EXPERIMENTAL Keywords: cake, red palm fat, vitamin E, storage stability. Date received: 8 December 2005; Sent for revision: 5 January 2006; Received in final form: 10 February 2006; Accepted: 13 February 2006. SEIZA AHMED ALYAS*; AMINAH ABDULAH*; NOR AINI IDRIS** and AB GAPOR MD TOP** Yellow cake was made using blend of Carotino shortening, Carotino margarine (red palm fat) and commercial margarine (Planta ) at ratio of 26:15:59, respectively. The control cake was prepared using 81
81 EVALUATION OF STORAGE STABILITY OF YELLOW CAKE MADE WITH RED PALM FAT SEIZA AHMED ALYAS*; AMINAH ABDULAH*; NOR AINI IDRIS** and AB GAPOR MD TOP** Journal of Oil Palm Research (Special Issue - April 2006), p. 81-86 Keywords: cake, red palm fat, vitamin E, storage stability. Date received: 8 December 2005; Sent for revision: 5 January 2006; Received in final form: 10 February 2006; Accepted: 13 February 2006. ABSTRACT Yellow cakes were prepared using red palm shortening, red palm margarine and a commercial margarine at ratio of 26:15:59 respectively. The cakes were stored at freezer (-18ºC–3) or refrigerator (7ºC –3), for three months and three weeks, respectively. Cakes were analysed at day 0 and after one, two, three weeks and months for their storage and oxidative stabilities. Analyses include peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA), para anisidine value (AV), conjugated diene and vitamin E content. Results showed that cakes stored in the refrigerator, formulated and control, had high initial PV value of 4.65 and 4.04 respectively. The PV of formulated cake increased slightly until week three while for the control cake PV increased until week 2 and started decreasing. The FFA, AV and conjugated diene were higher in the formulated sample. In frozen storage, the control cake had higher PV and conjugated diene value until the first month of storage and started to decrease thereafter. The FFA and AV increased with the increase of storage period. For the formulated cake, all values measured, except for FFA, increased until month three. Vitamin E content was higher in the formulated cake than the control cake for both type of storage, and it started to decrease with increasing storage period. * School of Chemical Studies and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]** Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. INTRODUCTION Fats contribute to the appearance, taste, mouth feel, lubricity and flavour of most food products (Mauhngu et al., 1999) and the amount and type of fat determine the characteristic and the consumer acceptance of that food. During food processing and storage, numerous changes take place due to the food exposure to wide range of processing conditions. One of the most important changes that occur to food is lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation lowers the quality and nutritional value of the food (Suja et al., 2004). Addition of antioxidant is effective in delaying the oxidation and extending the shelf life of food (Jadhav et al., 1996; Decker, 1998). Recently, special attention has been given to the use of natural antioxidant because of the worldwide trend to avoid or minimize synthetic food additives (Krings and Berger, 2001). Oxidative stability of natural antioxidant in baked goods has seldom been investigated. Turmeric, betel leaves and clove effectively retarded rancidity in butter cake and extended its shelf life (Lean and Mohamed, 1999). Ranhotra et al. (1995) reported that antioxidant increased beta-carotene stability during baking of whole wheat bread and crackers. In soda crackers biscuit, extracts of marjoram, spearmint and peppermint showed a good antioxidant effect (Bassiouny et al., 1990). This study was carried out to evaluate the use of red palm fat, rich in carotenes and vitamin E, as a source of natural antioxidant on the oxidative stability of yellow cake. EXPERIMENTAL Cake Preparation and Storage Yellow cake was made using blend of Carotino shortening, Carotino margarine (red palm fat) and commercial margarine (Planta ) at ratio of 26:15:59, respectively. The control cake was prepared using
Transcript
EVALUATION OF STORAGE STABILITY OF YELLOW CAKE MADE WITH RED PALM FAT
81
EVALUATION OF STORAGE STABILITY OFYELLOW CAKE MADE WITH RED PALM FAT
SEIZA AHMED ALYAS*; AMINAH ABDULAH*; NOR AINI IDRIS** and AB GAPOR MD TOP**
Journal of Oil Palm Research (Special Issue - April 2006), p. 81-86
Keywords: cake, red palm fat, vitamin E, storage stability.
Date received: 8 December 2005; Sent for revision: 5 January 2006; Received in final form: 10 February 2006; Accepted: 13 February 2006.
ABSTRACT
Yellow cakes were prepared using red palm shortening, red palm margarine and a commercial margarine at
ratio of 26:15:59 respectively. The cakes were stored at freezer (-18ºC±3) or refrigerator (7ºC ±3), for three
months and three weeks, respectively. Cakes were analysed at day 0 and after one, two, three weeks and
months for their storage and oxidative stabilities. Analyses include peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA),
para anisidine value (AV), conjugated diene and vitamin E content. Results showed that cakes stored in the
refrigerator, formulated and control, had high initial PV value of 4.65 and 4.04 respectively. The PV of
formulated cake increased slightly until week three while for the control cake PV increased until week 2 and
started decreasing. The FFA, AV and conjugated diene were higher in the formulated sample. In frozen storage,
the control cake had higher PV and conjugated diene value until the first month of storage and started to
decrease thereafter. The FFA and AV increased with the increase of storage period. For the formulated cake, all
values measured, except for FFA, increased until month three. Vitamin E content was higher in the formulated
cake than the control cake for both type of storage, and it started to decrease with increasing storage period.
* School of Chemical Studies and Food Technology,Faculty of Science and Technology,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.E-mail: [email protected]
** Malaysian Palm Oil Board,P. O. Box 10620,50720 Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION
Fats contribute to the appearance, taste, mouth feel,lubricity and flavour of most food products(Mauhngu et al., 1999) and the amount and type offat determine the characteristic and the consumeracceptance of that food. During food processing andstorage, numerous changes take place due to the foodexposure to wide range of processing conditions.One of the most important changes that occur to foodis lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation lowers the qualityand nutritional value of the food (Suja et al., 2004).Addition of antioxidant is effective in delaying theoxidation and extending the shelf life of food (Jadhavet al., 1996; Decker, 1998). Recently, special attentionhas been given to the use of natural antioxidant
because of the worldwide trend to avoid or minimizesynthetic food additives (Krings and Berger, 2001).Oxidative stability of natural antioxidant in bakedgoods has seldom been investigated. Turmeric, betelleaves and clove effectively retarded rancidity inbutter cake and extended its shelf life (Lean andMohamed, 1999). Ranhotra et al. (1995) reported thatantioxidant increased beta-carotene stability duringbaking of whole wheat bread and crackers. In sodacrackers biscuit, extracts of marjoram, spearmint andpeppermint showed a good antioxidant effect(Bassiouny et al., 1990). This study was carried outto evaluate the use of red palm fat, rich in carotenesand vitamin E, as a source of natural antioxidant onthe oxidative stability of yellow cake.
EXPERIMENTAL
Cake Preparation and Storage
Yellow cake was made using blend of Carotino
shortening, Carotino margarine (red palm fat) andcommercial margarine (Planta) at ratio of 26:15:59,respectively. The control cake was prepared using
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH (SPECIAL ISSUE - APRIL 2006)
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100% commercial margarine. The cakes wereprepared by creaming the fat blends (100 g) andsugar (200 g) until light and fluffy. Two eggs werebeaten and slowly added, the mixing bowl wasscraped. The dry ingredients were sifted together(200 g flour, 7.5 g baking powder, 5 g vanilla and 2 gsalt) and added alternatively with the milk (150 ml)into the mixture. The batters were baked for 50 minat 175°C. The cakes were cooled, packed inpolypropylene film and stored in either refrigerator(7±3°C) or freezer (-18±3°C) and were analysed atweekly or monthly intervals for three weeks or threemonths, respectively.
Oil Extraction
The oil was extracted from the cakes as describedin Bassiouny et al. (1990).
Peroxide Value (PV)
The PV was determined according to the AOCSmethod Cd 8b-90 (1989).
Free Fatty Acids (FFA)
FFA content was measured according to MPOBtest method (2005).
Anisidine Value (AV)
The AV of the fat samples was measured asdescribed in MPOB test method (2005).
Conjugated Diene
The fat solution from the AV was used to measurethe conjugated diene according to MPOB test method(2005).
Vitamin E Content
The vitamin E content of the samples wasmeasured according to the AOCS method C-8-89(1989), by high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) using a Hewlett Packard HP 1100 systemwith fluorescence detector (excitation 259 nm,emission 325 nm) with a YMC 150 x 6.0 mm column.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was carried out using SASprogram. Mean values for the tested parameterswere analysed using analysis of variance procedurefollowed by Duncan’s multiple range test todetermine significant differences.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PV is the most widely used indicator of the fatoxidation, it measures lipid peroxide andhydroperoxides formed during the initial stages ofoxidation and values are reported as milli-equivalentof peroxide per kg of fat (Hamilton and Kristein,2003). Changes occurred in PV, FFA, AV andconjugated diene of cakes during refrigerator storageare given in Figure 1. Initially the formulated andcontrol cake had high PV value. The PV of theformulated cake increased gradually from 4.65 meqkg-1 in week 0 to 5.95 meq kg-1 in week three.Meanwhile the control cake had high PV in week 0and two, and start decreasing to 2.74 meq kg-1 byweek three. This could be attributed to thebreakdown of hydroperoxides to volatile and non-volatile compounds. As explained by Aidos et al.(2001) the PV increase with time to a maximum levelafter which it decomposes rapidly to secondaryproducts leading to a subsequent decrease in the PV.The result indicated that the decomposition ofperoxides in the control cake occur at higher rate thanthe formulated cake.
An increase in FFA value was observed in bothcake samples. However, by week three the controlsample had considerably higher FFA content thanthe formulated cake. Similar trend was noticed forthe AV of the control cake that had higher AVthroughout the storage period, except for week 0.This might be due to the formation of secondaryoxidative products resulting from the breakdown ofhydroperoxide (Lean and Mohamed, 1999). Theconjugated diene increased with the progress ofstorage time until it reached it maximum at weekthree. However, the value decreased slightly for thecontrol cake.
The vitamin E content of the fat extracted fromthe stored cakes is shown in Figure 2. The totaltocopherol and tocotrienol contents weresignificantly higher in the formulated cake than thecontrol cake and that was due to the higher amountof vitamin E in the red palm fat (Benade, 2001)compared to the commercial fat. The total vitamin Econtent of the formulated cake in the third week washigher than its amount in the control cake includingthe content at week zero. No significant differenceswere observed for tocopherol content during thesecond and third week of storage. In control cake, asignificant reduction of tocopherols was observedonly during the third week of refrigerated storage.Whereas, the tocotrienol content drops significantlyin both cakes with progress of storage period.
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Figure 1. Peroxide value, free fatty acids, anisidine value and conjugated diene of the refrigerated yellow cake.FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.
Figure 2. Vitamin E content of the refrigerated yellow cake. FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.
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The storage stability of frozen cake (Figure 3), wassimilar to those stored in the refrigerator. PV of theformulated cake increased slightly up to threemonths of storage. However, for the control cake,the PV started to decrease at second month andthereafter. The hydroperoxides that quickly formedduring the first month of storage were rapidlydegraded to secondary products. This resultindicated that the oxidation rate of control cake washigher than the formulated cake. The decline in PVwith storage was noticed in butter cakes containingblack pepper leaf extract (Lean and Mohamed, 1999).Chapman et al. (1996) reported a reduction in bothPV and total oxidation, totox value, for cookies andcrackers prepared using menhaden oil baseshortening. The PV of all cakes were below thecritical values given by Robards et al. (1988), whoreported that edible oils with PV of 7.5 meq kg-1 weredeemed unacceptable from sensory point of view.
The FFA of both cakes increased gradually untilmonth three, except for the FFA of formulated cakethat showed a slight decrease by the end of the
storage period. The initial AV of control cake washigh and increased gradually to 28.85 in month three.In contrast, the AV of formulated cake wassignificantly (p<0.05) low in week 0 and it increasedrapidly during the first and second month, whichindicates the rapid rate of secondary productsformation. However the value declined at monththree, which could be attributed to the formation ofdimmers (Lean and Mohamed, 1999).
The conjugated diene of formulated frozen cakehad similar behaviour with PV. However, in the thirdmonth the conjugated diene was slightly lower thanthe value in month two. As with the PV, theconjugated diene will reach a maximum during theprogress of oxidation and decreases when the rateof decomposition of hydroperoxides exceeded therate of their formation (Frankel, 2005). On the otherhand, the conjugated diene of the control cake wasfluctuating; the value was higher during the initialand first month and declined during the last twomonths of storage, which could be attributed to thedecomposition of the primary oxidation products.
Figure 3. Peroxide value, free fatty acids, anisidine value and conjugated diene of frozen yellow cakes. FC- formulatedcake, CC- control cake.
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The pattern of tocopherol and tocotrienol foundin frozen yellow cake were similar to those found inthe refrigerated cakes. In all fat extracted form thecakes stored in the freezer, the tocopherols andtocotrienols were higher in the formulated cake, andthe tocotrienols was higher than their correspondingtocopherols in both cakes (Figure 4). The vitamin Econtent of formulated and control cakes decreasedwith frozen storage. Losses of vitamin E in controlcake stored in refrigerator or freezer were 14% or21%, while in the formulated cake the losses were25.8% and 19%, respectively. For both type of storage,the amount of tocotrienols was higher than theircorresponding tocopherol isomers.
Figure 4. Vitamin E content of frozen yellow cakes. FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Carotino Company forproviding Carotino shortening and margarine. Wealso would like to thank Universiti KebangsaanMalaysia and Malaysian Palm Oil Board forpermission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
AOCS. (1990). Official and Tentative Methods of theAmerican Oil Chemists’ Society. Fourth edition.American Oil Chemist Society, Champaign.
BASSIOUNY, S S; HASSANIEN, F R; ABD-EL-RAZIK, A F and EL- KAYATI, M (1990). Efficiency ofantioxidants from natural sources in bakeryproducts. Food Chemistry Vol. 37 No. 4: 297-305.
BENADE, A J S (2001). The potential of red palmoil-based shortening as a food fortification forvitamin A in the baking industry. Food and NutritionBulletin Vol. 22 No. 4: 416-418.
CHAPMAN, K W; SAGI, I; REGENSTEIN, J M;BOMBO, T; CROWTHER, J B and STAUFFER, C E(1996). Oxidation stability of hydrogenated
menhaden oil shortening blends in cookies, crakersand snacks. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol. 73 No. 2: 167-172.
DECKER, A F (1998). Antioxidant mechanisms. FoodLipids: Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology (Akoh,C C and Min, D B eds.). Marcel Dekker Inc., NewYork. p. 397-472.
FRANKEL, E N (2005). Methods to determine extentof lipid oxidation. Lipid Oxidation. Second edition.The Oily Press, Bridgewater, England. p. 99-127.
HAMILTON, C R and KIRSTEIN, D (2003). Doesrancidity, as measured by peroxide value effectanimal performance. www.darlingii.com/pdffile/pveffectanimalspro.pdf (22/6/20059: 48 am).
JADHAV, S J; NIMBALKAR, S S; KULKARNI, A Dand MADHAVI, D L (1996). Lipid oxidation inbiological and food system. Food AntioxidantTechnological, Toxicological and Health Perspectives(Madhavi, D L; Deshpande, S S and Salunkhe, D Keds.). Marcel Dekker, New York. p. 5-63.
KRINGS, U and BERGER, R G (2001). Antioxidantactivity of some roasted foods. Food Chemistry Vol.72: 223-229.
LEAN, L P and MOHAMED, S (1999). Antioxidativeand antimycotic effects of turmeric, lemon-grass,betel leaves, clove, black pepper leaves and Garciniaatriviridis on butter cake. J. Science of Food andAgriculture Vol. 79: 1817-1822.
