106th NATIONAL MANAGEMENT COURSE(Monday, 20 February 2017 to Friday, 21 July 2017)

GLOSSARY OF TERMSHAND BOOK

Issued by TRAINING WING

NATIONAL MANAGEMENT COLLEGE

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Absolute Poverty: The minimum level of income required to sustain life. Poverty may be measured through calorific approach basic needs approach.

Acculturation: Acquiring cultural traits or characteristics of another culture or cultural groups through direct contact or interaction.

Adaptation: The manner or process through which a small group (like family, tribe, etc) fits into a larger social environment.

Administrative Governance: Administrative governance is a system of policy implementation carried out through an efficient, independent, accountable and open public management.

Affirmative Action: Affirmative action describes the deliberate policy of giving preferential treatment to some groups in a society on the grounds that such groups have hitherto been disadvantaged either by governmental policies or as a result of popular prejudice. Affirmative action-sometimes also called reverse discrimination-has been used to help ethnic minorities and women and it is sometimes suggested that it should be used to help other kinds of minorities.

Ambassador: The highest official diplomatic representative of the government to a foreign nation. The ambassador lives and works in that nation and represents his country’s interests.

Anarchy: Implies not the complete chaos or absence of structure or rules, but rather a lack of a central government that can enforce rules.

Assimilation: The process in which an ethnic or a social group or a minority is absorbed into the larger receiving society.

Attitude: Behavior of an individual or group to an object in a consistent manner.

Authority: The right to give an order, such that the command will be obeyed with no question as to that right or, if not an order, the right in some way nonetheless to evoke legitimate power in the support of a decision.

Balance of Power:  A condition in which the distribution of military and political forces among nations means no one state is sufficiently strong to dominate all the others.  It may be global, regional or local in scope.

Bargaining Power: The general capacity of a state to control the behavior of others, power to cause another actor to do an action (also see structural power).

Belligerent: A nation in a state of war or hostilities.

Bilateral: In international affairs, engagement of two nation states. A bilateral treaty, for instance, is a treaty between two nations.

Brezhnev Doctrine: Reinforced the right of the Soviets to intervene where Moscow deemed socialism was threatened by 'counter-revolutionary forces'.

Bureaucracy: Bureaucracy, in its most general sense, describes a way of organizing the activities of any institution so that it functions efficiently and impersonally.

Case Study: A holistic treatment of one particular subject through a detailed analysis.

Casus belli: An act or event which is cited as the justification for the commencement of hostilities.

Catch-22: A situation in which one is permanently frustrated and from which one cannot escape, since all possible courses of action either have undesirable consequences or lead inevitably to further frustration of one’s a aims; named after the novel by Joseph Heller.

CBMs: are agreements between two or more parties regarding exchanges of information and verification, typically with respect to the use of military forces and armaments.

Ceteris Paribus: All things being equal or all things remain constant.

Charisma: Charisma was originally a theological notion, with the literal meaning of the ‘gift of grace’, an attribute in Catholic theology of Saints. Its evolution as a political concept stems from WEBER, who used it to describe one of his three principal types of political authority. To Weber charisma was a personal quality of attraction and psychological power capable of inspiring deep political loyalty in large numbers of people.

Civil Society: Civil society is a concept in political theory which was familiar to most political thinkers from the seventeenth century onwards; that is the organized society over which the state rules.

Class: Self-identity and self-awareness of a group (aggregate of people possessing the same life-chances).

Client State: A nation state that is allied with and beholden to another state (in its "sphere of influence"). Typically a large powerful nation has client states that it aids and protects, to pursue its own national interests.

Cold War: The period in world affairs from c.1947-1990, marked by ideological, economic and political hostility and competition between the US and the Soviet Union, and drawing in other powers at various levels of involvement.

Concert of Europe: The informal system of consultation set up by the Great Powers (Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia) to manage the balance of power at the end of the Congress system.

Conflict: Perceived rival and incompatible claims over some desired "good".

Congress of Vienna:  Meeting of the four main victors over Napoleon and France: Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia.

Containment: Policy pursued by the US toward the Soviet Union c. 1947-1989, the aim of which was to deny Moscow opportunities to expand its political influence abroad, to draw a line and contain the Soviets within their borders, (also see Truman Doctrine).

Cost Benefit Analysis: A set of procedures based on welfare economics for guiding public expenditure decisions.

Crowding Out: Crowding Out occurs when private sector investments decrease as a result of an increase in public investment.

Culture Total repertoire of human action (and its products) which are socially transmitted (as opposed to genetically transmitted). Socially transmitted behaviour.

Current Account Balance: Trade balance plus invisible balance and the unrequited transfers.

D 5: Denuclearization, demilitarization, de-alignment, democratization, and development, five main goals of peace and social movements.

Defence Strategy: Involves the assumption that war will be fought with three aims in mind:  (1) to punish the aggressor; (2) to deny territorial gains; (3) to limit the damage to oneself (also see deterrence).

Demand: Demand of a particular product depends on a number of things including its price, prices of other products, incomes, tastes, fashions, etc.

Demography: Scientific study of human population, with respect to size, structure, growth and development.

Deterrence: Efforts to dissuade an opponent from doing something considered against the actor's interests by making the costs of action outweigh the benefits with threat of punishment, the implicit or explicit purpose of this strategy was to avoid actually fighting war (also see defence).

