'mixed' reception is part of the Introduction to the Albany edition. Lionel Lincoln; or, The Leaguer of Boston, ed. Donald A. and Lucy B. Ringe (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), xxvi-xxxv.
14. Considering the prominence of its national father it is surprising, for example, that the novel receives no references in Warren Motley's otherwise excellent The American Abraham: James Fenimore Cooper and the Frontier Patriarch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
15. See the Introduction to George Dekker and John P. McWilliams, ed., Fenimore Cooper: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973),23.
16. 'Cooper's Lionel Lincoln: The Problem of Genre', American Transcendental Quarterly 24 (Fall 1974), 29.
17. John P. McWilliams praises these passages in similar terms, comparing them to the work of 'Tolstoy, Stephen Crane and Hemingway' but neglecting, I think, the locus classicus in Stendhal. 'Revolt in Massachusetts: The Midnight March of Lionel Lincoln', in James Fenimore Cooper: New Historical and Literary Contexts, ed. W. M. Verhoeven (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993), 101.
18. Ringe, 29. 19. Political Justice in a Republic (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1972),83. 20. McWilliams 1993,108,90,91. 21. Lionel Lincoln, 17. 22. Lionel Lincoln, 188. 23. Lionel Lincoln, 228. No such claim is ever made for Heyward. 24. Lionel Lincoln, 155~. 25. See Kay Seymour House and Genevieve Belfiglio, 'Fenimore Cooper's
Heroines', in American Novelists Revisited, ed. Fritz Fleischmann (Boston: Hall, 1982), 42-75.
26. Would Natty Bumppo ever have expressed such an attitude even towards a fallen woman? In The Deerslayer he does not.
27. Lionel Lincoln, 168. 28. Lionel Lincoln, 228.
Notes 197
29. Lionel Lincoln, 11. 30. Virgin Land (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), 68. 31. Lionel Lincoln, 67-8. 32. Lionel Lincoln, 12. 33. Lionel Lincoln, 225. 34. Lionel Lincoln, 226. 35. Lionel Lincoln, 248. 36. Lionel Lincoln, 253. 37. Lionel Lincoln, 242. 38. Lionel Lincoln, 27. 39. Lionel Lincoln, 45. 40. Lionel Lincoln, 289. 41. Lionel Lincoln, 76. 42. It is this relative textual absence of the 'heroic American yeoman' which
undercuts McWilliams' earlier judgement of Lionel Lincoln's overt patriotism, supposedly so much at odds with its conclusion. The moral complexity that he finds in the bleak view of human behaviour on the 'neutral ground' of The Spy but misses in the later novel is not to be located in Cooper's direct treatment of the revolutionary army but in the characters of Ralph, Job, Abigail and Madame Lechmere, and in their relationships and struggles. McWilliams 1972, 86, 73-85.
43. Lionel Lincoln, 74, 369. The text does not name him, but the editors of the Albany edition confidently identify him as Dr Joseph Warren (1741-75).
44. Lionel Lincoln, 333-4. 45. Lionel Lincoln, 334. 46. Lionel Lincoln, 340. 47. The unknown 'F. A. So' quoted in George Dekker and John P.
McWilliams, ed., Fenimore Cooper: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), 131.
48. Lionel Lincoln, 104. 49. Lionel Lincoln, 240. 50. Lionel Lincoln, 212. 51. The words conclude the passage containing the death of Hetty Hutter.
The Deerslayer (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), 535. The phrase is also quoted by Edwin Fussell in Frontier (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), 64.
52. Lionel Lincoln, 211-12. 53. Reproduced following page 272 in the Albany edition. 54. Lionel Lincoln, 273. 55. Lionel Lincoln, 273-4. 56. Lionel Lincoln, 281. 57. Lionel Lincoln, 283. 58. Cora's sacrificial death in The Last of the Mohicans demonstrates the same
power in the tragic mode. 59. Lionel Lincoln, 154. 60. Lionel Lincoln, 352. 61. Lionel Lincoln, 287. 62. Lionel Lincoln, 166-7.
198 Nationalism and Desire
63. Lionel Lincoln, 340. 64. Lionel Lincoln, 356. 65. Lionel Lincoln, 356. 66. 'Historical Introduction' to Lionel Lincoln, xxviii. 67. See in particular, Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 31. 'Human violence ... [is] the heart and secret soul of the sacred.'