MAHUNGU, S M; ARTZ, W E and PERKINS, E G(1999). Oxidation products and metabolic process.Frying of Foods: Oxidation, Nutrition and Non-NutrientAntioxidant, Biologically Active Compounds and HighTemperatures (Boskou, D and Elmadfa, I eds.).Technomic Publishing Co. Inc, Pennsylvania. p. 25-45.
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MPOB (2005). MPOB Test Method. MPOB, Bangi. 395pp.
RANHOTRA, G S; GELROTH, J A; LANGEMEIER,J and ROGER, D E (1995). Stability and contributionof beta carotene added to whole wheat bread andcrackers. Cereal Chemistry Vol. 72: 139-141.
ROBARDS, K; KERR, A F and PATSALIDES, E(1988). Rancidity and its measurement in edible oilsand snack foods. Analyst Vol. 113: 213-222.
SUJA, K P; ABRAHAM, J T; THAMIZAH, S N;JAYALEKSHMY, A and ARUMUGHAN, C (2004).Antioxidant efficacy of sesame cake extract invegetable oil production. Food Chemistry Vol. 84: 393-400.
1
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS
in growth and feed utilization efficiency have beenreported in fish due to the protein-sparing effect ofdietary lipid (De Silva et al., 1991). However, feedinghigh levels of dietary fish oils, which contain a highproportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)which are highly susceptible to oxidation, can leadto increased oxidative stress for the fish that canresult in pathological conditions (Sakai et al., 1998)and deterioration of fillet quality (Scaife et al., 2000).Farmed fish quality deteriorates rapidly afterslaughter and affects the shelf-life, storage propertiesand quality of fish and surimi-based products.Increases in the lipid content of commercial fish feedsare usually not followed by appropriate antioxidantsupplementation in order to maintain normalantioxidant status, and this further exacerbates thedeleterious effects of lipid peroxidation, especiallyin cellular biomembranes which contain highamounts of PUFA.
Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that inhibitslipid peroxidation in cell membranes. Vitamin E isthe generic name given to a group of lipid-solublecompounds, which include four tocopherols, α-, β-,γ- and δ-T, and four tocotrienols, α-, β-, γ- and δ-T3,
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS
WING-KEONG NG*; YAN WANG* and KAH-HAY YUEN**
Journal of Oil Palm Research (Special Issue - October 2008) p. 1-7
ABSTRACT
In this overview, our current research on the use of palm oil-based vitamin E in aquaculture feeds will be
highlighted. While most vegetable oils contain almost exclusively tocopherols, palm oil is notable because
tocotrienols represent about 80% of the vitamin E content. Almost all vitamin E research in fish nutrition has
focused on α-tocopherol, usually supplied as the synthetic all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate, as it is deemed the
most potent of all the isoforms. Several feeding trials were carried out to investigate the deposition of vitamin
E and their antioxidant activity in various tissues of tilapia and catfish fed various palm oil products and
vitamin E sources. We were the first group of researchers to show that (1) the tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF)
extracted from palm oil is more potent than all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate as an antioxidant when used in
tilapia diets; (2) fish tissues varied in their ability to accumulate tocotrienols with the highest concentrations
being found in perivisceral adipose tissues, followed by liver, skin and muscle; (3) tissue concentrations of
α-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol and γ-tocotrienol increased linearly in response to increasing dietary concentrations
originating from added TRF. As a potent in vivo antioxidant in fish tissues, palm vitamin E will have
positive impacts on seafood quality such as prolonging shelf-life, maintaining colouration of pigmented seafood
and enhancing the nutritional value of seafood.
INTRODUCTION
The aquaculture industry is currently the fastestgrowing food production sector in the world. Worldaquaculture produces about 60 million tonnes ofseafood worth more than USD 70 billion annually(FAO, 2006). Farmed fish accounts for about 50% ofall consumed fish in the world, and this percentageis expected to continue to increase due to dwindlingcatches from capture fisheries. In recent years,technological advances in the aquafeedmanufacturing industry have made possible theincorporation of high levels of dietary oils in fishfeeds to produce energy-dense diets. Improvements
Keywords: palm oil, vitamin E, tocotrienols, aquafeeds, seafood quality.
Date received: 14 March 2008; Sent for revision: 21 March 2008; Received in final form: 29 May 2008; Accepted: 2 July 2008.
* Fish Nutrition Laboratory,School of Biological Sciences,Universiti Sains Malaysia,11800 Pulau Pinang,Malaysia.E-mail: [email protected]
** School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,Universiti Sains Malaysia,11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
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isoforms. Among them, α-T has the highest vitaminE activity (NRC, 1993). For dietary purposes, vitaminE activity is expressed as the α-tocopherol equivalent(α-TE) which is the activity of 1 mg RRR-α-tocopherol (Papas, 1999). On this basis, each of thenatural vitamin E isoforms is assigned a biopotencyfactor (α-T, 1.0; β-T, 0.5; γ-T, 0.1; δ-T, 0.03; α-T3, 0.3;β-T3, 0.05; γ-T3, 0.01) according to the amount ofvitamin E necessary to prevent fetal resorption inpregnant and vitamin E-deficient rats (Sheppard andPennington, 1993; Drotleff and Ternes, 1999). Thebiopotency factor for δ-T3 is presently unknown. Itis therefore not surprising that almost all vitamin Eresearch in fish nutrition has focused on α-T,commonly supplied as the synthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate, as it is believed to be the mostpotent of all the isoforms (Frigg et al., 1990; Gatta etal., 2000; Huang et al., 2003). The synthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate is used worldwide in commercialfish feeds, and is a multi-million dollar industrylocated mainly in Europe. About 70% of all syntheticvitamin E produced globally ends up in vitaminpremixes of animal feeds, including aquafeeds.
Recent in vitro research with isolated rat cellsseems to indicate that the antioxidant activitiesamong the various vitamin E isoforms are notnecessarily correlated with their assigned biologicalactivities. Serbinova et al. (1991) reported that in vitroα-T3 possesses 40-60 times higher antioxidantactivity against lipid peroxidation and provides 6.5times better protection of cytochrome P450 againstoxidative damage than α-T in rat liver microsomalmembranes. Ikeda et al. (2003) reported that in sometissues in rats fed equivalent dietary levels of α-T orα-T3, both isoforms provided equal protectionagainst lipid peroxidation. The protective ability oftocotrienols from the tocotrienols-rich fraction (TRF)extracted from palm oil was reported to besignificantly higher compared to α-T as effectiveinhibitors of protein oxidation and lipid peroxidationin rat liver microsomes (Kamat et al., 1997), withγ-T3 being the most effective.
The Fish Nutrition Laboratory at Universiti SainsMalaysia has successfully introduced palm oil as analternative source of lipid and energy in aquaculturefeeds for both cold-water and tropical fish species(Ng, 2006; Bahurmiz and Ng, 2007; Ng et al., 2007).Crude palm oil (CPO) is also one of the richestsources of natural vitamin E (600-1000 mg kg-1),namely a unique mixture of tocopherols (18%-22%)and tocotrienols (78%-82%). Therefore, weconducted a series of feeding trials to investigate theuse of palm vitamin E as a novel source ofantioxidants for farmed fish.
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEED
Tocotrienol Deposition in Fish Tissues
We first reported a linear increase in total vitaminE concentrations in the muscle of African catfish fedpractical diets with increasing levels of palm fattyacid distillate (PFAD) at the expense of fish oil (Nget al., 2004a). As far as we know, this represents thefirst reported data on the deposition of dietary palmtocotrienols in fish tissue. Muscle tocotrienolconcentrations of African catfish were observed toincrease significantly concomitant with increasingdietary PFAD. However, when tocotrienolconcentrations were expressed as a percentage oftotal vitamin E, it was interesting to note that despitean increasing percentage of tocotrienols in the diet(1.8 % to 58.2%), tocotrienols constituted only 13.4%to 26.7% of the total vitamin E deposited in catfishmuscle (Figure 1). In catfish fed PFAD-supplementeddiets, an equilibrium in T:T3 ratio of about 7.5:2.5 inthe muscle was reached in eight weeks irrespectiveof dietary vitamin E composition. In the catfishmuscle, 68.5% to 80.2% of the total vitamin Edeposited was present as α-T. Similar high ratios ofα-T to the sum of other vitamin E isoforms in tissueshave been reported also for laboratory mammals(Ikeda et al., 2003). Depending on the level of PFADinclusion (0% to 100% added oil) in the catfish diet,total tocopherols and tocotrienols deposited inmuscle ranged from 6.48 to 14.26 µg g-1 and 1.0 to 5.0µg g-1, respectively (Figure 1).
When we fed red hybrid tilapia with dietssupplemented with a TRF extracted from CPO, α-T,together with α- and γ-T3 were found to be depositedinto tilapia tissues, and their concentrations wereobserved to increase linearly in association withincreasing levels of dietary TRF (Wang et al., 2006).Figure 2 shows this linear response in the adiposetissues and the actual amounts of the various vitaminE isoforms deposited. The α-T was the predominantisoform which accumulated in all tissues andplasma. Results from this study indicate that palmtocotrienols supplementation in tilapia diets couldmarkedly enhance the tocotrienol concentration invarious tissues, but the deposition is very tissue-specific. Tocotrienols constituted equilibriums of46.7%-48.9%, 24.7%-33.1%, 21.6%-26.0%, 19.2%-22.2% and 8.0%-9.7% of the total vitamin E inadipose, liver, skin, muscle and plasma, respectively,of tilapia fed TRF-supplemented diets (E30 to E240),in spite of their high dietary compositions of about80%. Thus, the adipose tissue of tilapia had thelargest capacity to take up palm tocotrienols,followed by liver, skin, muscle and plasma.
3
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS
0 25 50 75 100
Total tocotrienols
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Figure 1. Deposition of palm tocopherols and tocotrienols in the muscle tissue (ug g-1) of African catfish fed palmfatty acid distillate (PFAD)-based diets (modified from Ng et al., 2004a).
Adipose tissue
e e d
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Figure 2. Vitamin E concentrations in the adipose tissue of red hybrid tilapia fed a diet without added vitamin E (E0)or with diets supplemented with 30 to 240 (E30, E60, E120 or E240) mg kg-1 total vitamin E derived from a
tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) extracted from crude palm oil (CPO) (adapted from Wang et al., 2006). Bars havingdifferent alphabets within the same vitamin E isoform are significantly different (P<0.05).
Oxidative Stability of Fish Fillets
The role of elevated levels of dietary α-T inimproving fish flesh quality by maintainingoxidative stability has been well recognized in tilapia(Huang et al., 2003), rainbow trout (Frigg et al., 1990),Atlantic salmon (Scaife et al., 2000), sea bass (Gattaet al., 2000) and African catfish (Baker and Davies,
1996). All of these studies on the role of vitamin E inprotecting membrane lipids from free radical attacksin fish tissues had relied on the application ofsynthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate as the soledietary source of vitamin E. We were able to showthat vitamin E concentrations in fish fillets increasedin response to increasing dietary vitamin Eoriginating from CPO (Lim et al., 2001), PFAD (Ng
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et al., 2004a) or palm TRF (Wang et al., 2006), andthere was evidence to support the role of theaccumulated palm vitamin E in enhancing oxidativestability of fish fillets. Lipid peroxidation (measuredas TBARS) in muscle and liver of red hybrid tilapiafed low dietary TRF diets (E0 and E30) wassignificantly higher than those of fish fed highdietary TRF diets (E60 to E240) (Figure 3).
A Potent Antioxidant
A comparative study on the antioxidant potencyof synthetic tocopheryl acetate compared to TRF was
conducted in tilapia. Our research showed that therewas no significant decrease in lipid peroxidationproducts beyond 50 mg all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate/kg diet, but the addition of dietary TRF at about 100mg kg-1 diet caused a further decrease in lipidperoxidation as indicated by the concentrations ofMDA in Figure 4 (Ng et al., 2004b). This shows thatTRF extracted from CPO is a more potent antioxidantcompared to the conventional synthetic vitamin Ewhen used in red hybrid tilapia feeds. For syntheticvitamin E esters such as acetates, they are chemicallynot an antioxidant until the animal hydrolyses it toα-T during the digestion process. Dietary vitamin E
Figure 4. Effects of graded levels of all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate (TAC) at 0 to 100 mg kg-1 diet compared to palm TRFon thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances from iron-vitamin C induced lipid peroxidation in muscle of red hybrid
tilapia (modified from Ng et al. 2004b).
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00TR
F
Dietary vitamin E source
C
C C
B
A
c
c c
b
a
0
50
100
150
200
250
E0 E30 E60 E120 E240
nm
ol M
DA
g-1 t
issu
e
Muscle
Liver
Figure 3. Effects of graded levels of total vitamin E derived from palm tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) on lipidperoxidation in red hybrid tilapia fillets. Bars not sharing a common letter are significantly different, P<0.05.
MDA: malondialdehyde (adapted from Wang et al., 2006).
5
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS
isoforms are then taken up from the small intestineand re-assembled into chylomicrons by the Golgibody of the mucosa cells. Once the chylomicrons arecarried to the liver, α- T will be selectively recognizedby the α-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP), whichhas been identified in humans and rats. The highaffinity of α-TTP for α-T basically ensures that thisvitamin E isoform is the preferred form beingtransported to various tissues. Our results appearto imply that a similar α-T binding protein may existin tilapia liver, although the isolation of such aprotein has not been reported in fish. Based on theresults obtained from our previous work (Ng et al.,2004; Wang et al., 2006), we assumed the existence ofan α-TTP which expresses different relative affinitiesfor the three tocotrienols with the relative affinity ofα-T3 for α-TTP is the highest, followed by γ-T3 andthen δ-T3. Despite the lower deposition of T3 in fishtissues, the lower levels of lipid peroxidationproducts measured compared to tissues from fishfed equivalent dietary concentrations of syntheticvitamin E esters, led us to conclude that tocotrienolshas greater antioxidant potential when used in tilapiafeeds.
POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF RESEARCHRESULTS
Longer Shelf-life and Quality of Fish Products
Elevated dietary levels of TRF resulted in markedincreases in the deposition of vitamin E in fishtissues, improving oxidative stability which in turncan effectively prolong the storage duration or shelf-life of fresh and frozen fish fillets and surimi-basedproducts. This will lead to increased profits for fishprocessors. As a potent natural antioxidant, palmvitamin E may enhance the deposition of carotenoidsin pigmented seafood such as salmon and shrimp;thus, enhancing flesh quality, consumer acceptanceand marketability. The accumulated palm vitaminE in these seafood products would slow down theoxidation of the natural pigments therebymaintaining a desirable colour for longer periods.The reddish colour in seafood products is oftenused as a quality parameter, and may increase themarket value.
Human Health Benefits
The deposition of tocotrienols (and other non-α-T isoforms) in fish fillets also adds value to theproduct as the potential health benefits oftocotrienols in the human diet may include suchbeneficial effects as the prevention of cardiovasculardiseases, cancer and stroke, among otherdegenerative diseases (Watkins et al., 1999).
Concentrations of tocotrienols in the final seafoodproduct can be pre-determined by dietarymanipulations of the diet fed to farmed fish.Japanese restaurants are mushrooming in most largecities of the world, and many urbanites are drawnto nicely-packaged ready-to-eat foods such as sushiand sashimi sold in major supermarkets. The fullhealth benefits of tocotrienols to the humanconsumer will be obtained when seafood productsare consumed raw as sashimi. Seafood products arealready known for their health benefits, andreputable organizations such as the American HeartAssociation strongly endorse the use of omega-3fatty acids (found in fatty fish) for cardiovasculardisease prevention. Combined with the healthbenefits of tocotrienols found in farmed fish whichare fed diets supplemented with palm TRF, the imageof fish and seafood as healthy meat products will befurther enhanced in the public’s perception.