Devolution: Devolution is the process of transferring power from central government to a lower or original level; among the reasons given for doing so are that it will increase the efficiency of government and meet demands from special sections of the community for a degree of control over their own affairs.

Diplomacy: Practice of conducting negotiations between nations to reach formal or informal (backdoor) resolutions. 

Doctrine of Flexible Response: A nuclear utilization strategy which legitimized the notion of limited nuclear war, involved two dimensions: 

limited targetting ('counterforce strategy') and the use of battlefield nuclear weapons (also see MAD).

Economics: Economics is the study of the allocation of scarce means to satisfy competing ends.

Economic Governance: Economic governance includes processes of decision-making that directly or indirectly affect a country’s economic activities or its relationships with other economies. Economic governance has a major influence on societal issues, such as equity, poverty and quality of life.

Economic Instruments: Foreign aid, trade treaties, inducements, tariffs, boycotts, sanctions.

Economic Policy: Economic policy is actions (or inactions) taken by the government to influence behavior of economic agents (consumers, producers, service providers)

Economies of Scale: Usually one says there are economies of scale in production of cost per unit made declines with the number of units produced. It is a descriptive, quantitative term. One measure of the economies of scale is the cost per unit made. There can be analogous economies of scale in marketing or distribution of a product or service too. The term may apply only to certain ranges of output quantity.

Elasticity of Demand: Responsiveness of demand to price is known as elasticity of demand.

Elasticity of Supply: Responsiveness of supply to price is known as elasticity of supply.

Elite : A group of individuals in the society who may be socially acknowledged as superior to others and who may control or dominate some or all of the other groups in the society.

Equilibrium in Goods and Money Markets: The equilibrium in goods and money markets is reached when the IS and LM curves intersect each other and that yields equilibrium level of income and interest rates.

Ethnicity: A view of things where one’s own group is different from others, and indeed is the centre of everything.

Excess Burden: A loss of welfare above and beyond taxes collected. It is also referred to welfare cost or dead-weight loss.

Exchange Rate: Fixed and flexible exchange rates.

Externality: An activity of one entity affects the welfare of another entity in a way that is outside the market.

Federalism: A form of government in which power is constitutionally divided between different authorities in such a way that each authority exercises responsibility for a particular set of functions and maintains its own institutions to discharge those functions.

Feudalism: Aristocratic or nobility rule. A network of obligations which link the highest to the lowest in society. Centralization of authority, professional judiciary, circulation of money, and modern communications contributed to the decline and downfall of feudalism in Europe by the end of the thirteenth century.

Fiscal Deficit: When public expenditures exceed the public revenues.

Fiscal Policy: The use of taxation and government expenditure to regulate the aggregate level of economic activity.

Foreign Aid: Donations of money, goods, or services from one nation to another. Such donations can be made for a humanitarian, altruistic purpose, or to advance the national interests of the giving nation.

Foreign Policy: Approaches, goals and the means used by a nation in its interactions with other nation states, in furtherance of its national interests. Foreign policy can include economic, diplomatic, military, and social and cultural relations with other nations.

G 8 Nations: The "Group of 8" major industrial nations (now Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United States) whose heads of state meet annually to discuss economic and political issues (especially those having major impacts on international affairs).

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) Value of all final goods and services produced in a country during the year.

Gini Coefficient: is one of the measures of income inequality.

Globalization: Extension of an idea or product to other or all parts of the globe.

Globalize (Pluralism, Neo-Liberalism): An approach to international relations that emphasizes the growing interdependence of not only world governments, but also other aspects of society such as individual travelers and traders, multinational corporations and non-governmental international organizations.

GNP (Gross National Product): GDP plus net factor income from abroad.

Governance: Governance is exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a nation’s affairs. It is the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences.

ICBMs: Inter-continental ballistic missiles.

Idealism (Liberalism): An approach to international relations that emphasizes international law and international organizations over military force alone. Also emphasizes the latent power of everyday citizens and grass-roots organizations.

Ideology: A conception of the world which carries an emotional appeal (normative appeal) relevant to social or political action. Ideology may be the most difficult, but the most often used concept in the social sciences, and one that has endless sub-meanings in both academic and every-day discussion. The simplest definition is probably given by a translation of the German word Weltanschauung, which is often used as though inter-translatable with ‘ideology’. This translation would render ‘ideology’ as ‘World-view’, the overall perception one has of what the world, especially the social world, consists of and how it works.

Immigration: Movement of people from one country to another, for purposes of permanent or long-term relocation. Nations typically have policies restricting or governing immigration, as a means of population control and national security. Immigration controls can also have cultural goals.

Inflation: A sustained rise in the general price level. Inflation rate is measured as a rate of change in the Consumer price Index, i.e. weighted average of prices of the goods consumed.

Integrative Leadership: Integrative leadership is a philosophy or approach to living a conscious life. It is about rekindling the curiosity to know yourself (attitude), what you are made of (model), where you are going (ideal) and discovering what you are here to do (purpose).

IGO (International governmental organization): Any international body or agency set up by the state, controlled by its member states, and dealing primarily with their common interests.

International: An adjective referring to relations or actions involving more than one nation state. For instance, the phrase "Pakistan’s international relations" refers to the foreign policies and engagements of the Pakistan with the rest of the world. An international organization or an international agreement involves several countries.

Inverse Elasticity Rule: For goods that are unrelated in consumption, efficiency requires that tax rates be inversely proportional to elasticities.

