'Now We've Got It': Danish Treasure-Hunting Legends Seen from a Structural Point of View

'Now We've Got It': Danish Treasure-Hunting Legends Seen from a Structural Point of ViewAuthor(s): Thomas JohansenSource: Folklore, Vol. 102, No. 2 (1991), pp. 220-234Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Folklore Enterprises, Ltd.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1260959 .

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Folklore vol. 102:ii, 1991 220

'Now We've Got It': Danish Treasure-Hunting Legends Seen from a Structural Point of View THOMAS JOHANSEN

THE idea of finding treasure has always exercised a strong appeal for most people, whether their motive for seeking it has been the mere desire for possession or the need to secure a basis for their material welfare. But treasures are difficult to get hold of, so people have to make do with dreaming about getting rich quickly and easily. That is the reason why casinos, gambling machines, horse-betting, robberies, etc., are still found in present-day society. No wonder then, that legends about treasure-hunting abound.1

THE TREASURE-HUNTING LEGEND AND ITS STRUCTURE

To elucidate the legend in a formal way we introduce the concept of 'episode' which makes the structure stand out clearly and thus provide an easy method for comparison of individual legends. By an episode,2 we shall understand an epical unit containing an animate agent who influences an object by bringing him, or it, into another state-the post-state-while the state prior to that is consequently the pre-state. The post-state, however, is normally the most interesting because it represents the more or less lasting outcome of the agent's action. Furthermore, an episode as a rule contains one or several subordinate episodes with the same agent as in the main episode. These subordinate episodes specify the main episode by stating how it was performed. Example: 'The treasure-hunter made a favourable impression on the guardian of the treasure by behaving properly.' Agent: the treasure-hunter. Subordinate episode: behaving properly. The object in its post- state: the guardian having received a favourable impression of the treasure-hunter.

If we consider an episode as an isolated entity, the narrator's audience will have occasion to pose two questions concerning a following, and a previous, episode: 'What happened next?' and 'Why did it happen?' Now the basic episode of a legend about a treasure-hunt is the one that tells about the treasure-hunter's attempt to get hold of the treasure. The answer to 'What happened next?' is a record of the guardian's reaction, whether he himself actually appears in the legend, or is merely implicit.

The guardian, however, can react positively or negatively. If he reacts positively the treasure-hunter gets the treasure, i.e. his post-state is satisfactory so that he has no wish for further action. If he reacts negatively the hunt is a failure or the treasure-hunter has been exposed to some inconvenience after having obtained it. In both cases his post-state is unsatisfactory and he is normally unable to react. Hence the legend usually ends with the guardian's reaction.

But looking back from that episode, we can ask: 'What was the cause of the guardian's reaction?' In the case of a satisfactory result the answer is that the treasure-hunter acted wisely or outwitted the guardian, but in the case of an unsatisfactory result the treasure- hunter acted foolishly by breaking some prohibition laid down by the guardian. The question as to how these results were brought about is expressed in the subordinate episodes, which subsequently offer scope for the narrator's knowledge and fantasy.



'NOW WE'VE GOT IT': DANISH TREASURE-HUNTING LEGENDS 221

Concerning the basic episode in which the treasure-hunter attempts to get the treasure, a necessary condition of success, is, of course, that he knows its location. This is often self-evident, for instance the treasure-hunter having seen a light glowing on a burial mound, which according to the common belief indicates a hidden treasure. In this case there will be no previous episode.

We can sum up by saying that, corresponding to each episode, the legend must provide answers to 'what?', 'why?' and 'how?' These considerations show that we can anticipate a treasure-hunt legend that normally consists of only two episodes forming the 'nucleus' of the legend: The treasure-hunter's attempt and the guardian's reaction. Apart from the legend thus being a closed unit with an epic tension between the two agents we very often observe at the same time a sort of epic equilibrium: The audience recognizes both failures and successes provided that an acceptable cause is given by which the demand for justice is met.

THE LEGENDS

The tales will be presented here in a sequence which commences with descriptions of unsuccessful efforts to find the treasure and progresses through increasing degrees of success to those activities which result in the treasure being found. In spite of their variety we can distinguish six well-defined types. After the presentation of examples belonging to each type, the structural form of the nucleus is given with supplementary comments.3 It should be stressed that due to the extensiveness of the material it has been impossible to give more than a limited number of examples, which, it is hoped, gives a fairly representative and differentiated impression of the legends considered as a whole. Further attention should be drawn to the fact that the term of 'treasure-hunter' is used throughout this article as a convenient designation whether the person in question sets out intentionally to get the treasure or not. Finally, as stated above, the guardian is not always mentioned although the result of his action is.

In the legends of type 1 the treasure-hunt is a failure from the treasure-hunter's point of view, but as a sort of consolation it can be pointed out that he found the location of the treasure unintentionally.