Fish Offal Oil
The perivisceral adipose tissue of tilapia was themajor depot for vitamin E among the various tissuesexamined (Wang et al., 2006). At all dietary inclusionlevels of TRF, total vitamin E concentrations foundin the adipose tissue were the highest. Unlike othertissues, the adipose tissue of tilapia fed with palmTRF was rich in tocotrienols which made up almost50% of the total vitamin E deposited. This makesfish offal oil a very useful by-product from theprocessing factories of farmed fish, and can bemarketed as a tocotrienol-enriched fish oil targetingthe health food sector. The concentrations oftocotrienols deposited in the perivisceral adiposetissue is dependent on dietary concentrations andhave been shown to respond linearly (Wang et al.,2006).
Commercial Potential
Plans are currently undertaken to conduct furtherpre-commercialization research on the use of a feed-grade TRF extracted and concentrated from CPO foruse as a natural additive in aquaculture finishingfeeds, especially for farmed fish with a high fatcontent. The product being all natural, the TRF canalso be used as an antioxidant in organic aquacultureproduction. This is a novel concept of deliveringtocotrienols to a wider variety of consumer products.It is anticipated that such tocotrienol-enriched fishand seafood products can be sold to niche markets,especially in developed countries and in large citieswhere health-conscious consumers are willing to paya premium price for such products. A feed-gradeTRF is currently not commercially available for theanimal feed industry. Commercially availablepharmaceutical grade TRF in the market is not price
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH (SPECIAL ISSUE - OCTOBER 2008)
6
competitive compared to synthetic vitamin Ecurrently used in the livestock and aquaculture feedindustry.
CONCLUSION
The ever expanding oil palm cultivation inMalaysia and other tropical countries offers thepossibility of a growing, cost-effective andsustainable alternative to synthetic vitamin E in fishfeeds. Results from our research show thatsupplementation of TRF from CPO can result insignificant deposition of palm tocopherols andtocotrienols into various fish tissues, which in turncan inhibit or slow down lipid peroxidation withinthese tissues. This is the first reported study on thedeposition of tocotrienols in tilapia and catfishtissues. Naturally-occurring vitamin E found invegetable oils such as palm oil can be an excellentalternative for synthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetateas a dietary vitamin E source for fish. Furtherlaboratory and commercial-scale studies are plannedto fully exploit palm tocotrienols as a dietary vitaminE in aquafeeds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author would like to thank the MalaysianPalm Oil Board for the invitation to present the paperat the International Palm Oil Congress (PIPOC 2007).
REFERENCES
BAHURMIZ, O M and NG, W K (2007). Effects ofdietary palm oil source on growth, tissue fatty acidcomposition and nutrient digestibility of red hybridtilapia, Oreochromis sp., raised from stocking tomarketable size. Aquaculture, 262: 382-392.
BAKER, R T M and DAVIES, S J (1996). Changes intissue α-tocopherol status and degree of lipidperoxidation with varying α-tocopheryl acetateinclusion in diets for the African catfish. Aquacult.Nutr., 2: 71-79.
DE SILVA, S S; GUNASEKERA, R M and SHIM, K F(1991). Interaction of varying protein and lipid levelsin young red tilapia: evidence of protein sparing.Aquaculture, 95: 305-318.
DROTLEFF, A M and TERNES, W (1999). Cis/transisomers of tocotrienols: occurrence andbioavailability. Euro. Food Res. Tech., 210: 1-8.
FAO (2006). State of World Aquaculture 2006. FAOFisheries Technical Paper No. 500. FAO Rome. 134 pp.
FRIGG, M; PRABUCKI, A L and RUHDEL, E U(1990). Effect of dietary vitamin E levels on oxidantstability of trout fillets. Aquaculture, 84: 145-158.
GATTA, P P; PIRINI, M; TESTI, S; VIGNOLA, G andMOENTTI, P G (2000). The influence of differentlevels of dietary vitamin E on sea bass, Dicentrarchuslabrax flesh quality. Aquacult. Nutr., 6: 47-52.
HUANG, C H; CHANG, R J; HUANG, S L andCHEN, W L (2003). Dietary vitamin Esupplementation affects tissue lipid peroxidation ofhybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus.Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 134B: 265-270.
IKEDA, S; TOHYAMA, T; YOSHIMURA, H;HAMAMURA, K; ABE, K and YAMASHITA (2003).Dietary α-tocopherol decreases α-tocotrienol but notγ-tocotrienol concentration in rats. J. Nutr., 133: 428-434.
KAMAT, J P; SARMA, H D; DEVASAGAYAM, T PA; NESARETNAM, K and BASIRON, Y (1997).Tocotrienols from palm oil as effective inhibitors ofprotein oxidation and lipid peroxidation in rat livermicrosomes. Mol. Cell. Biochem., 170: 131-138.
LIM, P K; BOEY, P L and NG, W K (2001). Dietarypalm oil level affects growth performance, proteinretention and tissue vitamin E concentration ofAfrican catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 202:101-112.
NG, W K (2006). Palm oil: Malaysia’s gift to theglobal aquafeed industry. Asian Aquafeeds: CurrentDevelopments in the Aquaculture Feed Industry (Ng, WK and Ng, C K, eds.). Malaysian Fisheries SocietyOccasional Publication No. 13. Kuala Lumpur. p. 40-54.
NG, W K; WANG, Y; KETCHMENIN, P and YUEN,K H (2004a). Replacement of dietary fish oil withpalm fatty acid distillate elevates tocopherol andtocotrienol concentrations and increases muscleoxidative stability in the muscle of African catfish,Clarias gairepinus. Aquaculture, 233: 423-437.
NG, W K; WANG, Y and YUEN, K H (2004b).Tocotrienols from palm oil are more potentantioxidants than dietary α-tocopherol acetate orα-tocopherol succinate for red hybrid tilapia. Proc.of the Sixth International Symposium on Nutrition andFeeding in Fish. Phuket, Thailand.
NG, W K; TOCHER, D R and BELL, J G (2007). Theuse of palm oil in aquaculture feeds for salmonidspecies. European J. Lipid Science and Tech., 109: 394-399.
7
PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS
NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL) (1993).Nutrient Requirement of Fish. National AcademyPress, Washington, DC. 114 pp.
PAPAS, A M (1999). Vitamin E: tocopherols andtocotrienols. Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition andHealth (Papas, A M ed.). CRC Press LLC Florida,p. 189-210.
SAKAI, T; MURATA, H; ENDO, M; SHIMOMURA,T; YAMAUCHI, K; ITO, T; YAMAGUCHI, T;NAKAJIMA, H and FUKUDOME, M (1998). Severeoxidative stress is thought to be a principle cause ofjaundice of yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata.Aquaculture, 160: 205-214.
SCAIFE, J R; ONIBI, G E; MURRAY, I; FLETCHER,T C and HOULIHAN, D F (2000). Influence ofα-tocopherol acetate on the short- and long-termstorage properties of fillets from Atlantic salmonSalmo salar fed a high lipid diet. Aquacult. Nutr., 6:65-71.
SERBINOVA, E; KAGAN, V; HAN, D and PACKER,L (1991). Free radical recycling and intramembranemobility in the antioxidant properties ofα-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol. Free Radic. Biol. Med.,10: 263-275.
SHEPPARD, A J and PENNINGTON, J A T (1993).Analyses and distribution of vitamin E in vegetableoils and foods. Vitamin E in Health and Disease (Packer,L and Fuchs, J eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 9-31.
WANG, Y; YUEN, K H and NG, W K (2006).Deposition of tocotrienols and tocopherols in thetissues of red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp., fed atocotrienol-rich fraction extracted from crude palmoil and its effect on lipid peroxidation. Aquaculture,253: 583-591.
WATKINS, T R; BIERENBAUM, M L andGIAMPAOLO, A (1999). Tocotrienols: biological andhealth effects. Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition andHealth (Papas, A M, ed.). CRC Press LLC. p. 479-496.
1
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
* Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P.O. Box 10620,50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
FAFAFAFAFATTY TTY TTY TTY TTY AAAAACID COMPOSITION OFCID COMPOSITION OFCID COMPOSITION OFCID COMPOSITION OFCID COMPOSITION OFEDIBLE OILS IN EDIBLE OILS IN EDIBLE OILS IN EDIBLE OILS IN EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALATHE MALATHE MALATHE MALATHE MALAYYYYYSIAN MARKETSIAN MARKETSIAN MARKETSIAN MARKETSIAN MARKET,,,,,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TTTTTOOOOOTRANSTRANSTRANSTRANSTRANS-F-F-F-F-FAAAAATTY TTY TTY TTY TTY AAAAACIDSCIDSCIDSCIDSCIDS
TANG, T S*
ABSTRACTABSTRACTABSTRACTABSTRACTABSTRACT
A total of 113 samples of various types of palm and palm kernel oil products, their fractions, palm-based and
non-palm-based cooking oils obtained from local manufacturers and the retail market were analysed for their
trans-fatty acid compositions and contents by capillary gas chromatography. Trans-fatty acids were generally
absent in crude palm and palm kernel oils. However, they were present at 0.01%-0.06% in refined palm
kernel products and 0%-0.61% in refined palm products, all well below the 1.0% level stipulated by some
importers. These trans-fatty acids were formed from their natural cis-isomers as a result of the high temperature
used during deodorization.
In cooking oil, the trans-fatty acid contents of palm-based products were 0.25%-0.67%, again well
below 1%. However, in the non-palm-based cooking oils, the contents of the 14 samples ranged from
0.43%-3.83%. The higher contents in the non-palm-based oils were expected as they had high contents of
unsaturated fatty acids, which are more prone to isomerization at elevated temperatures.
Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol. 14 No. 1, June 2002, p. 1-8
The nutritional attributes of trans-fatty acids havebeen a subject of concern among food scientists,nutritionists and consumers. A report by Mensinkand Katan showed that trans-fatty acids affectcholesterol levels in much the same ways assaturated fatty acids (INFORM, 1990). Other animalstudies have also revealed many adverse nutritionaleffects of trans-acids. They have been implicated asdetrimental to health in terms of the metabolism ofessential fatty acids, coronary heart and cardio-vascular diseases (Sundram and Chang, 2000), foetaland infant development, and in the treatment ofhypercholesterolemia (Simopoulos, 1996; Ong andChee, 1994; Sundram, 1993).
In natural vegetable oils, the unsaturated acidsare present in the cis-form. However, highlyunsaturated vegetable oils are not suitable for manyfood applications such as margarines, shortenings,confectionery fats and vanaspati, where solid fats arerequired. They are thus hardened by catalytichydrogenation during which the naturally occurringcis-unsaturated fatty acids are partly converted tothe unnatural trans-isomer (Figure 1). Small amountsof trans-fatty acids are also formed from heat-induced isomerization during deodorization underhigh temperature (Kovari et al., 1997; Bertoli et al.,1997). The extent of isomerization is more serious inpolyunsaturated oils. Depending on the type ofunsaturated acids, different trans-isomers can beformed from the original cis-unsaturated fatty acids.Figure 2 illustrates the possible trans-isomers that canbe derived from linoleic and linolenic acids.
As a result of the many suspected undesirableeffects of trans-acids, scientists have been
2
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)
per reference amount customarily consumed and perlabelled serving of the food. Generally, a serving isabout 14 g for edible oil. The FDA is currently seekingcomments on its proposals (FDA, 1999).
Since the early controversy in the eighties, manysurveys on the content of trans-fatty acids in fattyfoods, such as margarines, bakery fats and friedproducts, in several countries have been published.Amongst them are those for America (Enig et al.,1983; Slover et al., 1985; Postmus et al., 1989), Canada(Ratnayake, 1991; Postmus et al., 1989), France(Bayard and Wolff, 1995), Austria (Henninger andUlberth, 1996), Belgium (De Greyt et al., 1996),Denmark (Oveson et al., 1996), Germany (Fritscheand Steinhart, 1997a, b) and the United Kingdom(Kohiyama et al., 1991; Anon., 1997b). Several othersimilar surveys for Greece, Italy, New Zealand,
campaigning for the avoidance of hydrogenation inthe processing of oils and fats for edible use (Anon.,1991; 1997a; Schwarz, 2000) and also for mandatorylabelling of the content of trans-fatty acids as aseparate category in food items (Simopolous, 1996).The United States Food and Drug Administration(FDA) proposed in November 1999 its rules for trans-fatty acids in nutrition labelling, nutrient contentclaims and health claims (Thiagarajan, 2000). Theproposals recommended that the trans-fat free claimbe permitted for foods that contain less than 0.5 gtrans-fatty acids and less than 0.5 g saturated fats
Oleic acid (cis-9-Octadecadienoic acid)
CH3�� (CH
2)
7(CH
2)
7� COOH
C = C
H H
Elaidic acid (trans-9-Octadecadienoic acid)
CH3 � (CH
2)
7H
C = C
H (CH2)
7�� COOH
Figure 1. Cis-trans -isomers of 9-Octadecadienoic acid.
Isomerization pathway of linoleic acid (cis, cis-9,12-Octadecadienoic acid)
cis, cis
cis, trans trans, cis
trans, trans
Isomerization pathway of linolenic acid (cis-, cis-, cis-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid)
cis, cis, cis
cis, cis trans trans, cis, cis cis, trans, cis
trans, cis, trans cis, trans, trans trans, trans, cis
trans, trans, trans
Figure 2. Isomerization of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Spain, Australia and Finland were mentioned in thereport by Henninger and Ulberth (l996). A summaryof the data from these reports is given in Table 1.
Of late, some European importers arepreferentially sourcing palm oil products with amaximum trans-fatty acid content of 1.0% (Pantzaris,1997). A short survey of palm oil products andcooking oils from refineries and available in the localmarket was therefore carried out to ascertain thelevels of trans-fatty acids.
The determination of trans-fatty acids content inoils and fats is normally carried out by either infrared
3
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
spectroscopy (IR) or capillary gas chromatography.In this survey, all the samples were analysed by gaschromatography as the IR method lacks sensitivityand is not reliable if the total trans-fatty acids contentis below 5% (Duchateau et al., 1996; Ulberth andHenninger, 1996). Capillary gas chromatography candetect down to 0.01%. It can also separate thedifferent trans-isomers in polyunsaturated oils,provided a column of suitable length and coatedwith a higher polar stationary phase is used.
A total of 113 different types of palm oil, palmkernel oil, their fractionated products (which wereall unhydrogenated) and cooking oils were obtainedfrom palm oil refineries throughout Malaysia andlocal retailers.
ChemicalsChemicalsChemicalsChemicalsChemicals
The fatty acid standards used were from SigmaChemicals. They included lauric, myristic, palmitic,stearic, oleic and elaidic acids. The standard fatty acidmixture for calibration was obtained from Supelco,USA (RM-6 for palm products, RM-5 for palm kerneloil products and RM-1 for non-palm-based cookingoils). All the reagents and solvents used were of ARgrade.
PrPrPrPrPreeeeeparparparparparaaaaation oftion oftion oftion oftion of F F F F Faaaaatty tty tty tty tty Acid MethAcid MethAcid MethAcid MethAcid Methyl Esteryl Esteryl Esteryl Esteryl Esters (Fs (Fs (Fs (Fs (FAME)AME)AME)AME)AME)
FAMEs of the samples were prepared accordingto PORIM Test Method p3.4. About 0.05 g of the oilwas dissolved in 0.95 ml hexane and 0.5 ml sodiummethoxide. The reaction mixture (in a 2 ml vial) was
then shaken vigorously in a vortex mixer. The clear,separated methyl ester layer was dried withanhydrous sodium sulphate prior to injection intothe gas chromatograph for analysis.
Analysis of the FAME was then carried out witha Hewlett Packard 6980 series chromatographequipped with a flame ionisation detector and splitinjector. A fused silica capillary column coated witha highly polar stationary phase, Supelco SP2340[100% poly(bis-cyanopropylsiloxane) � 60 m x 0.25mm id x 0.2 µm], was used with He as the carriergas. The oven temperature programmes for palmkernel oil products and non-lauric oils (palm oilproducts and other cooking oils) were:
Palm kernel oil products - 120oC to 185oC at3oC min-1
Palm oil and other non-lauric oils - 185oCisothermal
The injector and detector temperatures were bothset at 240oC while the split ratio was 1:l00.