IPP: IPP (Independent Power Producer) is a privately owned power producer (power plant).

Judicial Activism: is a term used by political scholars to describe a tendency by judges to consider outcomes, attitudinal preferences, and other public policy issues in interpreting applicable existing law.

Karma Samsara: It is one of the fundamental beliefs of Hinduism. It means that human life is merely one link in a chain of lives that extends far into the past and projects far into the future. The point of

the origin of the chain cannot be determined. The process of man’s involvement in the universe – the chain of birth and death – is called SAMSARA. The law that governs SAMSARA is called KARMA.

Kautilya: (late 300s BC), also known as Chanakya, minister to the Indian king Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan Empire (321?-180 BC). Little is known about Kautilya. He was educated at Taxila, then the capital of Gandhara, in present-day Pakistan. He almost certainly helped Chandragupta overthrow the last king of the Nanda dynasty. Some sources describe him as a wily schemer who adopted any methods available to advance the plans of the king. Kautilya is best known as one of the chief authors of the Arthasastra, the first and most important Indian text on how a king should wield political and economic power.

Kinship: Relationship by blood (different from affinity, based on relationship by marriage, for example).

Law of Demand: Ceteris Paribus, there is negative relationship between price and quantity demanded.

Law of Supply: Ceteris Paribus, there is a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied.

Leadership: The process that brings about the transformation and integration of the human resources of the organization into willing, compliant and cooperative, if not enthusiastic, participants in the achievement of organizational purposes. Leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leader and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Leadership is about change and disequilibrium, and management is about stability and order.

Legitimacy: Legitimacy is both a normative and an empirical concept in political science. Normatively, to ask whether a political system is legitimate or not is to ask whether the State, or government, is entitled to be obeyed.

Lineage: All descendants in one line of a person through generations over a period of time.

Liquidity Trap: Increase in the money supply does not result in reduction in interest rates and therefore monetary policy is ineffective in impacting the economy.

LM Curve: The LM curve shows the locus of equilibrium of money demand and money supplies at various combinations of interest rates and income levels.

Lorenz Curve: It plots percentages of total income received against cumulative percentage of income received, starting from the lowest income.

Macroeconomics: Macroeconomics deals with the aggregate level of economic activity, such as the total level of output, the level of national income, the total level of employment and general level of price index, for economy viewed as a whole.

MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction, strategic doctrine which guarantees that each side in a nuclear exchange would survive a first strike by its opponent with enough arms intact to launch a second-strike sufficient to destroy the aggressor (also see Doctrine of Flexible Response).

Management: Management involves leading, planning, controlling, execution and implementation. This thinking held that management

included leadership and that leadership was merely an element of managing.

Management Audit: An audit of an organization’s policies, objectives, techniques and processes resulting in a set of conclusions on managerial effectiveness and efficiency, and recommendations on possible ways of increasing of performance and profitability.

Management by Objective: A technique for increasing performance by agreeing individual objectives with managers and measuring progress by the degree of attainment of the objectives.

Management Ratios: Management ratios are used as performance indicators and thus as a basis for management control.

Managerial Grids: A technique of general management whose objective is first to type executives according to one of the basic patterns of motivation, and second to use this knowledge as a means of encouraging them to steer themselves towards the desired pattern.

Marginal Cost: The incremental cost of producing one more unit of output.

Marginal Tax Rate: The proportion of the last dollar of income taxed by the government.

Marginal: Incremental, additional.

Market Equilibrium: Market is in equilibrium at a price where demand equals the supply.

Marxism: A viewpoint that explains social international relations in terms of the struggle between rich and poor classes (rather than governments). 

Massive Retaliation: a nuclear strategy which calls for a nuclear response to any aggressive action.

Media: is channel or system of communication, information, or entertainment. Print Media and Electronic media are integral part of modern journalism.

Mediation: The use of a third party (or parties) in conflict resolution or a brokered resolution.

Microeconomics: Macroeconomics focuses on the economic behavior of individual decision making units such as consumers, resource owners and business firms.

Military Force: deterrence (using a threat to dissuade an opponent from attempting to achieve an objective), alliances; limited war; war, terrorism.

Modernity: The quality of being modern (differentiated from the old, traditional).

Modernization: Modernization enters political science and political discourse from sociology, and refers generally to the capacity of countries from outside the European/North American/OLD COMMONWEALTH countries, (the FIRST WORLD, in other words), to develop the economic and political capacity, and the social institutions, needed to support a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY such as is found in parts of the First World.

Monetary Policy: Monetary policy regulates the economy through controlling the money supply to keep the interest rates and inflation to the desired levels.

Multinational Force: A military force comprising members from more than two nations. For instance, when the United Nations sends a peacekeeping force to a troubled area, it often assembles a multinational force.

Multinational: Involving more than two nations. The term multinational can be contrasted with bi-national or bilateral (only two) or unilateral (only one).

Multiple-Sum Game: both actors can mutually gain (also see zero-sum game).

Nation: A body of inhabitants of a country united under a single independent government. Strictly speaking, a nation is a socio-cultural term, used without implications of legal or political integrity. Contrast with State.

National Character: Relatively enduring socio-cultural or institutional characteristics that help define a particular nation.

National Security: refers to the requirement to maintain the survival of the nation-state through the use of economic, military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy.

Natural Monopolies: The cost of production per unit declines as the volume of production increases.

Negative Peace: The absence of war and physical (direct) violence (also see positive peace).