A. In Dybdal [Deep Valley], in the Western Forest near the town of Silkeborg, a King's ransom is said to be buried. 'One day a man was cutting heather in Dybdal and here he came upon a large stone. He placed his wooden shoes there and, dropping the heather-cutter, ran for a spade. But when he returned he could find neither his shoes nor his tool. One day when we were working there we heard something like a chest being closed down in the valley. My father found this strange and, as he too had heard of the legend, he thought that it was there that the treasure had been buried.'4

Concerning a King's ransom, 'it is so large that when the King is on his knees and the money is poured all over him so the coins roll down as they will, then they will eventually cover him. When he is taken prisoner anywhere he can buy himself free with this King's ransom.'5

B. 'On Vejen common stands a cauldron containing a large sum of money ... An old woman who died a score of years ago has said that once she herded cattle there and when she poked her crook in the earth the edge of a cauldron and several coins were brought to light. Just then the cattle stampeded in the direction of the cornfield so that she had to run, but previously she had stuck her crook, with her bonnet hanging on it, in the ground to mark the place. When



222 THOMAS JOHANSEN

the cattle had been pacified she went to look for the cauldron but what happened? Halfway there her crook with her bonnet came jumping to meet her, and she could no longer find the place.'6

C. On Taars heath there is a little bog called the 'Feather-bog' There was once a smallholder who had been allowed by the owner to cut peat in that bog. One day he thrust his spade against something hard and after a closer look he saw that it was an old copper cauldron. 'Now,' he thought, 'I believe that I have struck lucky here.' But he knew that he shouldn't dig the cauldron up as long as it was daylight, he would have to wait until the sun had set; but in order not to forget the spot he took a stork's feather which lay just beside it and stuck it in the earth near the cauldron before he went home. When evening came he hurried back to the spot to get the treasure, the feather was in its place and he began digging for the cauldron. But it wasn't there. He started to look around and then he noticed that there was no longer only one feather but that there were feathers everywhere. Then he realized that it was not him that would get the treasure. From that day the bog was called the Feather-bog.7

Agent (coming across the location of the treasure accidentally) A: a man; B: an old woman; C: a smallholder

subordinate episodes placing his landmark on the spot, and postponing the search

the object in its post-state the guardian having assumed a negative attitude to the treasure-hunter

agent: the guardian

subordinate episode making the landmark

A disappear B return to the old woman C be found again but amongst a multitude of similar landmarks

the object in its post-state the treasure-hunter having not succeeded in getting the treasure

There is no reason to ask the cause of the treasure-hunter's finding the location, as it was by chance. Likewise there is no occasion to ask what he did afterwards because he could do nothing about the failure. Thus the legend consists (as many others do) of the mere two 'nuclear' episodes. That the guardian is in possession of many means to prevent the treasure-hunter's success is evident from the subordinate episodes in the latter episode.

The legends of type 2 are likewise a failure from the treasure-hunter's point of view but, in contrast to the previous type, here the hunt is intentional. Also the failure is caused by the guardian who makes the treasure-hunter run away or causes him to violate the prohibition of talking, whereas the failure in type 1 was primarily caused by the treasure- hunter himself. In two examples (H, I) the hunter can, however, note a small success in his relationship to the guardian as it is he who flees from the treasure-hunter.

D. '... Near the lake [the lake of Revsing] there is a small hill in which there is also said to be a treasure. The road runs straight between the hill and the lake. Uncle Hans Jokum went out there one evening with a spade to dig out the treasure. But he never got to the top of the hill because a lot of ogres came riding upon cocks and they continued to ride around the hill. Consequently he became so frightened that he hurried home and he did not make any further attempts to dig in that hill.'"8




E. 'About a hill called Bredhoej [Broad-hill], situated south of Lejrskov village, there is a legend that a light had been seen on it which meant that there must be a treasure under it. Two men went there with tools and dug away and finally they came to a hard object. When they knocked at it they could hear that it was a chest and that something tinkled inside. One of them struck it with an iron rod, and then the other looked up and saw a great fire. "It looks miserable indeed, the whole village of Lejrskov is on fire." As soon as he said this the whole of the treasure had disappeared and the two men could jab the iron rod deeply into the loose soil. The village of Lejrskov still stood as it always had done without any trace of a fire.'9

F. 'When the church in Hjoeering was to be built the people were short of money but it occurred to them that, according to an old legend, a treasure was buried in one of the mounds thereabout. Then they started digging and actually found a chest. The treasure should be raised in silence, as is well known. They managed to tie a rope round the chest and nearly got it up, but when they were taking the last hold one of them unfortunately cried: "Now we've got it!" and with that the ring which the rope went through came off. The chest went to the bottom but they kept the rope and the ring is on the church-door this very day, we are told .. .'

G. 'In Kistehoej [Chest-hill] a bit to the West, a chest filled with gold is said to be hidden. The peasants around here wanted to have it dug up but such a thing, of course, must be done tacitly. At last one evening they made up their minds to go digging. They succeeded in getting down under the chest and tying a rope around it. At last they got it to the surface, and then one of them said: "Oh, thank God, we've succeeded." But the Devil, you know, had a hold on it from the underneath and he lowered it to a position that was twice as deep as it had been before. They had to give up the work and the chest is there to this very day.'"11 H. 'In Stovhoej ... there was a dragon lying on some money. They dug for it. [Then one of them said]: "Hold on, now we've got it." Then the dragon flew up saying:

"If I may not in Stovhoej stay Then you shall never from Sjoerup lake drive me away."