The identities of the fatty acids were establishedby comparing their retention times with either thoseof authentic standards from Supelco, or thosereported in the AOCS method using a similar column(AOCS, 1997). A typical chromatogram showing thepeaks and retention times of the fatty acids(including the trans-isomers) of palm olein is shownin Figure 3. Calibration was established withstandard mixtures of methyl esters from Supelco andthe quantitative results obtained from the HewlettPackard Chemstation.
TABLE 1.TABLE 1.TABLE 1.TABLE 1.TABLE 1. TRANS�TRANS�TRANS�TRANS�TRANS�FFFFFAAAAATTY TTY TTY TTY TTY AAAAACID CONTENTS (%) IN FCID CONTENTS (%) IN FCID CONTENTS (%) IN FCID CONTENTS (%) IN FCID CONTENTS (%) IN FAAAAATTYTTYTTYTTYTTYFOODS IN SOME COUNTRIESFOODS IN SOME COUNTRIESFOODS IN SOME COUNTRIESFOODS IN SOME COUNTRIESFOODS IN SOME COUNTRIES
Fries and snacksFries and snacksFries and snacksFries and snacksFries and snacks
One hundred and thirteen samples of various kindsof palm and palm kernel oils, their fractions, palm-based cooking oils and non-palm-based cooking oilswere analysed. Table 2 summarizes the contents oftrans-fatty acids obtained. Some comments can bemade on the presence of trans-fatty acids in thesamples analysed.
These products are discussed together as they hadsimilar ranges of trans-fatty acids. Overall, theirmean contents were 0.22% - 0.32%. If the individualsamples are considered, then the range is wider atbetween 0.0% - 0.61%.
Only four NBD oils were analysed - two palmoleins, one palm superolein and one palm stearin.Their trans-fatty acid contents ranged from 0.29% -0.27%. Although the range was narrower than thatin RBD palm oil (0.07% - 0.60%), the number of NBDsamples was too small to establish any definitedifference between the physically and alkalinerefined oils.
As trans-fatty acids were not detected in the crudesamples, their presence in the refined products mustbe due to isomerization during deodorization whichis normally carried out at 250oC - 260oC under
vacuum. This is supported by the observation byKochhar et al. (1982) that in the refining of crudesoyabean oil (a highly unsaturated oil), trans-fattyacids were not detected in the neutralized andbleached oil, but only in the final product afterdeodorization.
Red palm olein is a specialty cooking oil with ahigh carotene content. The two samples from thelocal retail market showed only 0.0% - 0.2% trans-fatty acids. These low levels can be attributed to thespecial refining process which uses a lowdeodorization temperature to preserve the carotenesfrom thermal degradation.
The oils were mechanically extracted using ascrew-press. No trans-fatty acids were found in allthe eight samples.
RBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm KernelRBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm KernelRBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm KernelRBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm KernelRBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm KernelStearinStearinStearinStearinStearin
The mean trans-fatty acid contents of theRBD/NBD palm kernel oils and their fractionsranged from 0.0% - 0.06%. Overall, the minimumand maximum for the individual samples were 0%and 0.11%, respectively, considerably lower thanthose observed in the palm oil products. Again, it isquite obvious that the presence of trans-fatty acidswas due to isomerization during deodorization. No
Figure 3. An enlarged GC chromatogram of fatty acid methyl esters from palm oleinsample showing the retention times of various peak.
2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 min
pA
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5
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
trans-fatty acid was detected in the two NBDproducts. The low contents were expected as palmkernel oil and its fractions are much less unsaturatedthan palm oil products.
These were either pure palm olein or blends withpeanut oil and sesame oil. However, the iodinevalues and fatty acid compositions suggested thatthese blends were mainly palm olein. Trans-fattyacids were found in every product at 0.25% - 0.67%with an average of 0.46%.
These are consumed by only a small section ofthe population and are generally more expensive.Their detailed trans-fatty acid compositions andcontents are given in Table 3.
Corn OilCorn OilCorn OilCorn OilCorn Oil
Four brands were analysed. The total trans-acidsranged from 1.13% - 1.96% with a mean of 1.64%.The main trans-isomers were those of linoleic acidand linolenic acid.
Three brands were analysed. The trans-fatty acidsranged from 0.63% - 2.99% with a mean of 1.42%.The major trans-isomers were those of linoleic acidas the linolenic acid content of sunflower oil is low.
This is not a common cooking oil in the localmarket and only one brand was found. Though itwas very high in diunsaturated acids, the trans-acidscontent was only 0.85%.
TABLE 2.TABLE 2.TABLE 2.TABLE 2.TABLE 2. TRANSTRANSTRANSTRANSTRANS-F-F-F-F-FAAAAATTY TTY TTY TTY TTY AAAAACID COMPOSITIONS CID COMPOSITIONS CID COMPOSITIONS CID COMPOSITIONS CID COMPOSITIONS AND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLESAND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLESAND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLESAND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLESAND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLES OF P OF P OF P OF P OF PALM OIL ALM OIL ALM OIL ALM OIL ALM OIL AND PAND PAND PAND PAND PALM KERNEL OIL PRALM KERNEL OIL PRALM KERNEL OIL PRALM KERNEL OIL PRALM KERNEL OIL PRODUCTSODUCTSODUCTSODUCTSODUCTS,,,,, AND DIFFERENT COOKING OILSAND DIFFERENT COOKING OILSAND DIFFERENT COOKING OILSAND DIFFERENT COOKING OILSAND DIFFERENT COOKING OILS
C18:1 C18:1 C18:1 C18:1 C18:1 t t t t t C18:2C18:2C18:2C18:2C18:2tc, ct, tttc, ct, tttc, ct, tttc, ct, tttc, ct, tt C18:3C18:3C18:3C18:3C18:3ttttt Mean (%)Mean (%)Mean (%)Mean (%)Mean (%) RangesRangesRangesRangesRanges
Four brands were obtained. They contained 1.63%to 3.83% trans-acids and the mean was 2.94%. Theyhad quite similar fatty acid compositions consideringonly the distribution of fatty acid chain lengths andnot the geometric isomers. Thus, the wide range intrans-acids content could be attributed to variationin the processing method. The influence of differentrefining and deodorization treatments on thechemical changes in soyabean oil has beenthoroughly investigated by Kochhar et al. (l982). Assoyabean oil is well known for its high (about 8%)linolenic acid content, it was not unexpected thatthe samples had higher contents of the trans-isomersof linolenic acid than the other commonpolyunsaturated oils.
Only one brand was analysed. It had highcontents of arachidic acid (C20:0, 1.34%), behenicacid (C22:0, 3.54%) and lignoceric acid (C24:0, 0.16%)but the trans-acids were only 0.46%.
The only sample analysed was a low erucic acidtype. The trans-fatty acid content was 2.78%,comprising mainly the trans-isomers of linolenicacid. It was reported by Denecke (1995) that naturalrapeseed oil contains only traces of trans-fatty acids,but during deodorization the level can rise to as highas 9%, depending on the temperature and time ofheating used.
The palm and palm kernel oil products sampled inthis survey were quite exhaustive, as attempts weremade to obtain samples from refineries throughout
Malaysia. All the refined products contained onlyvery small amounts of trans-fatty acids, generallybelow 0.7%. Thus, they would easily satisfy therequirement for a maximum of 1.0% total trans-acids.As the refining conditions, especially thetemperature of deodorization, are the causes ofisomerization, care should be taken to optimize therefining conditions to minimize such changes (Siew,1989).
In palm kernel oil and its fractions, the level oftrans-isomers is not an issue as they are relativelylow in unsaturation and the deodorizationtemperature used is often milder at 240oC or below.Many of the non-palm-based cooking oils containedmore than 1% trans-fatty acids as they were moreunsaturated and, therefore, more susceptible toisomerization during deodorization.
All in all, this survey provided further evidencethat palm and palm kernel oil products are excellenthard-stocks for trans-free formulation of texturizedfatty products such as margarines, shortenings,confectionery fats and vanaspati. These products canadvantageously replace hydrogenated fats whichcontain not only trans-fatty acids, but also possiblya host of other unnatural and polymerized fatty acidsformed during hydrogenation to reduce theirunsaturation (Hoffman, 1989).
The author thanks the Director-General of MPOB forpermission to publish this paper and all the palmoil refineries for their cooperation in providing theoil samples. The technical assistance provided by thestaff of the AOTC Analytical Laboratory is alsodeeply appreciated.
ANON. (1991). Hydrogenation should be avoided,researchers say. Food Chem. News. July 1. p. 63.
7
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
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FDA (1999). Food labelling: trans-fatty acids innutritional labelling, nutrient content claims andhealth claims. Special Filing Docket No. 94P-0036,CFSAN 9727. 17 November 1999.
FRITSCHE, J and HANS STEINHART (1997a). Trans-fatty acids in German margarines. Fette/Lipid 99, Nr.6: 214-217.
FRITSCHE, J and HANS STEINHART (1997b).Contents of trans-fatty acids (TFA) in German foodsand estimation of daily intake. Fette/Lipid 99, Nr.9:314-318.
HENNINGER, M and ULBERTH, F (1996). Trans-fatty acids in margarine and shortenings marketedin Austria. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch, 203: 210-215.
HOFFMAN, G (1989). The Chemistry and Technologyof Edible Oils and Fats and their High Fat Products.Academic Press. p. 218-221.
INFORM (1990). Netherlands study puts trans in thespotlight again. INFORM, 1: 875.
KOCHHAR, S P.; JAWAD, I M and ROSSELL, J B(1982). Studies on soybean oil processing. LeatherheadFRA Research Report No. 35: 385-390.
KOHIYAMA, M; SHIMURA, M; MARUYAMA, T;KANEMATSU, H and NIIYA, I (1991). Properties ofcommercially available margarines on the market inEngland. Yukagaku, 40: 738-746.
KOVARI, K; DENISE, J; ZWOBODA, F; KEMENY,Z S; RECSEG, K and HENON, G (1997). Kinetics oftrans-isomers fatty acids formation during heating.Paper presented at the 22nd ISF World Congress. 8-12 September 1997. Kuala Lumpur.
ONG, A S H and CHEE, S S (1994). Trans-fatty acids:nutritional significance in the diet. Paper presentedat the First National Symposium on ClinicalNutrition. 28-30 March 1994. Kuala Lumpur.
OVESON, L; LETH, T and AHANSEN, K (1996).Fatty acid composition of Danish margarines andshortenings, with special emphasis on trans-fattyacids. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 31: 971-975.
PANTZARIS, T P (1997). Private communication.MPOB.
POSTMUS, E; deMAN, L and deMAN, J M (1989).Composition and physical properties of NorthAmerican stick margarines. Can. Inst. Sci. Tech. J.,22(5): 481-486.
RATNAYAKE, W M N; HOLLYWOOD, R andO�GRADY, E (1991). Fatty acids in Canadianmargarines. Can. Inst. Sci. Tech. J., 24(1/2): 81-85.
SCHWARZ, W (2000). Trans unsaturated fatty acidsin European nutrition. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 102:633-635.
SIEW, S L (1989). Effects of refining on chemical andphysical properties of palm oil products. J. Amer. OilChem. Soc., 66: 116-119.
SIMOPOULOUS, A P (1996). Trans-fatty acids.Handbook of Lipids in Human Nutrition. CRC Press Inc.p. 91-99.
SLOVER, H T; THOMPSON, J R; DAVIS, C S andMEROLA, G V (1985). Lipids in margarines andmargarine-like foods. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 62: 775-779.
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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)
SUNDRAM, K (1993). Trans-fatty acids: their dietaryand health implications. Palm Oil Developments No.19: 22-25.
SUNDRAM, K and CHANG, K C (2000). Trans-fattyacids and coronary heart disease. Palm Oil TechnicalBulletin Vol. 6(1): 2-4.
THIAGARAJAN, T (2000). Proposed US FDA rulesfor trans-fatty acids in nutritional labelling, nutrientclaims and health claims. Palm Oil Technical BulletinVol. 6(1): 4.
ULBERTH, F and HENNINGER, M (1996).Estimation of trans-fatty acids content of edible oilsand fats: an overview of analytical methods. Eur. J.Med. Res., (1995/96): 1, 94-99.
ERRAERRAERRAERRAERRATTTTTAAAAAPlease note the typographical errors in the structures of phthalic anhydride and N-methyl-2,2�-imino-diethanol (MDEA) on pages 8 and 12 of Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol.13 No. 2. The errors are regretted.The correct structures are:
Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol. 22 December 2010 p. 835-845
ABSTRACT
Palm oil and its derivatives play a significant role in animal nutrition, and the opportunity to increase
usage in this sector is large. Fats and oils are used as energy sources, to supply dietary essential fatty acids
(linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be synthesized by the animal, to aid in the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins, and to provide specific bio-active fatty acids. The amount of fat or oil that can be used in animal
diets varies depending on the species and its digestive physiology. The digestive systems of cattle, pigs and
poultry differ with respect to the way in which fats/oils are broken down, absorbed and utilized. Cattle are
ruminants in which the fermentation of carbohydrates in the rumen provides energy for the animal. Dietary
triglycerides are largely hydrolyzed in the rumen by the resident microbial population, while the unsaturated
fatty acids are hydrogenated to saturated fatty acids. Feeding large amounts of triglycerides (>3% of the
diet), particularly those which are unsaturated, inhibits rumen microorganisms and makes biohydrogenation
incomplete. If biohydrogenation does not occur fully, a flow of unsaturated or partially unsaturated fats/oils
with trans-double bonds into the small intestine can decrease feed intake and depress milk fat production, as
well as alter milk fat profiles. To overcome this problem, fats/oils for ruminant feeding need to be in a form
that makes them inert in the rumen, such as in the form of a calcium salt or soap of palm fatty acid distillates
(CaPFAD), or after crystallizing the saturated fatty acids by beading or flaking. Pigs and poultry are non-
ruminants (monogastrics) and rely on their own enzymes for the breakdown of dietary triglycerides. Fatty
acids are then absorbed in the small intestine along with mono- or diglycerides. Pigs and poultry can utilize
relatively saturated as well as unsaturated fats in their diet, but the inclusion of unsaturated fats/oils results
in more unsaturated fatty acids in their body fat, which makes the carcass fat softer and this can reduce
carcass quality. Increased energy levels in the diet of dairy cows can benefit the production of milk and milk
components, improve reproductive efficiency, reduce heat stress, and improve general health and well-being.
Increasing fat/oil levels in pig diets improve growth rates, reproduction and lactation. Hard (more saturated)
dietary lipids help produce firmer carcass fat. Increasing fat/oil levels in poultry diets improves feed efficiency
and growth rates. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are also of interest, particularly in young animals
where their rapid absorption can help provide a readily available energy supply. Palm oil and palm kernel oil
can be used to replace butterfat in milk replacers for feeding young animals to substitute their mother’s milk.
Fats are also used in the diets of companion animals (dogs and cats) and horses. Worldwide animal production
is increasing rapidly. As standards of living increase, more animal products are being consumed in the diet,
including meat, milk and eggs. Livestock consume approximately 33% of global cereal grain production, and
the animal nutrition industry consumes between 8 and 10 million tonnes of fats and oils per annum. This
use will increase significantly in the next 15 years as more animal products are consumed. In addition, there
is greater focus on finding ways to replace cereal energy in animal nutrition as cereals are increasingly being
* Milk Specialties Global, Carpentersville, Illinois, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
** Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA.
Journal of oil Palm research 22 (december 2010)
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INTRODUCTION
A significant amount of palm oil and its derivatives is used in animal nutrition, and the opportunity to increase usage in this sector is large. Fats and oils serve a variety of applications in animal diets. Fats and oils are used as energy sources that supply approximately 2.25 to 2.5 times the equivalent energy of carbohydrates. Fats and oils supply the ‘dietary essential’ fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be synthesized by the animal, but which are necessary for the formation of cell membranes and various signaling molecules such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Dietary fats and oils aid in the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. In recent years, focus has been on the individual fatty acids provided by dietary fats, including various specific bioactive fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) that exert effects on metabolism and health.