Negotiation: The process of formal bargaining between parties.

New Public Management: New Public Management represents an approach in public management that employs knowledge and

experiences acquired in business management and other disciplines to improve efficiency, effectiveness and general performance of public services in modern bureaucracies.

Non-Aligned Movement: Loose organization of Third World countries which dealt with statements on a wide variety of issues from nuclear proliferation to trade and development, first meeting: Bandung, Indonesia, 1955, led by a few relatively strong, independent personalities:  Tito, Nehru, and Nasser (Yugoslavia, India, Egypt).

NGO (Non-Governmental Organization): Any private organization involved in activities that have transnational implications.

Nuclear Fission: Relies on splitting heavy atoms (uranium and plutonium) into smaller elements (used to make the A-bomb).

Nuclear Fusion: Relies on forcing two hydrogen atoms together, and in the process destroying some extra matter that is converted into energy (called H-bomb).

OECD: (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development): OECD is an organization of 30 industrialized countries established in 1961. It brings together governments of member countries committed to democracy and market economy and assists other countries economic growth.

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Companies): Cartel of oil producers formed to control the price and supply of oil on world markets. It was founded in 1960 and today consists of 14 member countries.

Opportunity Cost: The opportunity cost of undertaking an activity is the benefit forgone by undertaking that activity. The benefit forgone is

the benefit that you might have gained from choosing the next best alternative. To obtain the benefit of something, you must give up (forgo) something else – namely the next best alternative.

Organization Development: Organization development is a planned process of change in an organization’s culture through the use of behavioral science technology, research and theory.

Organizational Commitment: Organizational Commitment (OC) represents an individual and psychological bond between an employee and an organization which includes loyalty to and identification with an organization.

Organizational Culture: Organizational culture provides the rational and supportive reasoning for an organizations’ mission, policy and strategy for all required activities and responsibilities.

Organizations: International Organizations (IOs): Broad definition which includes intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the United Nations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).

- Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs): Organizations whose members are state governments.

- Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs): Transnational groups (such as the Catholic Church, Greenpeace, and the International Olympic Committee) that interact with states, multinational corporations (MNCs), other NGOs and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs).

Paradigm: An example, model or pattern; a conceptual framework within which scientific theories are constructed which is consistent

within itself, but may need revising as evidence challenging the factual accuracy of some aspects of it accumulates.

Policy: A plan of action, usually based on certain guiding principles, decided on by a body or individual; a principle or set of principles on which to base decisions; a course of conduct to be followed; prudence; acumen; wisdom. Policy is a broad guideline to rules of actions in the pursuit of objectives.

Policy Analysis: is the systematic evaluation of alternative means of achieving goals. It is frequently deployed in the public sector but is equally applicable to other kinds of organizations. One common methodology is to define the problem and evaluation criteria; identify all alternatives; evaluate them; and recommend the best policy option.

Political Governance: Political governance includes processes of decision-making and policy implementation of a legitimate and authoritative state.

Positive Peace: The absence of structural violence as well as direct violence (see also negative peace).

Poverty Line: A fixed level of real income considered enough to provide a minimally adequate standard of living.

Power: The ability or potential to influence others' behavior.

Preemptive: An adjective used to describe some action designed to forestall or deter some anticipated negative outcome. A preemptive military strike, for instance, is one taken before the other party has taken military action, based on the belief that the other party would otherwise strike.

Primary Deficit: Fiscal deficit minus the interest payments.

Processes of Leading: Leader works toward building the importance and identity of team by avoiding selfish behaviors and activities designed for self aggrandizement. Leader creates a type of empowerment that builds commitment, ownership and a sense of team.

Production Possibilities Curve: A graph that shows the maximum quantity of one output that can be produced, given the amount of the other output.

Production Possibilities Frontier: The set of all the feasible combinations of goods that can be produced with a given quantity of efficiently employed inputs.

Professions: Service occupations.

Progressive Tax: A tax system under which an individual’s average tax rate increases with income.

Proliferation: To grow by rapid production of new parts, cells, buds, or offspring; to increase in number as if by proliferating: multiply; transitive sense: to cause to grow by proliferating.

Propaganda: Control of information, ideas, facts, or allegations spread deliberately to further one's cause or to damage an opposing cause.

Proportional Tax: A tax system under which an individual’s average tax rate is the same at each level of income.

Protocol: Matters of etiquette and ceremony followed by heads of state, foreign ministers, ambassadors, and the diplomatic corps in interactions with other nations' representatives.

Provincial Autonomy: One of the essentials of a federal government which means that provinces can work independently, using the powers attributed to them by the constitution.

Public Debt: Cumulative loans taken externally or internally to finance the fiscal deficit.

Public Good: A good that is not rival in consumption; the fact that a one person benefit from this good does not prevent another person from doing the same simultaneously.

Public Opinion: Public opinion compels governments which usually know what would be wiser or more necessary or more expedient to be too late with too little or too long with too much, too pacifist in peace or too bellicose in war, too appeasing in negotiation or too intransigent.

Public Policy: Public policy is the study of policy making by governments. A government’s public policy is the set of policies (laws, plans, actions, behaviors) that it chooses. Since governments claim authority and responsibility (to varying degrees) over a large group of individuals, they see fit to establish plans and methods of action that will govern that society.

Rapprochement: Establishment of or state of having cordial relations; the process of restoration or establishment of improved relations between states and governments which were previously estranged.