A woman from Sjoerup saw the dragon flying. He was as long as a haypole and quite red and he landed in the lake with the treasure so that on touching the water it hissed.'12

I. 'Some people dug through Stangehoej and reached down to the King of the hill who had transformed himself into a calf. One of the people wrapped him in his coat and carried him away. When they reached Snekkehoej, which was overgrown with scrub, he said: "If I may not in Stangehoej stay then you shall not drive me from Snekkehoej away," after which he disappeared into it and this hill was too overgrown for them to think of following him.' 13

Agents (knowing the location of the treasure by tradition) D: Uncle H.J.; E: two men; F: [some men]; G: the peasants; H, I: some people

subordinate episode D, F-H digging for the treasure (as for E, see below)

E-H making an exclamation of E fear; F: triumph; G: relief; H: exhortation

I carrying the guardian away the object in its post-state

the guardian having assumed a negative attitude to the treasure-hunters because of their violation of prohibitions

agent the guardian

subordinate episode D scaring the treasure-hunter away

E-G making the treasure disappear H, I disappearing with the treasure



224 THOMAS JOHANSEN

the object in its post-state the treasure-hunters having given up, and F: left with a ring.

As the treasure-hunter's exclamation in example E is caused by the guardian's simulation of fire, this example claims a previous set of episodes which are, expressed in ordinary language:

1 Two men alerting the guardian by digging for the treasure 2 the guardian frightening one of them by causing him to see the village as

if it was on fire. The type-3 legends show the treasure-hunter having some success. He takes the treasure

in spite of the guardian's warning (J) and otherwise the guardian, treated with respect, allows him to carry the digging to its end (K). But the acquisition has its price. As the treasure-hunter has violated various prohibitions, causing the guardian to assume a negative attitude towards him, he is subjected to trouble afterwards. The guardian's exclamation in K is very frequent in the following type of legends.

J. 'In the village of Torslev there is a farm called Skavange. A light burnt in the barn beside a beam and there was an old tradition that in this spot a treasure was hidden. Finally there were three local farmers who made up their minds to look into this. One night they stole into the barn in which the light was seen and when they had dug for some time they found a large copper cauldron but a big black hen sat on the lid. They lifted the hen down carefully, then they took the cauldron and put the hen into the hole again and filled it up. At this moment a voice reached them from below, saying: "You will derive no pleasure from this money." They took no notice of this, but took the money and divided it between them. From that time onwards no blessings fell upon these men. One of them lost his reason, another became terribly poor and misfortune also fell upon the third as well, but in which manner I can't remember. In short all three of them came to a bad end . . '14

K. 'In the community of Bindslev in Vendsyssel theie is a small hill called Terkild's hill. It is said that once there was a boy who herded cattle near the hill and that he saw a light burning on it. When he noticed this, he thought that there was money hidden in the hill. He started digging for it one day and after a short time he came to a large black dog which lay on a cauldron filled with money. When the boy saw the dog he took off his coat and, unfolding it, he laid it on the earth. Then he carefully took the dog and placed it on the coat. When he had set down the dog it said: "If you hadn't taken me so carefully and laid me down so softly then you would have had other things to do than to take my money." During his work he turned his head to one side to look at his cattle but when he wanted to turn it back he found he couldn't, so from that day onwards his head was always turned to one side. The boy was called Terkild, and so today the hill is called: Terkild's hill.' 15

L. 'On Niels Skinder's plot in Viemose there is a large hill overgrown with scrub where a large pot is said to have been found. A couple of the man's children were digging on the hill when they happened to come across some iron ... Their mother told them to stop talking and went with all possible speed to investigate the spot for herself. What was found there was kept secret but a short time afterwards the maid got a very rugged copper-pot to clean ... Later the daughter of the house confided in her that her mother had found the pot in the hill and that there had been a lot of money in it. Immediately afterwards the wife became ill and she never fully recovered although she lived on for many years afterwards.' 16

M. 'Over there in the fields of Lindbjaerg there are three hills. One evening many years ago two gentlemen from Copenhagen came to a forest-ranger's house. They asked the old ranger couple who lived there if they could show them a certain hill because, as they said, they had read in some old books that it should contain more treasures than could be found in the King's treasury.




The forest-ranger and his wife, however, pointed out another of the hills to them and accordingly the gentlemen found nothing and returned to Copenhagen without success. Now the old couple dug in the right hill and found a lot of gold and silver and, besides that, an old rusty knight's sword. But during the following nights they heard a terrible rummaging in their house. Having asked a wise man for a piece of good advice they were told to return the sword to the hill. They did so, and then peace was restored and they had become rich.'7

Agents J: three farmers; K: a boy (both recognizing the location of the treasure by the

light); L: a mother (having been told about the location by her children); M: an old forest-ranger couple (having been told about the location by two gentlemen)

subordinate episode J treating the guardian with respect, but ignoring his warning and taking the treasure

K treating the guardian with respect, and taking the treasure, but turning his head L finding money in a hill, but being unable to prevent her daughter telling about it

M deceiving the two gentlemen, and taking the treasure, but keeping the rusty sword the object in its post-state

the guardian having assumed a negative attitude to the treasure-hunters because of their violation of prohibitions

agent the guardian

the object in its post-state J the farmers having come to a bad end

K the boy being unable to turn his head L the mother having become ill

M the old couple having heard rummaging in their house As in M the old couple's trouble can be dealt with, another set of episodes ends the legend: agent

the old couple subordinate episode

returning the sword-as advised the object in its post-state

the guardian having changed his attitude to a positive one agent

the guardian the object in its post-state

the old couple having been freed from their trouble In the legends L and M we can recognize a previous episode with the children as the agents and the mother as the object, and with the gentlemen as the agents and the old couple as the object, respectively.