Fats and oils are digested, absorbed and utilized differently, depending on the target animal species and its own unique physiology. This article examines the application and opportunities for lipid components derived from palm oil processing in the major production animal species, what the benefits are for the animals, and what will be the economic benefits derived from these applications.
GLOBAL LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Livestock continue to play a vital role in the nutrition of humans worldwide. The major species furnishing food for humans are cattle (both dairy and beef), pigs, poultry, sheep and goats. Worldwide distribution of these animals by region is shown in Table 1. Animal products contribute about 16% of human food energy and 33% of human food protein (FAO, 2009). Ruminant species such as cattle, sheep, goats and water buffalo provide this human food value while consuming in a large portion of their diet those materials that are unusable directly by humans, such as forages, roughages, cellulosic food-processing by-products, and browse plants. Non-ruminant livestock such as pigs and poultry consume mostly cereals and oilseed products that potentially are usable by humans, although they too can consume some by-product feedstuffs that are not directly utilized by humans. Worldwide it is estimated that animals consume about 33% of the global cereal grain production (FAO, 2009).
Although the rate of growth in the world population has slowed somewhat in recent years, current estimates put the world population at more than 7.7 billion people by 2020. Economic advancement in the developing countries has lifted millions of people out of poverty; yet predictions are that over 1 billion people will remain
diverted to human foods or biofuel production. Fat/oil levels in feed are generally lower than the levels that
can be utilized by the animal based on its digestive and metabolic processes. More calories could be supplied by
fats/oils but there are limitations based on the physical characteristics of the fats and oils and their interactions
undernourished by 2020 (FAO, 2009). As disposable incomes increase in most developing countries, the demand for animal products in the diet also increases. Taking into account these dynamics, it is estimated that animal product consumption will double by 2020, just over 10 years from now.
This unprecedented growth in demand for high-quality animal products will place incredible demands on feedstock supplies and availability. Gains in efficiency of nutrient use will likely continue, as observed over the last half-century. For example, the number of milk cows in the world has actually decreased over the last two decades (Table 2), yet milk production has continued to grow as individual animals and herds become more productive.
Total feed utilization will have to grow substantially to provide the increased demand for animal products by 2020, which means new sources of feeds and new feedstocks must be identified, and innovative ways must be pursued to increase the nutritive use of more widely available materials by the animals. The major feedstuffs used in animal nutrition (other than the forages and roughages used in ruminant feeding) are shown in Table 3.
Replacing some of the dietary energy in livestock diets now provided by cereals with fats and oils represents one strategy to meet the growing demand for feed energy. Currently, global use of fats and oils in animal nutrition is estimated to be 8 to 10 million tonnes annually. Feed use represents the second largest category of utilization of inedible fats,
coming behind their conversion to methyl esters, at approximately 1.4 million tonnes annually, or more than 28% of the total. Of this amount, about 90% originates from animal fats (tallow and grease) with only 10% from edible fats and vegetable oils.
While fats and oils currently are widely used in animal nutrition programmes, the opportunity exists for even greater utilization, perhaps within new paradigms in animal nutrition. As shown in Table 4, even a modest market penetration with additional fats has the potential to account for 5.7 million tonnes of fats annually. Clearly, there is a substantial upside for the palm oil industry when animal nutrition applications are contemplated.
Considerations of the potential increased role for palm products in animal nutrition must be in the context of the challenges facing the livestock industries globally. Growing populations and increasing use (at least in the short-term) of cereals for the production of biofuels place livestock feeding in direct competition with humans for their use. The intensity of livestock production continues to increase, with specialized operations that are in many cases uncoupled from the local production of feeds. Nutrient management and environmental degradation are key concerns in many countries, with the need to improve the efficiency of nutrient capture into the final animal products and to limit the excretion of wastes. Carbon balance, methane reduction and climate change will alter the way in which feeds are grown and fed, and the location where they are grown. Food safety
TABLE 2. ChANGE IN WORLD DAIRY COW POPULATION, 1991-2006
Number of milk cows (1 000)
1991 2006
North America 17 676 17 006South America 17 500 17 440Europe 31 699 24 944Asia 62 175 60 191Oceania 4 352 5 970
Total 133 402 125 551
Source: USDA-NAHMS (2007).
TABLE 3. MAJOR FEEDSTUFFS USED AS SOURCES OF PROTEIN, LIPIDS AND CARBOhYDRATES IN
issues worldwide will likely bring about increasing scrutiny of feedstock production and utilization in animal nutrition. Consumers in developed countries are becoming ever more focused on the role of diet in health and in prevention of chronic diseases. Animal products have many positive roles to play here, in terms of protein quality, bioactive fatty acids such as CLA, calcium, vitamins such as B12, and many minerals. Finally, continued genetic progress for highly productive and efficient animals places concurrent demands on nutritionists to meet the nutrient requirements of these animals for production and health, while minimizing the environmental impact from animal production.
PALM OIL PRODUCTS FOR ANIMAL NUTRITION
The manufacturing processes that result in products available to the feed industry are shown in Figure 1.
Palm oil products used in animal nutrition derive from either the refining process of crude palm oil (CPO), or the crushing of palm kernels to produce palm kernel oil (PKO). Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is the distillate left after refining of palm oil. This product is used extensively in animal feed, frequently reacted with calcium to produce the calcium salt or soap (CaPFAD) which is a hard granular product. This process enables PFAD to be handled easily and also renders the fatty acids semi-inert in the rumen of the cow, which thus helps to prevent inhibition of the fermentation process occurring in the rumen.
Palm oil after refining can be fractionated to produce different melting point fractions. These specific fractions can be tailored to different applications in animal nutrition. Higher melting point fractions (>55°C) can be beaded or flaked,
which enables them to be packed into bags and handled easily in animal rations. Softer fractions can be hardened or hydrogenated by the addition of hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. Liquid fats can also be used directly in animal rations. These products are fed to dairy cattle, beef cattle and to poultry.
Fatty acids split from triglycerides by hydrolysis leaves glycerol as a by-product. Saturated fatty acids (particularly C16 and C18) are used in ruminant rations. Fatty acids are blended in different ratios depending on the desired melting point and iodine value for the specific application. Blends with melting points above 55°C are frequently flaked or beaded for ease of handling and addition to rations.
PKO can be subjected to similar fractionation processes to produce different chain-length triglycerides, including medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) which are sometimes used in the diets for young animals due to their rapid absorption and utilization as an energy source.
Res idue s t reams f rom the indust r ia l oleochemical industry can also be used in animal nutrition. Generally, the criteria that must be applied to test suitability for use in animal nutrition include fatty acid profile, melting point, ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids, and levels of nickel if the streams come from a hydrogenation process. These criteria then must be matched to the particular nutrition application. Residue streams must also be relentlessly checked to ensure that they are free of adulterants, pesticides and other toxic materials.
Nutrition applications are discussed in detail below. Saturated long-chain fatty acids such as palmitic and stearic are generally considered better for ruminant animals, whereas unsaturated fatty acids and triglycerides are generally considered preferable for monogastric animals.
Figure 1. Scheme for palm oil processing and products for animal nutrition.
Fresh Fruit
Kernels
Processing
Crushing/Extraction Refining
High IV Oleins
Crude Palm Oil Fruit Products
FattyAcids
Free FattyAcids/Cattle
Co-Products/Residues
Palm KernelMeal
Palm KernelOil
MCTs
Oleo ChemicalProcessing
Beading/Flaking
Splitting Fractionation
Glycerol
Low IV Stearin
TriglyceridesSwine/Cattle
Beading/Flaking
CalciumSoaps/Cattle
Palm Fatty Acid DistillateRDB Palm Oil
Reaction
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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS BY KEY PRODUCTION SPECIES
Energy Levels from Fat in First Feeds
With the exception of poultry, the first feeds of young production livestock are milk or milk substitutes (milk replacers). For poultry, the first feed is the egg yolk. The composition of mother’s milk and egg from these species is shown in Table 5. Of note here is that fat makes up a larger portion of the total dietary solids than in most growing or production diets. Indeed, fat constitutes more than 50% of the feed energy in the first feeds, and typically more than 15% in growing and production diets.
The reasons for the much larger use of fats in the first feeds compared with that in diets for older animals are not well understood. A large portion is likely due to the emulsified nature of the first feeds compared with dry diets for older animals. The fat in milk or egg yolk is highly emulsified, with extremely fine droplet size and optimal biological emulsifying agents. In ruminant diets, higher fat levels interfere with microbial fermentation in the rumen. Finally, the fatty acid profile of the feed fats is typically quite different from that of milk fat or egg yolk lipids.
Differences in Digestive Processes in Ruminants, Pigs and Poultry
Fats and oils are digested very differently between ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, goats) and non-ruminants (pigs, poultry). The primary differences are a consequence of the activities of anaerobic bacteria in the rumen on dietary lipids in ruminants which are lacking in non-ruminants. Several bacterial species in the rumen possess lipase activity that can hydrolyze dietary lipids in ruminants, whereas the animal’s lipase enzymes carry out this function in non-ruminants. Another difference is the nature of the products of lipid digestion that are available for absorption: primarily saturated free fatty acids in ruminants and primarily 2-monoglycerides and fatty acids in non-ruminants.
Ruminants
Ruminants consume diets containing the vegetative portions of plants (forages) as well as various cereals or oilseed products. The carbohydrate portion of these materials is extensively fermented by the incredibly robust and diverse microbial population that lives within the rumen, the first compartment of the four-chambered ruminant stomach. The end-products of this fermentation are the volatile fatty acids (VFA) or short-chain fatty acids, principally acetate, propionate and butyrate, which serve as the major energy fuels for ruminant tissues. The microbial cells produced in the rumen serve as the major protein source for the animal after they are washed out of the rumen and flow into the small intestine.
The main types of lipid in ruminant diets are the glycolipids found in forage stems and leaves, as well as triglycerides found in cereals and oilseeds. Glycolipids are similar to triglycerides except that they have two or more sugars linked to one position of the glycerol backbone instead of the third fatty acid. The most common are galactolipids, which have galactose (a component sugar of milk lactose) linked to the glycerol. The two fatty acids that make up the glycolipids are generally unsaturated, with a high proportion of linolenic acid. Glycolipids are structural components of plant tissues. In most forages, whether fresh, dry or ensiled, glycolipids are extensively hydrolyzed in the rumen.
The microbial population within the rumen contains a number of bacterial species that actively hydrolyze the glycolipids and triglycerides found in feeds. The glycerol released is largely fermented to propionate and butyrate. The unsaturated fatty acids that are released by bacterial hydrolysis are extensively biohydrogenated to saturated fatty acids of the same chain-length by other species of rumen bacteria. This process accounts for the fact that ruminant fats (in milk or beef) are generally more saturated than the feeds the animals consume and are more saturated than the body or milk fats of non-ruminants. Bacterial biohydrogenation appears to be a defense mechanism for the microbes because the polyunsaturated fatty acids are toxic to the fibre-digesting microbial population within the rumen.
TABLE 5. COMPOSITION AND PROVISION OF ENERGY AS FAT IN ThE FIRST FEEDS OF NEONATAL ANIMALS
Under normal basal feeding conditions, the unsaturated fatty acids are extensively biohydrogenated by the microbial population without detriment to the rumen, but when the supply of unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen is increased by supplementation, the amount of unsaturated fatty acids may overwhelm the hydrogenating capacity of the microbial population. The resultant accumulation of unsaturated fatty acids and intermediates with trans-double bonds (particularly trans-10 in 18-carbon fatty acids) can decrease digestion of fibre (cellulose and hemicellulose) within the rumen, decrease feed intake by the animal, and decrease overall conversion of the feed to milk or meat. To prevent the negative effects of fat on the microbial population, and to prevent formation of these detrimental trans-isomers, a number of commercial fat supplements have been developed. Most important among these are calcium soaps of fatty acids and mixtures of mostly saturated fatty acids crystallized by beading or flaking. Palm oil is a major starting material for these products worldwide.
Fatty acids are not absorbed in the rumen, but rather pass into the lower digestive tract where they are absorbed from the small intestine. In contrast to non-ruminants, most of the lipid reaches the small intestine as highly saturated free fatty acids rather than the mostly unsaturated dietary triglycerides that reach the intestine in non-ruminants. Ruminants have evolved highly efficient systems of emulsification and micelle formation in the intestine to efficiently absorb the large quantities of saturated free fatty acids that reach the intestine daily. This occurs predominantly via the lysolecithin-bile salt system, in which lysolecithin is produced as a result of the action of pancreatic phospholipase enzyme acting on lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) coming into the intestine either as a component of microbial cell membranes or as a component of pancreatic juice and bile. Within the intestinal cells, fatty acids are esterified to α-glycerol-phosphate, produced from glucose metabolism, to form triglycerides. In turn, triglycerides are packaged with specific apolipoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol to form a lipoprotein particle called a very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). VLDL carries triglycerides in blood to such tissues as the muscle, heart, adipose and mammary, where the enzyme lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes the triglycerides to free fatty acids that can be taken up by the tissues. Fatty acids delivered from the diet in this way are major sources of milk fat and body fat, as well as an immediate energy source for muscle and heart.
Non-ruminants
Non-ruminants such as pigs and poultry consume mostly triglycerides in the cereals and oilseeds that make up most of their diet. Additional fats and oils often supplement the diet, mainly as triglycerides because free fatty acids (particularly saturated free fatty acids) are not well absorbed in non-ruminants.
Dietary fats are released from the feed matrix as the feed is chewed and then further mixed in the stomach. The mechanical action of contractions in the stomach and the shear forces of expulsion of the digesta into the intestine result in the formation of a coarse emulsion of fat in the intestinal contents. Bile, which is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the upper small intestine, contributes bile salts and phospholipids that are important emulsifying agents for fat digestion. Emulsification of dietary fats increases greatly as the digesta mixes with these substances. Pancreatic juice secreted into the upper small intestine contributes the fat-digesting enzyme lipase, which acts on the surface of lipid droplets in the intestinal lumen to hydrolyze fatty acids from the 1 and 3 positions of the glycerol backbone. Pancreatic lipase is inhibited by bile salts, and the pancreas also secretes a protein called colipase, which acts to disperse bile salts from the surface of the lipid droplet and anchors lipase to the droplet.
The products of lipase activity on triglycerides, 2 -monoglycer ides and f ree fa t ty ac ids , spontaneously form mixed micelles in the presence of the bile salts. Micelle formation is necessary to allow for the absorption of fatty acids and monoglycerides into the intestinal epithelial cells. Within the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides are re-acylated to form triglycerides, which are packaged along with specific apoproteins, cholesterol and phospholipids to form a lipoprotein called a chylomicron, which is analogous to the intestinal VLDL formed in ruminants. The chylomicra are secreted from the cells, enter the lymphatic system, and then enter the venous blood. Like VLDL in ruminants, the triglycerides are hydrolyzed by lipoprotein lipase in peripheral tissues.
In poultry, lipid digestion follows a similar process to that in non-ruminant mammals, with the exception of the route of absorption of the chylomicron particles into the blood. In contrast to non-ruminant mammals, chylomicra in poultry are able to be absorbed directly into the portal blood system rather than the lymph. Owing to
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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
this process, these chylomicra are often called portomicrons in birds. Absorption into the portal blood means that the dietary lipoprotein particles reach the liver before the rest of the animal.
USE OF PALM PRODUCTS AND OThER FATS OR OILS BY PRODUCTION ANIMALS
Neonatal Ruminants
The neonatal ruminant is born with a digestive tract similar to that of a monogastric animal, and relies on a milk diet during its early stages of development. A major industry has grown worldwide to produce milk replacers for the young bovine to replace the dam’s milk so that the high-value milk can go to market rather than be fed to the calves. Calf milk replacers typically contain levels of fats/oils ranging between 15% and 20% of the dry matter (DM), with the remaining dry matter being protein and lactose.