Realism: A viewpoint which explains international politics as the pursuit of national security and self-interest in an anarchic world through gaining and wielding power. 

Regressive Tax: A tax system under which an individual’s average tax rate decreases with income.

Security Dilemma: A situation in which states' actions taken to assure their own security, tend to threaten the security of other states.

Sine Qua Non: Something absolutely indispensable or essential.

SLBMs: Submarine-launched ballistic missiles.

Social Status: A position occupied by a person, family, or kinship group in a given social system.

Society: Refers to anything from a primitive to traditional to modern people to mankind at large to a relatively small organized group of people.

SOPs: Standard Operating Procedures.

Sovereignty: Is that power whose acts may not be made void by the acts of any other human will. In effect, a government has the right, at least in principle, to do whatever it likes in its own territory (also see state).

Spheres of Influence: An area declared by a Great Power to be its exclusive area of interest, where it acts to defend its dominance and to exclude other Great Powers.

State: An organized political entity that occupies a definite territory, has a permanent population, is politically organized under one government, and enjoys independence and sovereignt y .

Statecraft: Skill in the management of public national affairs (tools – armed force to attain national aim; techniques – diplomacy, propaganda, subversion, economic inducements, military pressures/coercion); the art – consisting of doctrines, dispositions, policies, processes and operations – which promotes the governance, security and survival of a polity; the art of advancing the interests of one’s state and its people against those of others by either violent or non-violent means; includes, not just relations with the foreign/outside states/powers, but also the study of political, military economic social and ideological, factors and their co-relation with the outside world.

Stereotype: A tendency for a belief to be prevalent in any group or society.

Strategy Management: Strategy management is the continuous process of effectively relating the organization’s objectives and resources to the opportunities in the environment.

Structural Power: The power to change the rules of the game for others, the power to structure the choices of other actors.

Substitution Effect: The tendency of an individual to consume more of one good and less of another because of a change in the two goods’ relative prices.

Summit: A conference of top leaders (usually heads of state), called to negotiate or discuss bilateral or multilateral arrangements.

Supply: Supply of a particular product depends on a number of factors including price of the product, prices of various inputs, technology, weather, prices of related goods, etc.

Sustainable Human Development: Sustainable Human Development is pro-people, pro-jobs and pro-nature. It gives the highest priority to poverty reduction, productive employment, social integration, and environmental regeneration.

Terrorism: A condition of fear and submission produced by frightening people, the use of violence against non-combatants, civilians or other persons normally considered to be illegitimate targets of military action for the purpose of attracting attention to a political cause, forcing those aloof from the struggle to join it, or intimidating opponents into concessions.

Theocracy: Government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided; a state governed by a theocracy.

Third World: A term widely used in the past to refer to those nations not aligned with the U.S. or the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. The term also, independent from the U.S./Soviet engagement during the Cold War, is used to refer to poor nations, and is sometimes used with the terms "developing" or "underdeveloped" nations.

Track-Two-Diplomacy: is an unofficial, informal interaction between members of adversary groups or nations that aim to develop strategies, influence public opinion, and organize human and material resources in ways that might help to resolve their conflict.

Trade Balance: Difference between exports and imports is called trade balance.

Tradition: Socially inherited beliefs.

Tragedy of Commons: The tragedy of the commons is a metaphor for the public goods problem that it is hard to coordinate and pay for public goods. The term comes from Hardin (1968). The commons is a pasture held by a group. Each individual owns sheep and has the incentive to put more and more sheep on the pasture to gain, privately. The overall effect when many individuals do this overwhelms the carrying capacity of the pasture and the sheep cannot all survive.

Treaty: A formal agreement between two or more nation states, having the effect of higher law. Treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely states and international organizations. Treaties are called by several names: treaties, international agreements, protocols, covenants, conventions, exchanges of letters, exchanges of notes, etc.

Tribal System: Tribal System is an alternative system of governance wherein the population submits itself, especially for dispensation of justice, to a group of tribal elder. The normal legal and institutional framework of the country does not necessarily apply in a tribal system.

Truman Doctrine: A promise of US aid to all 'free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside powers’ (also see Brezhnev Doctrine).

UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development): Is also known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio 1992.

Underground Economy: Those economic activities those are either illegal, or legal but hidden from tax authorities.

Unilateral: Action by one party. In international affairs, the United States might act unilaterally, rather than pursuing bilateral or

multilateral decisions or actions, if it believes that unilateral actions will best advance national interests.

United Nations: The international organization formed at the end of World War II to be a deliberative organization for all nation states, with the goal of avoiding war and promoting improvement of international relations.

Urbanization: The extension of urban pattern and life-styles to new areas and populations.

Utopianism: Utopianism is a social theory designing a perfect political system, a Utopia, after the most famous classical utopia sketched in Sir Thomas More’s description of an imaginary island of that name in 1516.

Values: A part of ethics, political philosophy or aesthetics of a certain group or society.

War: A state of hostilities between or within nation states, usually formally notified.

Zero-Sum Game: One actors' gain is another's loss.

ISLAMIC TERMS

HADD & TAA’ZIR

In Islamic law punishments are divided into two classes: one of which is called hadd and the other taa’zir. Hadd means measure, limit, and in Islamic law, it means a punishment, the measure of which has been definitely fixed. In taa’zir, on the other hand, the court is allowed discretion both as to the form in which such punishment is to be inflicted and its measure.