In the type-4 legends the treasure-hunter succeeds in acquiring the treasure although, in example N, it is not strictly thus. He acts prudently and violates no prohibitions. The success, however, is ensured by his respectful treatment of the guardian. (cf. the guardian's exclamation: 'If you hadn't .. .') Thus the treasure-hunter has recognized the guardian's power and gets the treasure in return for this recognition. The situation is the same as in J and K, but there the treasure-hunter's action was nullified by his following violations.

N. 'Old Per Kaldal dreamt that he should go to Lodhoej, a hill situated in his own field, because there was a certain amount of money in that hill. He went there as he was not afraid and was



226 THOMAS JOHANSEN

a wise old man and it was at night, you know. When he had got there he saw that a large shaggy dog lay on the hill. Then he took off his coat, took the dog and placed it upon it, and the dog said: "Yes, if it wasn't that you took me up gently and put me down so softly you would have been in for a disaster." He started digging but found no money and the hill has been dug out since, but then they only found some old things.'18

O. 'A man dreamt that he would find his fortune in the fields of Kovre, which is a bit to the North from here. One day he met a man going to and fro and asked him what he was looking for. The man said he had dreamt that he would find his fortune here, to which the other answered: "Nonsense, I have dreamt that I should find my fortune in the fields of Kovre but I have never taken the trouble to look for it." Then he thought: "Maybe I could find something there anyway." So he went there and found a lot of money.' [Here follows the motif of his treatment of the dog and its exclamation, with the addition that he left it with a small amount].'9

P. 'Somewhere in the local community of Naesborg there was a spot where a light burnt at night signifying the presence of money. One evening the owner of the field went there, dug, and found it. There was also one of those old copper-cauldrons full up but a black dog was lying on it. [Here follows the motif of the treatment of the dog.] He poured the money out of the pot, put it down again and placed the dog in it and then left with the money. [Now the exclamation of the dog.] Then the man realized with whom he had been dealing and he did not look back for in that case the "mischief" would have done something evil to him . . . The man got the money which he had needed desperately, but since then there has never been want of money on that farm.?

"

Agent N: Per Kaldal; O: a man (both knowing the location of the treasure because of an informative dream); P: the owner of a field (knowing the location because of a light seen on a hill)

subordinate episode O ignoring another's discouragement

N-P treating the guardian with respect the object in its post-state

the guardian having formed a positive attitude to the treasure-hunter agent

the guardian subordinate episode

stating that the treasure-hunter was only allowed to take the treasure because of his polite treatment of him

the object in its post-state N Per Kaldal having found nothing O the man having got the treasure P the owner having got the treasure

The type-5 legends display a contrast to the previous types as here the guardian's attitude to the treasure is negative. We are concerned with a guardian in form of a ghost seeking deliverance, but the treasure stands in his way. In Q the deliverance is brought about by his hearing another pronouncing God's name, after which he points out the localisation of the treasure as a token of gratitude. In R the ghost is delivered by the mere removing of the treasure and hence the second episode (the guardian's reaction upon the treasure- hunter's taking the treasure) dwindles into a triviality.




Q. 'In Haderup there is a valley through which nobody can drive comfortably when the sun has set. One afternoon a man came driving along and had to get through the valley. He whipped the horses but did not get through before the sun set. He was pushed off the carriage and saw a large black dog which seemed about to hurt him. In his great fear the man cried: "God help me as well as you!" "Thank you for these words," the ghost said, "I have been waiting for them for 300 years." Then it showed the man a large stone and asked him to dig the next day, then he would become prosperous. He did so and found a cauldron full of money.'21

R. 'The farm Oestertoft was once hired out to a man whose name was Anders Toft ... One night a maid, Mette Barbesgaard, had to sit by a cow which was calving. When that was over she went into the barn to fetch a whisp of straw for the cow and there she noticed a figure standing in a corner. He looked like a sentry ... The girl, of course, thought that something was wrong and she went immediately and told her master what she had seen.' In the morning she saw the master and mistress carrying a large copper-pot with a lot of treasures in it. 'Anders Toft had from the girl's report realized that the shape in the barn was the ghost of a soldier who had to stand here at the location of a hidden treasure which he had got hold of in a dishonest way during the war. At daybreak the man had started digging where the shape stood and then a little lower down in the earth he had hit a large flat stone under which was the cauldron. Since then the ghost was seen no more ... It was soon evident that Anders Toft had become a rich man as in 1791 he was able to buy the farm freehold ... It is said, however, that in his old age he only just avoided having to walk with a beggar's stave.'22

Agent Q: a man (being pushed by a ghost); R: Anders Toft (having come to know the location of the treasure because of the shape in the barn)

subordinate episode Q invoking God R taking the treasure

the object in its post-state the ghost having been delivered

agent the ghost

subordinate episode Q showing the location of the treasure R disappearing

the object in its post-state Q the man having got the treasure R Anders Toft having been confirmed in his possession of the treasure

Corresponding to the legends L, and M, we can recognize a previous episode in R with the maid as the agent and Anders Toft as the object.