Commercial calf milk replacers are manufactured using oils and fats of animal or vegetable origin to replace butterfat. Palm oil and PKO are frequently used in these applications. The digestibility of the fat and DM is improved in the very young calf when a blend of PKO is added to the palm oil (typically up to 20% of the total fat level).
Dairy Cattle
Comparison of supplemental fat sources. There are three main forms of supplemental fat sources from palm oil which are fed to dairy cattle: triglycerides, free fatty acids and calcium salts of palm fatty acids (made by the saponification of PFAD). The latter are commonly referred to as calcium soaps.1. Triglycerides Triglycerides of palm oil origin fed to dairy cattle
are generally produced by the fractionation of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil, and have generally a melting point above 125°F (>51.5°C). These fats are then flaked or beaded to produce a product which is easy to handle by the dairy producer, and can be mixed into a feed ration.
2. Ca soaps (CaPFAD) CaPFAD are a popular form of supplemental
fat. They consist of approximately 82% fat, which is approximately 50% saturated and 50% unsaturated, while the remainder is ionic calcium. The fatty acids are dissociated from the calcium in the abomasum, releasing the fatty acids for absorption. The unsaturated fatty acids are extensively dissociated from calcium in the rumen and are biohydrogenated in the rumen to saturated fatty acids.
3. Free fatty acids Free fatty acids are the most energy-dense form
of dry fat. They can either be in the form of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids are preferred over unsaturated fatty acids. Cows are especially well-equipped to digest and absorb saturated free fatty acids, so this type of fat requires no modification before digestion. In addition, unsaturated fatty acids have been shown to depress dry matter intake, while saturated fatty acids do not affect dry matter intake.
Data from experiments relating to the performance of cows fed with supplemental fat.1. Dry matter intake The addition of certain supplemental fats to
the diet causes changes in dry matter intake. Dr Mike Allen of Michigan State University examined this issue extensively in a review (Allen, 2000). There is no significant effect of feeding saturated free fatty acids on dry matter intake. However, there are significant decreases in dry matter intake when feeding with CaPFAD (-5.0% and -3.3% relative to non-fat controls). These decreases in dry matter intake can have a substantial effect on cows in early lactation when dry matter intake is already lagging behind milk production. CaPFAD are slightly more digestible than hydrogenated PFAD (Elliott et al., 1996) or hydrogenated palm oil (Weiss and Wyatt, 2004) in dairy cattle.
2. Milk production The addition of supplemental fat results in
increased milk production because more energy is being supplied to the dairy cow. In a recent review, milk production increased by 0.9 kg per day for cows fed CaPFAD and by 1.8 kg per day for cows fed saturated free fatty acids relative to controls fed no supplemental fat (Loften and Cornelius, 2004). These data show that feeding saturated free fatty acids leads to an increase in milk production.
3. Milk composition In a recent experiment, supplementation with
saturated free fatty acids increased the amount of milk fat by 0.19 kg per day relative to cows fed no supplemental fat, and by 0.26 kg per day relative to cows fed CaPFAD (Relling and Reynolds, 2007). Milk protein was increased slightly for cows fed no supplemental fat and saturated free fatty acids, producing 0.05 and 0.06 kg per day more milk protein, respectively, than those fed Ca-soaps (Relling and Reynolds, 2007). Similar results have been documented on US commercial dairy farms that switched from feeding with CaPFAD to feeding with saturated free fatty acids. Over a two-month period, milk fat increased from 3.87% to 4.25% (+0.38%),
Journal of oil Palm research 22 (december 2010)
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while milk protein increased from 3.09% to 3.34% (+0.23%). These data confirm that feeding with saturated free fatty acids has a positive effect on milk composition.
4. Reproduction Two studies have looked at the effect of
supplementation with saturated free fatty acids on subsequent reproductive performance. Transition cows were fed saturated free fatty acids for the last 21 days of gestation. In the subsequent lactation, more of these cows were confirmed pregnant (86% vs. 58% for non-fat controls) (Frajblat and Butler, 2003). In addition, cows supplemented with saturated free fatty acids had fewer days open (i.e., being non-pregnant) compared with non-fat controls (110 vs. 148 days) (Frajblat and Butler, 2003). Supplementation of lactating cows with saturated free fatty acids resulted in improved first service conception rate as well as overall conception rate relative to a non-fat control (59.1% vs. 42.6% and 59.3% vs. 40.7%) (Ferguson et al., 1990). Cows supplemented with saturated free fatty acids also had fewer services per con-ception relative to a non-fat control (1.57 vs. 1.96) (Ferguson et al., 1990). While supplementation with a saturated free fatty acid source in both of these studies resulted in improved reproductive efficiency, it remains unclear if this was the result of an improvement in energy status, or an effect of a specific fat or type of fat. However, regardless of the mechanism, supplementation with saturated free fatty acids appears to result in improved reproductive efficiency.
5. Heat stress Studies conducted in Shanghai during the height
of summer have shown that feeding saturated free fatty acids to dairy cows had a significant impact on mitigating the impact of heat stress. This resulted in increased milk production, milk fat production and milk protein production. The cows with added fat in their diet had significantly lower body temperatures during the heat stress periods.
Beef Cattle
Much research has focused on the use of fats in diets for growing and fattening beef cattle, as well as for cows and heifers to aid in re-breeding. As an energy source, gains in performance for cattle fed fat have not been large enough to be justified economically in most cases. Feedlot diets may contain small additions of liquid fat to control dust and to hold the ration together, particularly in drier climates where large amounts of wet or ensiled feeds are not fed. Fats typically increase dressing percentage and kidney, pelvic and heart
fat percentages (Zinn and Jorquera, 2007). There is considerable potential to increase the use of fats in high-concentrate beef rations (Hess et al., 2008). Owing to the negative effects on the fibre-digesting and methane-producing microorganisms in the rumen, supplemental fats such as yellow grease or vegetable oils can improve feed efficiency in cattle (Zinn, 1989). Addition of palm oil at 10.7% of dietary DM increased carcass fat content without affecting carcass quality grade in fattening lambs (Lough et al., 1993).
Research has demonstrated that vegetable oils and oilseeds that furnish linoleic acid may improve reproductive success in beef cows and heifers as they often do in dairy cattle (Santos et al., 2008). However, in beef cows, these responses have been inconsistent (Funston, 2004). There is considerable opportunity for understanding the influences of fat supplementation on reproduction in beef cattle.
Swine
There is a growing opportunity for feeding milk replacer to baby pigs to supplement sow’s milk. Piglets with free access to milk replacer have greater gains in body weight and lean mass than their suckled littermates (Zijlstra et al., 1996). This represents a new opportunity for increased use of palm oils. In addition, MCT show benefits in improving piglet survival, weight gain and body fat (Wieland et al., 1993).
The use of fats and oils in the diets for growing pigs is common because of the high-energy value of fats and oils. Animal fats have been the most common fat sources used, primarily because of their lower cost. Typical inclusion rates are about 5% added fat. Lauridsen et al. (2007) showed that several vegetable fat sources (palm oil mix, palm oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil) could be used as alternatives to animal fat in diets for weaning and growing pigs.
Supplemental fat also may be useful during pregnancy and lactation in sows. Supplemental fat during gestation and lactation improved sow body condition and improved suckling pig performance without affecting energy intake during lactation, which implies that the efficiency of energy utilization by sows was improved (Gatlin et al., 2002).
A consequence of feeding more unsaturated fat sources, such as vegetable oils or yellow grease, is that carcass fat becomes softer due to the lower melting point of these dietary fats. A solution is to feed more saturated fatty acid supplements, such as hydrogenated palm oil. More higher-melting point fat sources make the body fat firmer, without sacrificing animal growth performance (Gatlin et al., 2003).
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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
Poultry
Digestibility of fats in poultry is lower in the young animal than in mature birds. There is evidence in poultry that the bile salt system is undeveloped in the young, and that emulsifiers improve the digestion of dietary lipids in poultry (Krogdahl, 1985). Digestibility of more highly unsaturated oils such as soyabean oil is higher than that of more saturated fats such as tallow or lard. Saturated fatty acids such as palmitic are absorbed very poorly in poultry unless they are in the form of 2-monoglycerides. However, animal fats are well-utilized and usually cheaper on an absorbed energy basis than vegetable oils.
Dietary fats are used in poultry to increase the energy density of the diet and to lower heat production by the birds in hot climates. Dietary fats produce an ‘extra caloric effect’ in poultry, in which the net energy value for maintenance and production is greater than would be predicted by apparent metabolizable energy (ME) measurements. Fats also improve the ME value of other dietary ingredients by slowing down the rate of passage of the feed through the digestive tract.
Palm oil was shown to increase egg size and improve the performance of pullets when fed up to 5% of the diet (Isika et al., 2006). Addition of vegetable oils to the diets of layer hens increases egg size. To provide adequate energy for high egg production, most layer diets contain 1%-3% supplemental fat. For broilers, diets typically contain 2%-4% added fat, resulting in as much as an 8% increase in feed conversion efficiency. Increased use of palm oil by poultry seems to hold a great deal of promise (Preston, 1992).
USE OF PALM PRODUCTS AND OThER FATS OR OILS BY hORSES AND COMPANION
ANIMALS
horses
Within the last 10 years, there has been considerable interest in the addition of fats into the feeds of horses, including those used for racing, draft and pleasure. Horses during periods of ‘work’ require high energy levels, but attempts to increase dietary energy by the addition of higher starch levels through cereal inclusion in the ration have sometimes been counterproductive. It is now understood that the digestion of starch leading to high blood glucose levels can create adverse responses, and sometimes makes the animals excitable and unworkable. Higher blood glucose levels also cause insulin responses, and in some cases leads to insulin resistance. The addition of fat
in the form of beaded palm triglycerides (iodine value 12-15) to high forage diets has been a very successful process for increasing energy levels without the detrimental effects caused by extra starch addition (Tomkins, 2009).
Dogs and Cats
Fats and oils are important components in the diets for dogs and cats. Fats and oils provide a concentrated source of energy for growth and energy storage, as well as providing a source of essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be made within the animal body. Fats also contribute to palatability and an acceptable texture of the foods. As in other species, fats are important as carriers for absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins. Young dogs are typically fed diets that contain about 8%-10% fat, but can tolerate a wide range of fat contents (up to 40% of diet) and sources as long as the essential fatty acid requirements are met. Recommendations for older dogs are somewhat lower (5%-6% fat; NRC, 2006). The current recommendation for the fat content of cat diets is 9% of DM (19% of energy) but cats can effectively utilize diets that contain fat as high as 67% of energy (NRC, 2006). Diets with 20%-25% fat (on a DM basis) are usually more palatable than lower-fat diets for cats (NRC, 2006).
Apparent digestibility of fats in dogs fed mixed triglycerides ranges from 85% to 95% of intake, with the digestibility of dry extruded fats reported to be somewhat lower (70%-90%; NRC, 2006). Digestibilities are lower for fats that contain less than 40% unsaturated fatty acids compared with fats providing more than 50% unsaturated fatty acids (NRC, 2006). In cats, digestibilities of fat are more than 90%, and are higher in young cats than in aged cats (NRC, 2006). Digestibility is generally greater for more unsaturated fats than for saturated fats.
While palm oil has been used in formulating experimental diets, the authors are not aware of any large-scale studies comparing the use of palm oil in the diets of dogs and cats. Given the increasing numbers of pets worldwide, this may be a fruitful market to pursue.
FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES
The animal nutrition industry represents considerable current markets for palm oil products, but the potential for future growth is even more substantial. Nearly all sectors could use more palm oil or palm products as fat supplements. Growth in this demand would be hastened by careful research in several areas.
Journal of oil Palm research 22 (december 2010)
844
First, the factors that limit the use of fat in mature animals to a greater extent than when the same species is young need to be determined. With the identification of the changes that occur, perhaps due to suboptimal emulsification or to changes in metabolism, the amount of fat that can be fed efficiently could be increased. This could become even more important and beneficial as the demand for cereal grains continue to increase in food and non-food industrial uses.
The roles of fats and oils in reproduction, gestation, body condition maintenance and lactation need to be more clearly defined and better understood. If the use of specific fatty acids can improve reproductive success, prospects for increased dietary use of those fats will be improved tremendously.
The potential opportunities afforded by the ability to produce MCT for animal nutrition applications are large. There is a growing body of evidence that MCT will play an increasingly important role in animal nutrition, particularly in the nutrition of the neonatal animal where rapidly available energy can make the difference between high and low mortality.
Finally, systems research to document the benefits of integrated fats/oils production and livestock enterprises needs to be conducted. Outcomes of interest here include both the economic benefits as well as the implications on carbon balance and nutrient management in the environment.
Coupled with research on animal utilization, there is the need for continual improvement in the way fats are incorporated into animal diets. Methods for making fats easier to handle by the end-user are of great importance. Very few production systems, other than those with very large numbers of animals in close proximity, have the ability to handle large quantities of liquid fats at the farm level. Much of production animal agriculture is dependant on compounded feed or feeds in a dry form that can be easily added to rations. It is frequently difficult to do this when fats are in a liquid form. Technologies such as saponification of fatty acids and beading of high-melting point fats will certainly improve the production opportunities.
REFERENCES
ALLEN, M S (2000). Effects of diet on short-term regulation of feed intake by lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy Science, 83: 1598-1624.
ELLIOTT, J P; DRACKLEY, J K and WEIGEL, D J (1996). Digestibility and effects of hydrogenated palm fatty acid distillate in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 79: 1031-1039.
FAO (2009). FAO Statistical Yearbook 2009. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
FERGUSON, J D; SKLAN, D; CHALUPA, W V and KRONFELD, D S (1990). Effects of hard fats on in vitro and in vivo rumen fermentation, milk production and reproduction in dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 73: 2864-2879.
FRAJBLAT, M and BUTLER, W R (2003). Effect of dietary fat prepartum on first ovulation and reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 86 (Suppl. 1): 110 (Abstract).
FUNSTON, R N (2004). Fat supplementation and reproduction in beef females. J. Animal Science, 82 (E-Suppl): E154-E161.
GATLIN, L A; ODLE, J; SOEDE, J and HANSEN, J A (2002). Dietary medium- or long-chain triglycerides improve body condition of lean-genotype sows and increase suckling pig growth. J. Animal Science, 80: 38-44.
GATLIN, L A; SEE, M T; HANSEN, J A and ODLE, J (2003). Hydrogenated dietary fat improves pork quality of pigs from two lean genotypes. J. Animal Science, 81: 1989-1997.
HESS, B W; MOSS, G E and RULE, D C (2008). A decade of developments in the area of fat supplementation research with beef cattle and sheep. J. Animal Science, 86(14 Suppl): E188-E204.
ISIKA, M A; AGIANG, E A and OKON, B I (2006). Palm oil and animal fats for increasing dietary energy in rearing pullets. International Journal of Poultry Science, 5: 43-46.
KROGDAHL, A (1985). Digestion and absorption of lipids in poultry. J. Nutrition, 115: 675-685.
LAURIDSEN, C; CHRISTENSEN, T C; HALEKOH, U and JENSEN, S K (2007). Alternative fat sources to animal fat for pigs. Lipid Technology, 19: 156-159.
LOFTEN, J R and CORNELIUS, S G (2004). Review: responses of supplementary dry, rumen-inert fat sources in lactating dairy cow diets. The Professional Animal Scientist, 20: 461-469.
LOUGH, D S; SOLOMON, M B; RUMSEY, T S; KAHL, S and SLYTER, L L (1993). Effects of high-forage diets with added palm oil on performance, plasma lipids, and carcass characteristics of ram and ewe lambs. J. Animal Science, 71: 1171-1178.
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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL) (2006). Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
PRESTON, T R (1992). Alternative non-cereal diets for poultry. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 4: 31-35.