Hadd used to be prevalent in Arabia before the dawn of Islam1

and the Muhammadan law, while confirming it as the extreme punishment for certain crimes, has laid down conditions of a stringent nature under which such punishments may be inflicted. These rules are so strict and inflexible that it must be only in rare cases that the infliction of hadd would be possible, and, in fact, there are only a few instances known in which hadd has been inflicted.

Punishment by way of hadd are of the following forms: - Death by stoning, amputation of a limb or limbs, flogging by hundred or eighty strikes. They are prescribed respectively for the following offences:- Zina, theft, high-way robbery, drunkenness, and slander imputing unchastity (Qazf). The principle underlying any doubt would be sufficient to prevent the imposition of Hadd2. In certain cases, such as an offence of Zina, some jurists go so far as to recommend to a man who has seen it committed not to give information or evidence, though if he chooses to do so his testimony will be admitted, provided he possesses the qualifications of a witness. The policy of law in connection with this offence appears to be punishing only those offenders who defy public decency and openly flaunt their vices. Hence, that four male eyewitnesses are required for its proof. Even if they are forthcoming which is hardly to be expected, the Qazi or Judge is asked to scrutinize their testimony closely in order to see if they are not mistaken, and to allow them to retract what they have deposed to. Furthermore, if there has been any delay in the witnesses coming forward and giving their evidence, that circumstance in itself is held sufficient to raise a doubt. -------------------------------------1. Sheikhul Islam Burhanuddin, Abul Hassan Ali Bin AbiBakr, Al-Marghanani, Heda’ya (Vol. V, p.25).2. Abdul Rahim, Muhammadan Jurisprudence (PLD Publications Lahore).

Taa’zir may be inflicted for offences against human life and body, property, public peace and tranquility, decency, morals, religion

and so on; in fact the entire Islamic criminal law is based on the principle of taa’zir.

The nature of the sentence to be inflicted by way of taa’zir for particular kinds of offences may be regulated by the head of the State who has absolute discretion in the matter. The objects of taa’zir are the correction of the offender and the prevention of the recurrence of the crime, and it is left to the discretion of the Qazi or Judge to determine, in view of the circumstances of each case, the sentence by which the objects of the law would best be achieved. He is to take into account in awarding punishment, the nature of the offence and the circumstances under which it was committed, the previous character and the position in life of the offender and so on. The range of this form of punishment extends from mere warning to fines, corporal chastisement, imprisonment and transportation1. ------------------------------------

1.Ibn-e-AbdinShami. Raddu’l-Mukhtar (Vol. iii, p.194).

IJMA Ijma is defined as agreement of the jurists among the followers

of Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) in a particular age on a question of law1. Its authority as a source of laws is founded on certain Quranic and traditional texts. The principle underlying these texts is expressed in especially apt terms in one of the traditions of the Prophet (PBUH) which says:

‘Whatever the Muslims hold to be good is good before God’2

The other texts of traditions relied on in this connection are the following:-

‘My followers will never agree upon what is wrong’ 3

‘It is incumbent upon you to follow the most numerous body’4

The (protecting) hand of God is over the entire body and no account will be taken of those who separate themselves’5

Whoever separates himself (from the main body) will go to hell’6

The four Sunni Schools of law hold Ijma to be a valid source of law not only upon the authority of the above texts, but also on the unanimity of opinion to that effect among the Companions.7 The Shafi’is and the Malikis recognize the authority of Ijma not merely in matters of law and religion but also in other matters such as organization of the army, preparations for war and other questions of executive administration8.

Among the Shiahs some jurists hold that questions relating to the Shariat cannot be authoritatively determined by mere consensus of opinion, while other Shiah jurists, though admitting the authority of Ijma, base it on a presumption that, when the Mujtahids agree in a certain view, they voice the opinion of the invisible Imam.

Some jurists go further and hold that Ijma of the majority of jurists is of absolute authority, even though they do not question the qualifications of the dissentient minority. IbnJarir, Abu Bakr-Razi and some Mutazilis like Abul-Hasan Khayyat, master of Ka’bi, are said to have held this view. The concept and definition of Ijma’ has changed over time in Islamic history from the consensus of the first generation of Muslims to the consensus of the leaders of opinion to that of jurists only. In modern times, the emphasis has shifted from the meaning of a convention or practice to an agreement reached after consultation and discussion by a particular group. Some Muslim thinkers have

suggested parliament as a place for Ijma’. According to Allam Iqbal, the nature of Islamic Law is dynamic and Ijma is the most important legal doctrine of Islam which can be exercised only though a representative Assembly in modern terms. ------------------------------------

1. Sadrush-Shariat-II, Obaidullah Bin Masood, (747 A.H.),Taudih, (p.498); Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii, p.29); Imam TajuddinSubki, Jamu’l-Jawami, (vol.iii, p.288).

2. Sadrush-Shariat-II, Obaidullah Bin Masood, (747 A.H.),Taudih, (p.298);Fakhrul Islam Imam Bazdawi, Kashfu’l-Israr, (vol.iii, p.258)’.

3. Imam Auzai, Uddi’s Commentary ( vol.ii,p.31)’.4. Imam Bazdawi, Kashfu’l-Israr,( vol.iii, p.258)’.5. Ibid, 6. Imam Auzai, Uddi’s Commentary ( vol.iii, p. 85).7. Imam Bazdawi, Kashfu’l-Israr, (p.253); Sadrush-Shariat-II, Obaidullah Bin Masood, (747 A.H.),

Taudih, (p.283); Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii, p.30); Imam TajuddinSubki, Jamu’l-Jawami, (vol.iii, p.308).