The final type, type 6, is characterized by the fact that the treasure is not recognizable as such. In S and T it has the form of some repulsive, or at least useless, matter, which is transformed to gold the next morning. In S the treasure-hunters do not surmount their disgust and another gets the treasure in contrast to T where the treasure-hunter is gratified. Example U is a sort of double legend the first part of which belongs to this type while the latter part is linked up with type 1.

S. 'Three men from Avning had got into their minds that they ought to dig in Porsbakke, which is a bit to the North-East of the church . . . They turned to a shoemaker to ask his help but he refused them. Then they went out there and started digging but found nothing that night



228 THOMAS JOHANSEN

but a rotten horse's leg. Yet they took it with them and on their way home they threw it into the shoemaker's hall to make fun of him. But, God forgive us, the next morning it had turned to pure gold.'23

T. 'A farm-hand once saw a fire burning in the field, he thought that it burned over a treasure. The next day he dug on that spot and by evening came down to a cave where a large black dog was lying on a box. He took off his coat, spread it on the earth and placed the dog on it, after which he opened the box, it was full of beetles. He filled his pockets with them but the next day the beetles had changed into gold coins.'24

U. 'An old woman from Mollerup had a cow which she was about to take into the field. She came to a calf which was lying on some charcoal. Then she thought: "Here I can wangle an apron full of charcoal for myself." When she came back she took the calf, placed it on some nearby straw and started to scrape the charcoal together into her apron. When she was about to go the calf said: "Had you not taken me so carefully and set me down so softly then shame would have overtaken you." So she ran away, losing half of the charcoal as she had taken fright, you know, when the calf began talking. When she got home she threw it into the fireplace where it was transformed to money. Then she went back to gather what she had lost. But it had all gone and so had the calf.' 25

Agent S: three men; T: a farm-hand (both having seen a fire in the field); U: an old woman (coming across a calf)

subordinate episodes S finding a rotten horse's leg, and throwing it away T treating the guardian with respect, finding beetles, and keeping them U treating the guardian with respect, finding charcoal, and keeping it

the object in its post-state the guardian having assumed an indifferent attitude, making the result of the treasure-hunt depend on the treasure-hunter's attitude to the find

agent the guardian

subordinate episode transforming the find to gold

the object in its post-state S the three men having lost the treasure T the farm-hand having got the treasure U the old woman having got part of the treasure

Here example U contains two further episodes (expressed in the final sentences) which are similar to the nucleus of examples A, B, and C, and belong to type 1, as stated above. agent

the old woman subordinate episode

setting out to get more of the treasure the object in its post-state

the guardian having assumed a negative attitude agent

the guardian subordinate episode

making himself and the treasure disappear the object in its post-state

the old woman having obtained no more of the treasure




HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Up to now we have been concerned with legends as artistic products. But to widen the perspective it is necessary to sketch the historical background.26

From very early times the dead were thought to continue life in the grave just as they had done while living. Consequently they would be in need of food and weapons, but also of their ornaments and riches. Later they were given more riches than really belonged to them in order to prevent them from haunting the living. During the Bronze Age, when cremation became the ordinary burial custom, the amount of treasures declined, but when burial in the earth was taken up again burial deposits became bountiful. When the idea of the dead living on in the grave was abandoned it became the practice that when a rich man died only a part of his riches was buried with him while his heirs kept the rest. As a consequence it became the custom that people buried their own part before they died, which explains the finds of treasures in fields and bogs.27 This was especially the case in the Old Iron Age from which finds of treasures in graves are relatively rare. The dead themselves were thought to be the guardians of these treasures, either in the shape of ghosts, or in the likeness of a man, but also in the shape of an animal which was thought to be able to leave the body.

In the Middle Ages, under the influence of Christian ideas, the Devil was identified with a black dog and the two ideas were confused with each other; thus the guardian became the Devil in the shape of a black dog. Moreover it was considered a sin to bury treasures and the idea arose that, by selling one's soul to the Devil, one could get possession of treasure. From that the idea evolved that treasures were an obstacle to man's deliverance and this must be considered the last step in the evolution of the ideas underlying the treasure-hunting legends.

In connection with the historical background it seems natural to look into the origin of the light which plays so important a role in indicating the location of the treasure. It has obviously a physical as well as a psychological basis. Whenever organic matter decays in graves and bogs, gasses are produced which in certain conditions are luminiscent. When people have observed these phenomena their imagination has been vivid enough to encourage them to interpret various sense-impressions as lights, especially where and when they expect them to be there. Thus light and treasure are often found in combination. If we state this in the language of formal logic we arrive at following conclusions: In some cases where there is a treasure there is also a light, and in some cases where there is a light there is also a treasure. Now, in accordance with a common error of reasoning, a generalization in both statements will occur so that 'some' is replaced by 'all', i.e. a treasure is inextricably connected with a light. From this has evolved the idea that the light is a reflection of the treasure and further, under Christian influence, that it is the fire of Hell.