RELLING, A E and REYNOLDS, C K (2007). Feeding rumen-inert fats differing in their degree of saturation decreases intake and increases plasma concentrations of gut peptides in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 90: 1506-1515.
SANTOS, J E; BILBY, T R; THATCHER, W W; STAPLES, C R and SILVESTRE, F T (2008). Long chain fatty acids of diet as factors influencing reproduction in cattle. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 43 (Suppl 2): 23-30.
USDA-NAHMS (2007). Dairy 2007, Part I: Reference of Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States, 2007. USDA-APHIS-VS, CEAH, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
WIELAND, T M; LIN, X and ODLE, J (1993). Utilization of medium-chain triglycerides by neonatal pigs: effects of emulsification and dose delivered. J. Animal Science, 71: 1863-1968.
WEISS, W P and WYATT, D J (2004). Digestible energy values of diets with different fat supplements when fed to lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 87: 1446-1454.
ZIJLSTRA, R T; WHANG, K Y; EASTER, R A and ODLE, J (1996). Effect of feeding a milk replacer to early-weaned pigs on growth, body composition, and small intestinal morphology, compared with suckled littermates. J. Animal Science, 74: 2948-2959.
ZINN, R A (1989). Influence of level and source of dietary fat on its comparative feeding value in finishing diets for feedlot steers: metabolism. J. Animal Science, 67: 1038-1049.
ZINN, R A and JORQUERA, A P (2007). Feed value of supplemental fats used in feedlot cattle diets. Veterinary Clinics of North America Food Animal Practice, 23: 247-268.
INTERESTERIFIED PALM PRODUCTS AS HARD STOCKFOR SOLID FAT FORMULATIONSby: NOOR LIDA HABI MAT DIAN; KALYANA SUNDRAM and AZMAN ISMAIL
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2006 MPOB TT No. 323
330
II
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-89259155, 89259775, Website: http://mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
nteresterification (IE) is a powerful tool for
modification of the physical and chemical
properties of oils and fats. IE involves
redistribution and interchange of fatty acids
(FAs) within and between the triacylglycerol
molecules, which make up all oils and fats. The result
is a significantly changed melting and crystallization
behaviour. No changes occur to the FA composition.
Therefore, IE does not result in the formation of
either trans or geometrical isomers of FAs. However,
IE has not been given due attention in the food
industry since hydrogenation was the preferred
process especially for the production of solid fats such
as margarine and shortening.
Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils containing trans
FAs are a near-perfect ingredient because they can be
tailored for specific applications. But, trans FAs
resulting from partial hydrogenation have been
proven to raise the low-density lipoprotein (bad)
cholesterol level, causing the arteries to become
hardened and clogged, and increase the risk for
cardiovascular disease (Reddy and Jeyarani, 2001).
It has therefore been recommended that trans FAs be
removed from food systems.
Due to the health implications of the trans FAs and
increased consumer awareness of trans fats in their
diet, the food industry is gradually phasing out the
use of hydrogenated fats in their products. In 2003,
Denmark became the first country to introduce
restrictions on the use of industrially produced trans
FAs. Oils and fats are now forbidden on the Danish
market if they contain trans FAs exceeding 2%, a move
which effectively bans partially hydrogenated oils.
Other European countries have yet to impose such
rules, but pressure is mounting from consumer-led
organizations (FoodQuality news.com, 2005). In the
USA, the Food and Drug Administration has
mandated the inclusion of trans FAs content on food
labels starting 1 January 2006.
IE provides an alternative for food manufacturers
looking for reduced trans fats in their products. For
instance, there has been a great increase in the use of
interesterified fats (especially in Europe) as hard
stocks in solid fat formulations, as replacements for
trans fats.
This technology offers several trans-free fats suitable
as fat blend or hard stock for the manufacture of low
or zero trans solid fats such as margarine,
shortening and spread. Using these trans-free fats,
post-hardening – a problem in solid fats formulated
with a high percentage of palm oil products - can
also be eliminated.
IE PROCESS
IE modifies the physical properties of the oil by
interchange of FAs between and within the different
triglycerides. The reaction is catalyst driven at about
100°C under vacuum.
The process involves the following steps:
1. Neutral feedstock is pumped batch-wise into
the IE vessel.
2. The oil is heated under vacuum and dried.
3. Catalyst is added and the reaction started.
4. After the reaction is complete, the catalyst is
deactivated by addition of a dilute aqueous
citric acid solution.
5. The interesterified oil is washed with water to
remove soap by-products and then dried under
vacuum.
6. A light post-bleaching step is carried out to
remove residual soaps, trace metals and
oxidized bodies.
7. The interesterified oil is deodorized to remove
The MPOB palm-based interesterified fats (MPOB IE-
FATs) were produced using a 70kg capacity batch IE
pilot plant. When blended with other oils and fats,
they gave the right melting properties for certain
applications. The solid fat content (SFC) profiles of
some of the MPOB IE-FATs suitable as hard stock for
plastic fat formulations are shown in Figure 1.
NOVELTY OF MPOB IE-FATs HARD STOCK
• Free of trans FAs.
• A more healthy fat formulation.
• Rapid crystallization rate compared to non-IE
palm-based hard stock.
• Provides the right melting properties and good
plasticity.
• Can be used as fat blend/hard stock for the
manufacture of low SAFA solid fats.
• Helps eliminate/reduce the post-hardening
problem in palm-based solid fats.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The technical assistance of Abd Aziz Abd Rahman, Mohd
Adrina Malek, Che Maimon Che’ Ha and
Nasoikhieddinah Md Purdi is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
REDDY, S Y and JEYARANI, T (2001). Trans-free bakery
shortenings from mango kernel and mahua fats by
fractionation and blending. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol.
78: 635-640.
FoodQuality news.com. 28/06/2004. Guidance for new
trans fat rules. http://www.foodqualitynews.com/
APPLICATIONS
The palm-based trans-free MPOB IE-FATs can be used
as fat blend or hard stock for the manufacture of
low or zero trans FAs solid fats such as margarine,
shortening, spread and pastry fat. At the same time,
the MPOB IE-FATs help to reduce the saturated FA
(SAFA) level in the solid fat formulations. For
instance, the trans-free MPOB IE-FATs can be used to
produce tub and block type table margarine/spread
with desirable mouth feel, good spreadability at
refrigeration temperature and low SAFA content.
Examples of SFC profiles of oil blend formulations
for such table margarines/spread are shown in Figure 2.
The SAFA contents of the oil blend formulations for
block (coded A) and tub (coded B) type table
m a r g a r i n e / s p r e a d a r e 2 5 . 1 % a n d 1 7 . 3 % ,
respectively. Post-hardening, which usually occurs in
table margarine/spread formulated with palm
products, especially those stored at refrigeration
temperature, may also be averted.
The MPOB IE-FATs are also suitable in the
formulation of bakery margarine/shortening low in
SAFA. An example of a trans-free bakery shortening
blends having good plasticity over a broad
temperature range (similar to USA commercial
products) is blend C in Figure 2. It contains 29.5%
SAFAs, much lower than the contents in most of the
popular US brands. Bakery fats having a balance
saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated FA
content can also be produced using the MPOB IE-FATs
as hard stock.
Figure 1. Solid fat content profiles of MPOB IE-FATs hard
stock for solid fat formulations.
Figure 2. SFC profiles of oil blend formulations for various
types of solid fat products using MPOB IE-FATs as hard stock.
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2008 MPOB TT No. 387
TRANS-FREE SOFT SPREAD (TF Soft Spread)
412
A
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS andZALIHA OMAR
trans-free Soft Spread (TF Soft Spread) has been formulated (Figure 1). The margarine is consistent, yet soft and readily spreadable on bread from the refrigerator at 5°C-10°C. It
also maintains its consistency even when left at room temperature (23°C-25°C) for up to 4 hr.
Figure 1. TF Soft Spread.
There has been increasing demand for margarines with low saturates and trans by health conscious consumers. The saturated fatty acid (SAFA)content recommended is < 33% and trans fatty acids <1%.
Reducing SAFA to <33% will normally com-promise the physical product as SAFA contributes
to the structure or body of the margarine by affecting its solid fat content (SFC) which can be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance. Reducing SAFA will weaken the structure. Soft margarines with low SFC packed in tubs would also suffer from oil separation, graininess and greasiness. When a margarine is produced, it should be allowed suffi cient crystal formation for the desired consistency during fi lling. This can be achieved by setting the crystallization tempera-ture at 30% SFC. The storage temperature isanother important parameter to manage for stability and spreada-bility of the margarine over time.
MPOB has, however, managed to produce a trans-free soft spread with low SAFA and high linoleic acid using a novel processing method.
PRODUCT NOVELTY
Like any other normal soft margarine and butter, TF Soft Spread is for spreading on bread. Its reduced fat content (65%) gives it a lower calorifi c value. It is also carefully formulated as a healthy product free from trans fatty acids and containing <30% saturates and >50% linoleic (C18:2, ω6) (Figure 2). It is readily spreadable from the refrigerator, and maintains its spreadability and consistency for over 4 hr at room temperature (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Fatty acid composition of TF Soft Spread 996.Note: The blue portion of the pie chart indicates the linoleic acid part of the formulation.
PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
As per the normal crystallization behaviour of margarines during storage (Faur, 1996; Miskandar et al., 2002a, b), the product was unstable in the first week at 5°C to 15°C. However, it then stabilized with no significant (P<0.05) post-crystallization from the second week onwards. Storage at 5°C, 10°C, 15°C and 20°C did not cause any significant changes in the product hardness as measured by its yield value after the second week of storage (Figure 4). According to Haighton (1965), the yield
value of a good margarine with good spreadability should be 200 - 1000 g cm-2. Figure 5 shows that the product has a stable and smooth texture without significant melting even after deformation. This is supported by the stable crystal development as shown in the photomicrograph in Figure 6. Crystals of the product were homogeneous in size and distribution, indicating that our novel processing method, MN996, had promoted effectivenucleation that contained the crystal size to < 4 μm even after 25 days of storage.
Figure 3. Spreadability of TF Soft Spread 996 and three commercial samples.Note: Spreadability was measured as soon as the product was taken
out of the refrigerator (time = 0 min), measurement was taken every 15 minto 330 min at room temperature of 23ºC.
Figure 4. Penetration yield values (g cm-2) after 25 days’ storage at5°C, 10°C, 15°C and 20°C.
Figure 7. Sensory evaluation results for TFSoft Spread 996 and a commercial spread.
The product is usable straight from the refrigerator (5°C-10°C), spreads with a smooth texture and no oiling-off, making it highly acceptable by the 18 sensory panellists it was tested on (Figure 7). The sensory results show TF Soft Spread MN996 to be better than most of the well-known local commercial margarines.
Figure 5. Texture of TF Soft Spread 996.
Figure 6. Photomicrograph of TF Soft Spread 996 after storage for 25 days at 15°C (magnification 10x10).
INVESTMENT RETURN
Yearly production Production volume (t) 2 496 Sales @ RM 2.80 per 250 g tub RM 27 955 200Production cost RM 17 980 319Profit a year RM 9 974 880 Investment Fixed investment RM 6 150 000Operating cost RM 8 990 160Total investment RM 15 140 160 NPV RM 19 207 507 Break-even 3 yearsIRR 23%
REFERENCES
FAUR, L (1996). Margarine technology. Oils and Fats Manual (Karleskind, A ed.). Vol. 2, Lovoisier Publishing, Paris. p. 951-962.
MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; M S A,YUSOFF and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002a). Effect of emulsion temperature on physical properties of palm oil-based margarine. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 79: 1163-1168.
MISKANDAR, M S; Y B, CHE MAN; M S A YUSOFF and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002b),Effect of scraped-surface tube cooler tempera-ture on physical properties of palm oil margarine.J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 79: 931-936.
HAIGHTON, A J (1965). The measurement of the hardness of margarine fats with cone penetrom-eter, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 36: 345-348.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2008 MPOB TT No. 388
PALM-BASED TRANS-FREE RECONSTITUTED FILLED MILK
413
F
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
by: WAN ROSNANI AWG ISA; NOR AINI IDRIS; ABDUL RAHMAN IBRAHIM and AZMAN ISMAIL
milk is little or not produced. The properties of reconstituted milk more closely resemble those of homogenized milk than whole milk. Much of the filled milk in the market contains coconut oil, which is inexpensive and more resistant to oxida-tion than milk fat. In addition, its melting charac-teristics mimic that of milk fat.
illed milk is a milk substitute made by combining non-dairy fats or oils with milk solids. It is used to replace fresh milk products in regions where there is inadequate storage facilities or where
Figure 2. Palm-based reconstituted filled milk.
INGREDIENTS AND PROCESSING
The major ingredients in palm-based reconstituted filled milk (palm-based RFM) are palm-based oil, milk protein and water (Figure 2). A food emulsi-fier is added to make the emulsion homogenous.
The dry and liquid ingredients are reconstituted with water and heated to 40oC in the processing
Figure 1. Palm oil.
vessel. The mixture is homogenized, then pasteur-ized at 72oC for 30 min. The palm-based reconsti-tuted filled milk is packed in suitable containers. The product should be shaken well before use.
PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
The physical properties of palm-based RFM are shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. The viscosity ranged from 43 to 53.2 mPas vs. 43 mPas for the control. The viscosity of Formulation 2 (F2) was compara-ble to that of the control, while the viscosities of Formulations 1 (F1) and 3 (F3) were higher. The pH of palm-based RFM was 6.6 to 6.8, and for the control, 6.7. Brix was 12.9% to 17.5%, while for the control 13.2%. The F1 had pH and brix compara-ble to those of the control. The sensory evaluation scores (Figure 4) indicated that palm-based RFM prepared from milk powder (MP1) was preferred over MP2 or MP3. Palm-based RFM prepared from MP1 and palm-based oil scored higher for appear-ance and creaming property than the other experi-mental samples (Figure 5). Palm blend 1 was com-parable to palm-based oil 3 in terms of appearance and suitable to be produced as palm-based RFM.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
TABLE1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALM-BASED RECONSTITUTED FILLED MILK
Palm-based RFM is an alternative to milk. It is in liquid form and is always ready for use.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
The commercial production of palm-based RFM is expected to require an investment ofRM 286 000. Producing 48 000 kg yr-1 at a long-term price of RM 5.5 kg-1 will earn a pre-taxincome of RM 84 955. The unit cost of produc-tion is estimated to be about RM 4.23 kg-1. Using a 10% discount factor and a product price of RM 5 kg-1, the investment is attractive with a payback period of 5.3 years. The venture is expected toyield a B:C ratio of 1.17, NPV of RM 237 287 and IRR of 30.23%. As the B:C is greater than unity, NPV positive and IRR higher than the opportu-nity cost of capital; the investment is financiallyviable.
MARKET POTENTIAL
The users of palm-based RFM are fast food restaurants, catering services and retailers.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Viscosity (mPas)
F1 F2 F3 F4
Figure 4. Sensory scores for palm-based reconstituted filled milk.
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; ISA MANSOR; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS and MOHAMAD FAIRUS MOHD HIDZIR
rick spread is widely used in the catering and retail sectors (Figure 1). The applications of this product are for spreading on bread and to stir fry vegetables, rice, seafood, meat
and eggs. Brick spread replaces the function of butter in shallow frying application. Brick spread in shallow frying will act to transfer the buttery aroma into the shallow fried foods. The oils and fats used in the formulation must play the role of preserving the butter fl avour during the shallow frying process. Despite this, the spread must also be able to tolerate high frying temperatures without scorching the frying pan or spattering. Specially selected palm-based oils and fats are able to support this application as palm-basedproducts are able to withstand high frying temperatures and are resistant to oxidation. Palm-based oils and fats also contain very low levels of phospholipids (2 to 4 ppm). Hence, the use of palm-based products will be able to minimize the staining of the frying pans from the formation of gummy residual during the shallow frying process.