8. Imam TajuddinSubki, Jamu’l-Jawami, (vol.iii, p.288, 305-7); Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii, p.29).

IJTIHAD Ijtihad literally means striving, exerting and as a term of

jurisprudence it means the application by a lawyer (faqih) of all his faculties to the consideration of the authorities of the law (that is, the Quran, the Traditions and the Ijma) with a view to find out what in all probability is the law (that is, in a matter which is not covered by the express words of such texts and has not been determined by Ijma). In other words Ijtihad is the capacity for making deductions in matters of law in cases to which no express text or a rule already determined by Ijma is applicable.

All the Muslim Schools agree that a juristic deduction is not certain and that a jurist is liable to err. Only the Mutazilis hold that a juristic deduction must be correct. Sadru’sh Shariat (Abdullah bin Masud), following Fakhrul-Islam (Imam Bazdawi), says that a jurist should have knowledge of the Quran together with its meaning, literal and legal, and its various divisions, of the traditions including the texts and the authorities thereof, and of the rules relating to analogical deduction. He should also have a cogent understanding of modern developments and a reasonable appraisal of contemporary necessity.

IZTIRARIztirar refers to an action taken when forced by necessity that

justifies exemption from regular laws. The principle is derived from the Qur’an 2:173 that forbids certain food but exempts from this prohibition a person who is forced by necessity (e.g., to save his/her life) to consume this forbidden food.

QIYAS ( Analogical Deduction)

The root meaning of the word Qiyas is ‘measuring’, ‘accord’, ‘equality’1. As a source of laws it is defined by the Hanafis as ‘an extension of law from the original text to which the process is applied to a particular case by means of a common ‘illat or effective cause, which cannot be ascertained merely by interpretation of the language of the text2. by the Malikis as ‘the accord of a deduction with the original text in respect of the ‘illat or effective cause of its law’3 and by the Shafiis as ‘the accord of a known thing with a known thing by reason of the equality of the one with the other in respect of the effective cause of its law.4 In plain language Qiyas (analogical deduction) is a process of deduction by which the law of a text is applied to cases which, though not covered by the language, are governed by the reason of the text.

Analogically deduced rules of law do not rank so high as authority, as those laid down by a text of the Quran or hadith, or by consensus of opinion. An analogical deduction may be founded according to the Hanafis and the Malikis on the law established either by a text of the Quran or Hadith, which has not been repealed, or by a unanimous decision of the learned, and according to some Shafiis and the Hanbalis it may also be based on another analogical deduction. The rule so deduced must not be opposed to a text law nor covered by

the words of a text. In other words an analogical deduction is to be in the nature of a corollary of the text law.5

------------------------------------1. Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii, p.204); 2. Sadrush-Shariat-II, Obaidullah Bin Masood, (747 A.H.),Taudih, (p.302);3. Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii, p.204)4. Imam Tajuddin Subki, Jamu’l-Jawami, (vol.iv, p.1)5. Sadrush-Shariat-II, Obaidullah Bin Masood, (747 A.H.), Taudih, (p.309); Ibn-e-Hajib, Mukhtasar, (vol.ii,

p.209);Al-Mahalli, Ayatu’l Baiyanat, (vol.iv.pp.12-26)

RIBA “Riba” literally means “increase”, but it is generally translated as

“usury” or “interest”. The doctrine of riba is intended to be applied to certain transactions of sale and its principle is applied also to loans; for a loan amount to be repaid being in exchange of the amount lent.

The real authority for the doctrine is a ‘tradition reported from the Prophet in these words:

‘Sell gold for gold and silver for silver, wheat for wheat, barley for barley, dates for dates and salt for salt of the same kind for the same kind and the same quantity for the same quantity, from hand to hand and if they differ from each other in quality sell them as you like but from hand to hand’.

In the Quran all that is laid down is that God has forbidden riba. But the question of the scope of the doctrine is one on which the greatest difference of opinion exists among the jurists. The general practice in the Muslim World in that regard has also been inconsistent in the past and present.

Article of 38 of 1973 Constitution of Pakistan provides that the “State shall eliminate Riba as early as possible”. In November, 1991, the Banking Procedures being followed in Pakistan were declared un-Islamic by the Federal Shariat Court. The Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court of Pakistan vide its judgment dated 23rd December, 1999, upheld the aforementioned decision. However, the Supreme Court of Pakistan while deciding the Shariat Review Petition No. 1 vide

its judgment dated 22nd June, 2002, set aside the aforementioned two judgments and remanded the case to the Federal Shariat Court for fresh decision after giving due consideration to the following contentions of the petitioners:-

i) “The Banks in Pakistan are working within the framework of banking instrument prescribed by the State Bank, with the approval of Council of Islamic Ideology, as valid Islamic Instruments”.

ii) “There is a considerable juristic opinion available to the fact that an increase to offset the inflation would have legal justification and would not be counted as Riba; and”

iii) “There is juristic opinion available to the fact that Bank interest does not fall in the category of prohibited Riba (interest). According to this opinion, Banks participate in the procedures and processes of the Society/Community, make productive labour possible, increase social wealth, and take only a fraction of the profit that accrues to them which is not Riba”.