As to the nature of the light, the following legend is most informative:

'Sometimes a light is seen burning in a field, or some other place, and there, we are told, a treasure is hidden. It is, however, a mistake to do mischief to such a light if you come across it. Thus, there was a forest-ranger who out in Northorpe-a forest to the East of Kvaerndrup village- happened to see such a light, went there and proceeded to hit it with his stick, but, following this, he could not get away from the place again. When he did get loose his mouth was drawn awry stretched to one of his ears, and it took a long time before he was back to normal again.' 28

In other words: one should be careful when dealing with lights that indicate treasures as they are connected with very powerful forces!



230 THOMAS JOHANSEN

CONJECTURES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE LEGENDS

From its origin a treasure-hunting legend evolves to end as a final product, which has two main characteristics: An epic tension between its two agents, the treasure-hunter and the guardian, and a logical isolation which manifests itself by the questions concerning what happened before and after being needless.

The legend starts with the treasure-hunter having somehow got to know the location of the treasure, a necessary condition of his action. Concerning its end there are several possibilities: The treasure-hunter ends up in a state which he finds either (a) unsatisfactory, as he did not get the treasure; (b) unsatisfactory, as the acquisition of the treasure is accompanied by some inconvenience about which he can do nothing; (c) unsatisfactory, but which he thinks himself able to convert it into a satisfactory state so that he will act again (M, U); or (d) satisfactory, as he got (all of) the treasure and consequently will not perform further actions.

If the post-state contains a feature which can be observed (treasure, illness) we can suspect the legend of being of aetiological origin, i.e. the narrator has formed the legend in order to explain the cause of the feature in his own interesting way. In that case the legend has evolved backwards from its end to its beginning, that is, to an episode (normally the previous one) of which it is needless to ask the cause. On the other hand, if no such feature is present, then the basis of the legend must be some sense impressions experienced by the author, or the narrator himself, who has then constructed an interpretation as to their nature and/or origin. Thus we have a physical and a psychological basis, respectively, in the two cases.

Furthermore, it should be noted that many of the legends deal with named persons who may have been known by the audience. As time passes on the names are forgotten and we arrive at legends which begin, for instance: 'It is said that .

Finally before we present conjectures as to the origin of the individual legends, the identification of the guardian should be kept in mind, i.e.: the buried person, the Devil, the soul held by the treasure and waiting for deliverance. In addition to this there is the association in the narrator's mind between the treasure and various other treasure-hunting legends.

The legends O, P, which tell of a person having become rich, seem to be of aetiological origin. That it was due to the person's hard work is an explanation without dramatic effect. Hence it is told that he got it by flattering the Devil or treating him respectfully, which can in fact be considered as a form of subjection. Here the audience's sense of envy, if they know the man, is tempered by the thought of the sinister character of the way in which he achieved success. As the find in example N is insignificant, it is natural to conclude that the owner digging in his own field and finding nothing of interest reflects a real event.

A special case of an aetiological legend is example F. Here the basis is clearly a ring on the church-door, a ring which somehow has drawn attention to itself, so it causes people to consider its origin. Now a ring is very naturally associated with a chest, and again, a chest containing money which was possibly used to help build the church. But where did the money get to? The narrator, well versed in treasure-hunting legends, has a ready answer.

As for the examples S and T, they seem also to have originated aetiologically. Probably the find consisted of some seemingly worthless matter from a grave together with a few valuables. The narrator has then dramatized the story by presenting a causal connection between the two sorts of find.




If the legend, as in examples, J, K, and L, tells about a treasure-hunter who gets the treasure but has to pay a price in the form of an illness or inconvenience, we have a problem. Accepting that the legend is of aetiological origin, we are faced with a choice between two origins: The treasure, or the illness. In the first case the potential envy found in the hearts of the members of the audience will be tempered by the treasure- hunter's unhappy state and one can easily imagine a commentary like this: 'That comes of having intercourse with the Devil when one isn't clever enough.' But otherwise, if the illness is considered the origin, the treasure has probably been invented by the narrator in order to give a satisfactory explanation.

In example M, however, we are certainly faced with quite another situation. We can suppose that two gentlemen, perhaps scientists, have come to the local community with a certain purpose, unknown or incomprehensible to the people living there. In connection with the mistrust of the inhabitants towards people from outside (especially from the capital city) speculations as to the 'real' cause of their visit start arising immediately, and these are associated with treasure-hunting. It is characteristic that the narrator, in order to establish an epic tension between the strangers and the local people, belittles them by making them act very foolishly in telling the local inhabitants of the treasure beforehand. The importance of the rusty sword should be noted: to the buried person it is worth more than the treasure. The couple's inconvenience with the rummaging heard in their house is the counterpart of their deceit, so that the epic balance is established and thus the story has an acceptable moral after all.

Although the examples Q and R have the same motif, that of a ghost delivered, nonetheless their origin seems to be quite different. As concerns R, it is probable that it has an aetiological origin explaining that a person, known by the audience, has become well-to-do. The finding of the treasure is explained to be the justification of his deliverance of a ghost. An interesting detail: the maid was in fact treated unjustly, as she got no immediate part of the treasure although it was she who discovered the ghost. The remark that Anders Toft hardly avoided ruin creates the epical balance.