68. See also W. B. Gates, 'Cooper's Indebtedness to Shakespeare', PMLA 67 (September 1952): 721-2.
69. Lionel Lincoln, 324-5. 70. This Sacred Trust (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971),50. 71. This Sacred Trust, 93-4. 72. Lionel Lincoln, 285. 73. Lionel Lincoln, 180. 74. Lionel Lincoln, 133. 75. Lionel Lincoln, 146. 76. Quoted in McWilliams, 1993, 97-8; McWilliams does not however,
make the connection to Cooper's use of the same phrase a few months before.
77. Lionel Lincoln, 280. 78. See in particular, 1993, 105. 79. Lionel Lincoln, 119. 80. Lionel Lincoln, 343. R. W. B. Lewis discusses the association of an aged
figure with America as part of his analysis ofthe Leatherstocking series, noting with D. H. Lawrence that the Tales go backward, from age towards youth, and that this is 'the myth of America'. Such a 'myth' sounds to me like an expression of the desires of the archaic father, never to age, to wrest away from the young even their youth, to keep everything for himself. The American Adam (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1955), 103.
81. Related points are made by other critics. Harry B. Henderson, although calling the book 'badly botched', invokes perspective to try to make sense of it: 'The hero's encounter with the Revolution - as opposed to the au 'thor's presentation of the Revolution - is a journey into madness.' Versions of the Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 59-60. But this still cannot account for the fact that Lionel's 'journey' ends in sanity while those of Ralph and Job, who are throughout the book associated closely with the Revolution, do not.
82. Redgauntlet, 35:6. A footnote explains that these terms refer to the rituals of school-boy battle. Alan has made a man of Darsie.
100. Redgauntlet, 36:149-50. 101. Redgauntlet, 36:30. 102. Redgauntlet, 36:265. 103. Redgauntlet, 36:275. 104. Redgauntlet, 35:315. 105. Redgauntlet, 36:36. 106. Scott's Novels (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1966),57. 107. Redgauntlet, 36:262-71. 108. Redgauntlet, 36:269. 109. Totem and Taboo, trans. James Strachey (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1961), 141-3. 110. See Violence and the Sacred,· trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1977), 193-237. Girard's objection to the later Freud is that his investigations were hampered by his insistence on retaining the Oedipal triangle at the center of his system.
111. Redgauntlet, 36:340. 112. Redgauntlet, 36:368. 113. Redgauntlet, 36:374. 114. Waverley, 1:52. 115. Redgauntlet, 36:233. 116. Graham,McMaster develops an interesting reading of this image as
suggesting an Oedipal struggle in its own right. 'The Jacobites ... are no rebellious force ... they are a socia-political version of the child expelled from the garden of mother love by the demon father.' But this does not quite explain the fact that the intensity of desire is all on the side of the father, not the sons. The Jacobites, and Darsie, do not want to fight the father for the mother. They want out of the circuit of fighting. The Jacobites, especially, have what they want. They want the father now to leave them in peace. Darsie was not wrenched from the garden by Hugh. He seeks his real father, and mother, his family. Scott and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981),224-5.
117. Redgauntlet, 36:93. 118. Redgauntlet, 36:264. 119. Secret Leaves, 117. 120. Redgauntlet, 36:230. 121. Redgauntlet, 36:236. 122. Redgauntlet, 36:223. 123. Wilt describes the choice of the light or domestic heroine as a choice
for 'possibility'. The family thus created is contrasted in Redgauntlet with a family of possibility denied. Hugh is a bachelor. Secret Leaves, 145.
124. Redgauntlet, 36:379.
200 Nationalism and Desire
125. Scott and Society, 20. 126. As this is such a contentious issue, I shall once more recapitulate: most
evaluations of Lionel Lincoln have had difficulty accounting for this most prominent feature of its structure, and pronounce artistic failure. 'What Cooper intended all this to show is not clear. The Gothic episodes clash with the historical ones ... There are too many clashing elements ... many critics have found praiseworthy elements ... but all agree it is an unsuccessful book.' Donald A. Ringe, James Fenimore Cooper: Updated Edition (Boston: Twayne, 1988). This, however, is a toning down of Ringe's earlier judgement that 'there is no real thematic connection between Lincoln's family problems and the basic setting of the book' and that 'the impression that the two most influential patriots in Boston were both insane' was 'of course, far from Cooper's intention'. James Fenimore Cooper (New Haven: Twayne, 1962), 41-2. But the theoretical problem of the 'intentional fallacy' is not somehow obviated by implying that an author simply didn't know what he intended. Surely the attempt must at least be made to assemble the major elements of the work and confront the possibility of meanings unexpected, perhaps uncouth, even unpatriotic.