SHURA

“Shura” is an Arabic word for “consultation”. The term “Shura” is also used for a consultative and advisory body of prominent persons of a particular community. It is believed to be a method by which pre-Islamic Arabian tribes selected leaders and made major decisions. Thus the concept of Shura in Islam was also in many ways a continuation of a good tribal practice. There are disagreements among Muslim scholars with regard to Shura, but in essence they all agree, on the basis of Quranic verse, that God instructed the Prophet to consult with his advisors. They also agree that good Muslims consult with each

other in the course of conducting their affairs. Shura is mentioned twice in the Holy Quran as a praise worthy activity; 38 verse of Sura Ash-shura says:

And those who answer the call of their Lord, and offer their prayers perfectly, and who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation, and who spend of what we have bestowed on them (are praised)

And 159 verse of Sura Al-e-Imran says:

Thus it is due to mercy from Allah that you deal with them gently, and had you been rough, hard hearted, they would certainly have dispersed from around you; pardon them therefore and ask pardon for them, and consult them in the affairs; so when you have decided, then place your trust in Allah; surely Allah loves those who put their trust (in Him).

Three concepts are central to the Islamic socio-political order:

i) Shura (Consultation)ii) Al-Maslahah (Public Interest)iii) Adl (Justice)

Islamic political leaders are considered to be just in so far as they follow policies that are consistent with the conceptual framework of justice and public interest as defined through Shura.

The idea and practice of consultation in government has an intermittent history in the Muslim world right from the early periods. The opinion which was the outcome of Shura has never been considered to be a binding force on the ruler in the Islamic Political Order. However, during the period of Khilafat-e-Rashida it was given due consideration whereas during the periods of Mulookiat and Sultanates it had little weightage in the process of decision-making. SayyidQutub, a renowned Muslim Egyptian scholar asserts that Islamic Political Order is an eternal system. The foundation of this system rests

on three pillars: justice on part of the ruler; Obedience on part of the followers; and consultation between leaders and the followers. Another contemporary Muslim scholars Hasan Al-Turabi while distinguishing between the connotations of Shura and those of western-style democracy, says, “Shura represents the ultimate sovereignty of God as embodied in the Quran; democracy on the other hand, connotes the ultimate sovereignty of the people”.TAKFIR

In Islamic law, “Takfir” is the practice of declaring an individual or a group as unbeliever and Kafir, who were previously considered Muslim.

What constitutes sufficient justification for takfir is disputed between different schools of religious thought. The orthodox Sunni position is that sins do not in general prove that someone is not a Muslim, but the denials of fundamental religious principles do. An extreme case is exemplified by the early Kharijites, some of whom concluded that any Muslim who sinned ceased to be a Muslim, while others concluded that any major sin could cause that. The opposite extreme was taken by the Murjites, who argued that anyone who called themselves Muslim should be considered Muslim. The Mu’tazilites (followed by the Zaydis) advocated what they saw as a middle way whereby grave sinners were categorized neither as believers nor as kafirs.

Besides these minute and complex interpretations, there is a unanimity of views among the Muslim jurists that a person is not Muslim if he does not have a faith in the Unity of God, Angels of God, all the Revealed Books, Prophets of God (along with the finality of Prophet hood of Muhammad P.B.U.H) and the faith in life after death and the day of judgment. These are considered to be the fundamental religious principles of Islam. TAQLID

As a term of jurisprudence it means following the opinion of a jurist in matters which have not been dealt with by an express Quranic or traditionary text or by Ijma. The theory of Taqlid has a historical rather than any legal significance. Since the age of the four Imams, the Muslim world generally, has adhered to the doctrines to which those jurists gave vogue.

Ghair Muqallids are those who would not call themselves followers of any of the four teachers in particular and prefer to call themselves Ahlul-Hadith or the followers of traditions. They too, it may be observed, accept not only the Quran and the Hadith, but also, at least in theory, Ijma and analogy as the legitimate sources of law. But they give analogy a very narrow scope and make an extensive use of traditions. In this respect they proximate towards the teachings of Imam Hanbal.

Following are the three classes of lawyers to whom the doctrine of Taqlid concedes the rank of Mujtahids:

Mujtahidunfi’sh-Shara: Jurists who founded Schools of law, such as Abu Hanifa, Malik, Shafii and Ibn Hanbal, the founders of the four Sunni Schools.

Mujtahidunfi’l-Madhhab: Jurists having authority to expound the law according to a particular School. They were the disciples of juris-consults of the first rank;

Mujtahidunfi’lMasa’l: Jurists who were competent to expound the law on particular questions, which had not been settled by jurists of the first and the second ranks.

It is to be observed that so far as the administration of justice is concerned it was mainly the appointment of corrupt and incompetent Qadis that led to the formulation of the doctrine of Taqlid in the present form. That the simpler remedy of appointing competent men as judges and in other ways securing a proper administration of justice could not have been sought, is apparently due to the fact that the

Shari’at of the Islamic Code except during the age of the first four Caliphs and for some brief periods of time afterwards never had the full support of the heads of the State. It is contended that Taqlid introduces the principles of certainty and uniformity in the administration of laws; but it may be doubted whether this advantage is not greatly outweighted by the danger that the rule, if narrowly interpreted, might put obstacles in the way of progress and development of law. ------------------------------------NawabSiddiqHussan, Raudatu-n-Nadia, A Commentary on ‘Durru’l-Bahiya’ by Shaukani of Yemen, who died in A.H. 1255 [Bulaq edition], p. 284).