In example Q the origin is a definite location where it is gloomy at night so that the nerves of a passer-by are on edge. Even such an insignificant occurrence has made him believe that a ghost is afoot. He is supposed to have told an audience: 'Yes, you can see that it really is a dangerous place!' The ghost's showing him the location of the treasure is invented as an answer to the question of what happened next, and brings the legend to a satisfactory conclusion.

Now we pass on to legends which end in unsuccessful treasure-hunts (D, E, G, I, J). As there seems to be no feature from which they could have evolved, we must assume that they are not, as stated above, of aetiological origin. Hence they are founded on some personal experience in the case of the treasure-hunter. But why tell of such a result which cannot seem flattering for the treasure-hunter in the eyes of the audience? If we draw attention to the fear that people had in relation to the opening of a grave, which was in itself a proof of courage, it is seen that it may well be in order to point to the fact and to boast of the treasure-hunter's audacity. But on the other hand his nerves would naturally be on edge, so that an insignificant phenomenon would be interpreted in an exaggerated way. In order not to 'lose face' the treasure-hunter had to give a valid explanation of his failure, whether he was induced to talk or he was scared away, which could have happened even to the most courageous person.29

In this connection a certain motif should be drawn to attention. In several legends (not described in this article) it is recorded that the guardian, in the form of a cock, flies up,



232 THOMAS JOHANSEN

at the same time sending out a terrible stench which causes one of the treasure-hunters to articulate an improper comment or which simply drives the treasure-hunters away. There can hardly be any doubt that this mirrors the stench from the opening of a recent grave.

Finally we arrive at the legends A, B, and C which seem to have a similar origin as D-J. Probably, they are founded on some experience had by a person working alone and seeing something which is interpreted as an indication of a treasure. The story is then related in order to draw the attention of an audience. But answering the unavoidable question as to the reason for failure, the narrator is now able to underline the necessity of getting a spade (A), to stress his sense of duty (B), and to demonstrate his foresight (C). In this last legend we can suppose that the name of 'Feather bog' is the origin of the curious story of how the treasure-hunter was deceived.

In example U we probably have to accept an aetiological origin like the examples S and T, but as charcoal is a useful material the dramatic effect in comparison with the other legends is somewhat tempered. This can have prompted the narrator to add the second part of the legend which established the desired effect.

THE LEGENDS IN RETROSPECT

Looking back on the legends one might ask: How has it happened that they, together with numerous others, have survived to this day? Of course they are entertaining, especially if the audience knows the persons involved, but is that the whole truth, or are they founded on some deeper level?

The centre around which the legends revolve is, of course, the treasure itself, and the outcome of the treasure-hunt depends primarily on the guardian's attitude to the treasure according to the principle that the higher the value set upon a subject the higher the price to be paid for it. I.e. the more the guardian values the treasure the more difficult it is for the treasure-hunter to get at it, and vice versa. On the other hand, it is the treasure- hunter's behaviour, expressed in the subordinate episodes of the first main episode, which determines the guardian's attitude to him/her on the basis of his own attitude to the treasure, and hence the outcome of the treasure-hunt. By studying the treasure-hunts and their results we might be able to compile a sort of rules for a prospective treasure- hunter.

Now in examples D-J, the guardian's attachment to the treasure is so strong that whatever the hunter does he has no chance of success, whereas the examples K, L and M show a lesser attachment. The treasure-hunter gets it, but is afflicted with some inconvenience because he makes an error. Here especially example K should be drawn to the attention. No matter how praiseworthy the boy's action of looking after his cattle, it was a mistake that he did so.

In the examples N, O and P the hunter gets the treasure (although it in O can hardly be called so) by treating the guardian respectfully and making no error. That is sufficient to ensure the treasure-hunter's success. It should be noted that example P is a counterpart to example K in the previous group, as the treasure-hunter in P does not look back.30 The following examples Q and R show the guardian with a completely negative attitude to the treasure as the hunter gets it in return for having delivered the guardian.

In example S the two men throw away what they consider a worthless find and hence they lose the treasure, in contrast to example T where the treasure-hunter keeps the beetles which turn into gold. The examples show that the treasure can take on various shapes




(eventually caused by the guardian). A sufficient condition of success is that the treasure- hunter is not taken in and avoids a spontaneous action. As for the treasure-hunter's attitude to the treasure in the first part of example U, it is something between S and T, as the old woman recognizes the treasure as a useful thing but without knowing its real nature.

Finally, in the examples A, B and C, the treasure-hunter postpones the search in favour of some other doings, and when he is ready for the search, the marker has disappeared because he has not shown a sufficient degree of interest. In the latter part of example U the old woman was too late to recognize the real nature of the charcoal.

Now these two motifs, a treasure rejected because it is not recognized as such, and postponing the search for the treasure by doing something else first, have two striking parallels in the New Testament, respectively: 'The stone which the builders rejected, has become the head of the corner' 31 and 'And another also said, Lord, I will follow thee; but let me first go bid them farewell, which are at home in my house. And Jesus said unto him, No man, having put his hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God.' "32

Here we also recognize the motif of the boy who looked back (K) and the man who did not (P), but if we compare the two sets of legends given immediately above with these texts we can interpret the treasure as a symbol of Christ and salvation. If we loosen the reins of symbolic comparison further, the analogy can be carried a step forward. In example A the treasure is a King's ransom which redeems a jailed King. If we accept the ransom as a symbol of Christ, then, accordingly the King is a symbol of the soul jailed by the Devil who prevents its salvation. However, perhaps we feel that these last- mentioned legends, although strongly influenced by Christian thought, are founded on ideas reaching far back beyond Christianity into a remote past. Salvation need not necessarily mean salvation in the strict Christian sense, but more generally man's ultimate union with the deity.