127. James Grossman takes another familiar approach when he denies Cooper any conscious awareness of his own themes. Even as he asserts that Lionel Lincoln cannot have meant what it seems to mean, he allows both that the point was potentially to be made, and that Cooper may have made it in his fantasies: 'The parallel between madness and revolution had been a conventional one for Federalists to find when the revolution was French, but not when it was the American one. His American contemporaries and Cooper himself apparently never suspected the presence of any such unpatriotic parallel in Lionel Lincoln; his formal ideas seem at this period to have been entirely correct, whatever heresies his fantasy entertained.' James Fenimore Cooper, (London: Methuen, 1950), 42-3. This is to impose an unproven consistency on both Cooper and his Federalist peers.
128. Violence and the Sacred, 49.
CONCLUSION
1. Scott's Novels (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1966), 6. 2. In Memoirs of a Modern Scotland, ed. Karl Miller (London: Faber and
Faber, 1970),39. 3. Tait's Edinburgh Magazine (1833). In John O. Hayden, ed., Scott: The
Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 340. 4. The Miscellaneous Prose Works of Sir Walter Scott, ed. John Gibson
Lockhart, vol. 25, Tales of a Grandfather (Edinburgh: Cadell, 1834-46), 97. 5. Christopher Harvie, in Alan Bold, ed., Sir Walter Scott: The Long-Forgotten
Melody (London: Barnes and Noble, 1983),20.
Index
Absalom, Absalom! (Faulkner), 193 Absentee, The (Edgeworth), 62 Actis and Deidis of Schir William
Lacan, Jacques, 25, 39-40 Lalla Rookh (Moore), 183 Last of the Mohicans, The (Cooper),
115-29,143,197 Lawrence, D. H., 120-1, 198 Leerssen, J. Th., 73 Legend of Montrose, A (Scott), 11 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 37 Lew,Joseph,47,52,54,59, 183, 184 Lewis, R. W. 8., 198 Liberti guidant Ie peuple, La
(Delacroix), 143 Lincoln,Abraham, 150
Lionel Lincoln (Cooper), 136-53, 168--71
Lockhart, J. G., 185 Long, Robert E., 193 Lukacs, Georg, 10-11, 104, 136
Mackenzie, Henry, 14 Mackie, J. D., 188 Macpherson, James, 13, 14 MacQueen, John, 10, 177 Martineau, Harriet, 173 McMaster, Graham, 116, 168, 199 McWilliams, John P., 137-8, 152,
196,197,198 Mellor, Anne K., 178 Millgate, Jane, 64, 67, 90, 91, 92, 95,
104, 133 Missionary, The (Owenson), 47-8,183 More, Hannah, 17 Morgan, Lady, see Owenson,
Sydney Motley, Warren, 196 Muir, Edwin, 180
Nagel, Paul, 150 Nairn, Tom, 173 Nemoianu, Virgil, 176
O'Connell, Daniel, 52 Old Mortality (Scott), 33, 62-3,
87-94, 135, 136 Opie, Amelia, 17 Ossian, 13,22 Owenson, Sydney
Anglo-Irish status, 52 as 'Glorvina', 50 as inventor of 'National Tale', 18,
40,70 originates a fashion, 49 political views, 52, 59--60 praise of Ireland 'dangerous' and
'hazardous', 49,183 resists marriage, 59
Parker, W. M., 190 Pathfinder, The (Cooper), 194 Peck, H. Daniel, 117 Pilot, The (Cooper), 194 Pirate, The (Scott), 106-15, 140, 153,
185
Index 203
Porter, Jane an admirer of Hannah More, 17 claimed as first historical
novelist, 9 as inventor of 'National Tale', 18 nationality, 24 political opinions, 39 possible sexual longings, 24
Prairie, The (Cooper), 145, 193
Redgauntlet (Scott), 134, 153--{;8, 168-71
Reed, James, 91 Reisman, David, 195 Ricks, Christopher, 181 Ringe, Donald, 137, 200 Rob Roy (Scott), 94-106, 131, 134,
135, 158 Robinson, Forrest Go, 127, 192, 194
Said, Edward, 54 Saintsbury, George, 190 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 196 Satanstoe (Cooper), 194 Schwab, Raymond, 54, 58, 184 Scott, Po Ho, 185 Scott, Sir Walter
on blowing up a statue of Wallace, 12
and his readership, 62-3, 105, 191
and middle-aged characters, 133-4
politics, 63,172-3 as protagonist, 172 on Scotland's founding crime, 28 temperament and domestic life,