Thus the legends, considered as a whole, display two extremes of attitudes towards the treasure. Some of them view it as an evil as it is obtained by showing respect to the Devil, while others view it as a blessing as it is a symbol of Christ.

Danmarks Biblioteksskole, 6 Birketinget, DK2300, Copenhagen S

NOTES

1. This article is based on the two comprehensive collections of local legends assembled by the great Danish folklorist Evald Tang Kristensen (1843-1929): Danske sagn sorm de har lydt i folkemunde [Danish legends as they were told by people] (2nd ed., Kobenhavn, 1980) Vol. 1-8; Danske sagn ... : Ny raekke [Danish legends . . . : New series] (Kobenhavn, 1928-1939) Vol. 1-6. For the sake of simplicity they are quoted as DS and DSNR, respectively. As for his life and work, see Joan Rockwell: Evald Tang Kristensen: A Lifelong Adventure in Folklore (Aalborg and Copenhagen, 1982).

2. My ideas on structure, which play an essential role in this article, are set out in four papers in International Classification (Frankfurt): Thomas Johansen, 'An Outline of a Non-Linguistic Approach to Subject-Relationships', 12 (1985) no. 2; 'Elements of the Non-Linguistic Approach to Subject-Relationships', 14 (1987) no. 1; 'On the Relationships of Material Subjects' 14 (1987) no. 3; 'Methods of Subject-Structure Display', 17 (1990) no. 1.

3. Tang Kristensen wrote down the legends verbatim and hence I have endeavoured to render them as exactly as possible in order to convey to the reader the same feeling of 'nearness' as he experienced himself when he visited his informants.



234 THOMAS JOHANSEN

4. DSNS III, no. 1413. Cf. Stith Thompson: Motif-Index of Folk Literature (Copenhagen, 1955-58), Motif N 511.6.

5. DS III, no. 2364. 6. DS III, no. 2230; cf. Thompson, Motif N 525. 7. DS III, no. 2336; cf. Thompson, Motif N 525. 8. DS III, no. 2262; cf. Thompson, Motif N 556. 9. DS III, no. 2309; cf. Thompson, Motifs C 401.3; N 525; 532; 553.2; 564. 10. DSNR III, no. 1354; cf. Thompson, Motifs C 401.3; N 525; 553.2. 11. DSNR I, no. 812; cf. Thompson, Motifs C 401.3; N 525; 553.2; 571. 12. DS III, no. 2318. In Danish (Jutish) 'stay' (blyww) rhymes with 'drive' (dryww). 13. DS I, no. 1268. The same rhyme as above. 14. DS III, no. 2336; cf. Thompson, Motifs B 576.2; N 525; 532; 591. 15. DS I, no. 1262; cf. Thompson, Motifs B576.2; N 525; 532; 553.4. 16. DS III, no. 2210; cf. Thompson, Motifs N 525; 591. 17. DS III, no. 2198; cf. Thompson, Motif N 591. 18. DS I, no. 1260; cf. Thompson, Motifs B 576.2; N 531. 19. DS III, no. 2443; cf. Thompson, Motifs B 576.2; N 531; 553.3. 20. DS III, no. 2327; cf. Thompson, Motifs B 576.2; N 525; 532. 21. DS III, no. 2335. 22. DS III, no. 2200; cf. Thompson, Motif N 525. 23. DS III, no. 2302. 24. DS I, no. 1257; cf. Thompson, Motifs B 576.2; N 532. 25. DS III, no. 2333; cf. Thompson, Motif B 576.2. 26. This account is based on Hirschberg: Schatzglaube und Totenglaube (Breslau, 1934), and

Handworterbuch des deutschens Aberglaube (Berlin, 1927-41), s.v. Schatz. 27. Hirschberg uses the term 'Freie Feldschitze'. It should, however, be noted that, especially

in Denmark, buried treasures can have a more recent origin, as many people hid them from fear of plundering by the imperial troops during the Thirty-Years' War.

28. DS III, no. 2164; cf. Thompson, Motif N 532. 29. Under the heading of 'Spells at Treasure-Digging' Tang Kristensen enumerates a great

number of strange events: A load of hay drawn by two cocks, a coach drawn by four horses followed by four mice, etc., all of them with the purpose of making the treasure-hunters talk or of scaring them away. One cannot escape the idea that the narrators have attempted to surpass each other in ingenuity.

30. The motif of the prohibition of looking back is commonly found in folk-literature and it can be interpreted as an unbecoming form of curiosity showing that the person involved has no sufficient interest in what he has, or is about to get. In other words he lets himself be distracted, a feature which abounds in these legends.

31. Matthew 21.42. 32. Luke 9.61-62.



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'Now We've Got It': Danish Treasure-Hunting Legends Seen from a Structural Point of View

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