Common commercial brick spreads are formulated with hydrogenated fats for their property of
fast crystallization required for block formation during the processing. However, hydrogenation produces trans fatty acids which are nutritionally undesirable as a pre-disposing factor to cardio-vascular diseases. Hence, the global trend is towards trans-free formulations. Palm oil, with its natural solid portion devoid of trans fatty acids, would be a very good substitute for hydrogenated fats. MPOB BS 1 Brick Spread was formulated with specially selected palm-based oils and fats to match the solid fat profi les of several commercial brick spreads from Eastern Europe (Figure 2). The palm-based oils and fats were blended to satisfy the crucial requirement of easy block formation during processing (Figure 3). Normally, this product is marketed in paper-wrapped bricks of 250 g/500 g for retail, or 2.5 kg/5 kg blocks for catering. Hence, the formulation must be able to form into blocks during processing to facilitate packaging.
As much as 30% water is incorporated into MPOB BS1 Brick Spread. Suitable emulsifi ers are used to strengthen the binding of water to the oil in the emulsion so that the emulsion can withstand the high heating in shallow frying. The bindingstrength of water to oil is able to reduce the spattering during shallow frying. The gentle
Figure 1. Commercial brick spread display in hypermarket in Turkey.
release of water during frying is important to prevent the hot oil from spurting onto the user.
Figures 4 to 8 show the evaluation of spattering of MPOB BS1 Brick Spread. The 10 g MPOB BS1 was placed in a wok to a depth of 8 cm, and a wire mesh placed over it to support a sheet of graph paper. The graph paper was weighed down by the glass cover of the wok. The oil was then heated to 150°C for 2 min. The degree of spattering was taken as the number of oil stains on the graph paper, of which a minimal number was found, indicating the low spattering potential of the spread. There was also minimal spattering on the walls of the
Figure 3. Production of MPOB BS1 in the MPOB perfector pilot plant.
Figure 2. Solid fat content profiles of commercial brick spreads from Eastern Europe and MPOB BS1 Brick Spread.
Figure 4. The 10 g of MPOB BS 1 Brick Spreadwas placed in the wok.
wok. Hence, MPOB BS 1 is an excellent medium for shallow frying.
Sol
id fa
t con
tent
(%
)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PALM-BASEDBRICK SPREAD FOR SHALLOW FRYING
• The product has as high as 30% water content, substantially reducing the calorie intake;
• Suitable for shallow frying as specially selected emulsifiers are able to reduce the spattering during frying;
• A healthier replacement for hydrogenated fats, free from trans fatty acids;
• The product is also cholesterol-free; and • The product does not leave a waxy or greasy
after-taste.
CONCLUSION
Palm-based fractions are able to replace hydro-genated fats in the formulation of brick spreadand incorporate as much as 30% water. Theselection of the palm-based oils and fatssuccessfully fulfils the crucial requirement for block formation during processing.
MPOB BS1 can easily be added to the range of products of companies producing shortening and margarine without undue extra cost.
Note: Brick spreads are not recommended for deep frying.
Figure 5. Wire mesh place on the wok to holdthe graph paper.
Figure 6. The brick spread was heated to150°C for 2 min.
Figure 7. Minimum spattering was observed.
Figure 8. Minimum oil stains on graph paper.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2008 MPOB TT No. 391
PRODUCTION OF TOCOTRIENOL-ENRICHEDEGGS
416
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Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
OSMAN ATIL; MARDHATI MOHAMMAD; FARAH NURSHAHIDA MOHD SUBAKIR; AHMAD RUSDAN AHMAD ZOHDI and JUMARDI ROSLAN
ocotrienol-enriched egg was developed at the Energy Protein Centre (EPC), MPOB in Keratong, Pahang. It was technically feasible to produce tocotrienol-enriched chicken eggs
through feeding formulated feed with tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) and/or MPOB-HIE. Tocotrienol and vitamin E enhanced oxidative stability and prevented off-fl avour in the eggs (Ajuyah et al., 1993). Vitamin E was demonstrated to reduce heat stress in laying hens (Whitehead et al., 1998; Bollengier-Lee et al., 1998). MPOB-HIE was developed from a palm oil product very rich in natural tocotrienols and vitamin E. It was technically and economically feasible to substitute crude palm oil (CPO) and part of the corn in layer chicken feed.
Haugh units was adopted. The sensory test was carried out using half-boiled and scrambled eggs. The Haugh unit is a measurement of the albumen quality.
Formula:
HU = 100 log10 (h – 1.7w0.37 + 7.6)
where,HU = Haugh unit h = observed height of the albumen in millimeters w = weight of egg in grammes
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Seventeen-week-old 7200 H&N pullets were assigned to six treatment rations: commercial ration (T1), ration formulated with 5% MPOB-HIE (T2), ration formulated with an improved MPOB-HIE at 5% with 50 ppm tocotrienol (T3), 100 ppm tocotrienol (T4), 150 ppm tocotrienol (T5) and 200 ppm tocotrienol (T6). The tocotrienols came from TRF bought from a local manufacturer. All of the rations were isonitrogenous and isocaloric. Water was available ad libitum. The tocotrienol and fatty acid analyses were carried out using the techniques described by Sundram and Rosnah (2000). Egg quality analysis on shell thickness and
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON TOCOTRIENOLS, VITAMIN E
AND FATTY ACIDS
The rates of tocotrienol accumulation in the eggs are presented in Figure 1. Accumulation of tocotrienols in the eggs was positive and directly related to the amount of tocotrienols in the rations. Ingested tocotrienols tended to accumulate in the egg yolk (Lanari et al., 2004). The result showed higher tocotrienols in the eggs as the bird grew older. This was a clear indication that the ingested tocotrienol tended to be deposited in the egg yolk throughout the feeding period. The feeding period and concentration of tocotrienol in the feed directly infl uenced the tocotrienol concentration of the egg.
The predominant fatty acids in the egg yolk are tabulated in Table 1. They are oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), palmitic (16:0), stearic (C18:0) and myristic (C14:0).
The egg albumen quality is routinely measured in Haugh units. Haugh unit is determined by a micrometer which measures the albumen height. Haugh units of the eggs from rations formulated with MPOB-HIE were higher than the commercial ration.
Figure 1. Tocotrienol content in eggs.
TABLE 1. FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION OF EGG YOLK FROM HENS FED RATIONS FORMULATED WITH MPOB-HIE
The shell was thicker from the eggs of hens fed on rations formulated with MPOB-HIE (Table 2).
Figures 2 and 3 show the sensory attributes of boiled and scrambled eggs. The sensory attributes of boiled and scrambled eggs of hens fed rations formulated with MPOB-HIE tended to be superior to the commercial ration. As such, MPOB-HIE imparted superior sensory atributes. Therefore, inclusion of MPOB-HIE and palm tocols in the ration of hens produce good quality eggs and good taste. The eggs were readily accepted by consumers.
CONCLUSION
• It was technically feasible to use 5% MPOB-HIE in the formulation of layer rations.
• It was technically feasible to produce tocotrienol-enriched eggs through feeding.
• MPOB-HIE tended to improve the quality of eggs.
• MPOB-HIE impart superior eating quality to the eggs.
REFERENCES
AJUYAH, A O; HARDIN, R T and SIM, J S (1993). Effect of dietary full-fat flaxseed with and without antioxidant on the fatty acid composition of major lipid classes of chicken meats. Poult. Sci., 72:125-136.
BOLLENGIER-LEE, S; MITCHELL, M A; UTOMO, D B; WILLIAMS, P E V and HITEHEAD,
Figure 2. Sensory evaluation on half-boiled egg.
Figure 3. Sensory evaluation on scrambled egg.
C C (1998). Influence of high dietary vitamin E supplementation on egg production and plasma characteristics in hens subjected to heat stress. Br. Poult. Sci., 39: 106-112.
LANARI, M C; HEWAVITHARANA, A K; BECU, C and DE JONG, S (2004). Effect of dietary tocopherols and tocotrienols on the antioxidant status and lipid stability of chicken. Meat Science, 68: 155-162. SUNDRAM, K and ROSNAH, M N (2000). Analysis of tocotrienols in different sample matrixes by HPLC. Methods in Molecular Biology, 186: 221-232.
WHITEHEAD, C C; BOLLENGIER-LEE, S; MITCHELL, M A and WILLIAMS, P E V (1998) Vitamin E can alleviate the depression in egg production in heat stressed laying hens. Proc. of Spring Meeting. Wpsauk Branch, Scarborough. p. 55–56.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
such as vanilla, chocolate and hazelnut to fruity flavours.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PRODUCT
Filling fat was formulated through a blending and interesterification process using different fractions of palm oil to obtain the required characteristics. The cream filling was produced using 40% fats, sugar, emulsifier and flavour. The MPOB fats for cream fillings have several advantages:
• they have reduced saturated fatty acids;• being non-lauric-based, they are not
susceptible to hydrolytic rancidity;• non-hydrogenated fats are used;• they do not contain trans fatty acids;• they have a fast rate of solidification (Figure 2); and• they are bland in flavour, facilitating the
addition of any flavouring agent.
Figure 2. Rate of solidification of MPOB and control fats at 20oC.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CREAM FILLING MADE FROM MPOB FATS
As the MPOB fats have enough solid fat, they will solidify at a faster rate to give good characteristics for cream fillings. Good quality cream fillings can be produced using MPOB fats as they are able to
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009 MPOB TT No. 434
NON-LAURIC FATS FOR CREAM FILLING
476
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Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
SALMI YATI SHAMSUDIN
andwich cookies occupy a significant place in the world market for biscuits. Soft filling creams are widely used for filling sandwich cookies. The cream is either sandwiched between the
cookies or between the wafer sheets. Multiple layers of cream can also be sandwiched between wafers. Cream biscuits may also be enrobed with chocolate or other coatings. Cream fillings will enhance the palatability of biscuits and wafers. Some applications of cream fillings are shown in Figure 1. Amongst the popular product brands are Oreo which is produced by Nabisco Biscuit Company and Tim Tam produced by Arnott’s Biscuits Holdings.
The creams principally contain sugar, fat and flavouring. The fat content in the filling cream usually falls in the range of 25%-40%. The fat is carefully selected to give the cream some specific characteristics such as quick setting, firm at usage temperature and no leakages out from the sandwich. The cream should also have good melting properties in the mouth to avoid waxiness. The flavour can vary from indulgent flavours
Figure 1. Commercial applications of cream fillings.
satisfy the following criteria:• the cream is smooth and creamy (Figure 3 and
Table 1);• the cream solidifies sufficiently rapidly
after spreading, and the two biscuit shells are held together firmly to prevent possible damage during transportation and packaging
(Figure 4);
• the cream gives a firm bite yet melts quickly in the mouth to give a cool sensation to the palate and release the sugar and added flavouring (Table 1); and
• the cream melts readily leaving no waxy after-taste.
The creaming power of the product was 1.1-1.2 g cm-3 as compared to the control which was 1.1-1.5 g cm-3. The required creaming power is 0.75-1.15 g cm-3. The graphs for hardness during storage at 20ºC and 30ºC are shown in Figure 6. There was no significant increase in hardness during storage, indicating that the occurrence of post-hardening was minimal.
melting property and creaminess (Table 1). The scores also showed that the non-lauric- based filling fats (MPOB 1, MPOB 2 and Comm. 2) were as well received as the lauric-based filling fat (Comm.1).
MARKET POTENTIAL
Biscuits are one of the main high-end processed foods. In USA, the total value of shipments of cookies and the cracker manufacturing industry amounted to USD 10.3 billion in 2000. The leader in the industry is Nabisco Biscuit Company which sold the top 10 cookies worldwide with the sales amounting to USD 1.8 billion for the first half of 1999. Its products include Oreo chocolate sandwich cookies, which is the world’s largest selling cookie brand.
China is the third largest market for biscuits after USA and India. The highest product share was held by sandwich biscuits at 20% share in 2005. The popular types of biscuits include butter cookies and sandwich type cookies with chocolate, vanilla or strawberry fillings.
In Malaysia, biscuit production was 107 017 t valued at USD 109.3 million in 1997. The industry continues to grow in line with upgrading the
TABLE 1. SENSORY SCORES FOR MPOBAND COMMERCIAL CREAM
FILLINGS
Sample Smoothness Melting Creaminess property
MPOB 1 5.4a 5.5b 6.7a
MPOB 2 5.2a 5.3b 5.6ab
Comm 1 5.9a 5.1b 5.9ab
Comm 2 5.1a 7.1a 4.9b
Figure 4. The cream is stable when sandwiched in between biscuit shells.
Figure 3. Smooth and creamy cream filling.
• the cream is firm enough (Figure 5) at ambient temperatures to hold the two biscuit shells together and yet avoid being squeezed out of the sandwich;
Figure 5. The peak of the cream does not collapse showing that the cream is stable at 30oC and at room temperatures.
Figure 6. Hardness of cream filling made with MPOB fats and commercial samples during storage at 20oC and 30oC.
SENSORY PROFILE OF CREAM FILLING
Sensory scores for cream fillings made with MPOB fats were not significantly different (p<0.05) from commercial cream fillings in terms of smoothness,
product image in order to compete in local and overseas markets. Local biscuit production includes cream crackers, oatmeal and digestive biscuits, chocolate-coated cream sandwich biscuits and other assorted biscuits. The industry is dominated by four major brand-driven companies, namely Britannia Brands, Hwa Tai Food Industries, Perfect Food Industries and Khong Guan Biscuit Factory. Besides catering for local consumption, they also export their biscuits to West Asia, Australia, Canada, UK, Southeast Asian countries, Russia and Japan. The biscuit industry continues to grow with many local producers producing unbranded biscuits targeted at the low-end market while the high quality branded products are exported. This indirectly reflects the increased use of ingredients for making biscuits, including the cream fillings which are widely used for sandwich biscuits and wafers.
In line with the increased health awareness of the risk of using trans fatty acid fats and high saturated fats, the MPOB fats for cream fillings can be the best choice for our discerning consumers. MPOB fats offer trans fatty acid-free and lower saturated fats for cream fillings unlike the lauric acid-based fats.
Notes: Comm = commercial sample. Means within a column with the sample which are not significantly different from one another (p. < 0.05).
satisfy the following criteria:• the cream is smooth and creamy (Figure 3 and
Table 1);• the cream solidifies sufficiently rapidly
after spreading, and the two biscuit shells are held together firmly to prevent possible damage during transportation and packaging
(Figure 4);
• the cream gives a firm bite yet melts quickly in the mouth to give a cool sensation to the palate and release the sugar and added flavouring (Table 1); and
• the cream melts readily leaving no waxy after-taste.
The creaming power of the product was 1.1-1.2 g cm-3 as compared to the control which was 1.1-1.5 g cm-3. The required creaming power is 0.75-1.15 g cm-3. The graphs for hardness during storage at 20ºC and 30ºC are shown in Figure 6. There was no significant increase in hardness during storage, indicating that the occurrence of post-hardening was minimal.
melting property and creaminess (Table 1). The scores also showed that the non-lauric- based filling fats (MPOB 1, MPOB 2 and Comm. 2) were as well received as the lauric-based filling fat (Comm.1).
MARKET POTENTIAL
Biscuits are one of the main high-end processed foods. In USA, the total value of shipments of cookies and the cracker manufacturing industry amounted to USD 10.3 billion in 2000. The leader in the industry is Nabisco Biscuit Company which sold the top 10 cookies worldwide with the sales amounting to USD 1.8 billion for the first half of 1999. Its products include Oreo chocolate sandwich cookies, which is the world’s largest selling cookie brand.
China is the third largest market for biscuits after USA and India. The highest product share was held by sandwich biscuits at 20% share in 2005. The popular types of biscuits include butter cookies and sandwich type cookies with chocolate, vanilla or strawberry fillings.
In Malaysia, biscuit production was 107 017 t valued at USD 109.3 million in 1997. The industry continues to grow in line with upgrading the
TABLE 1. SENSORY SCORES FOR MPOBAND COMMERCIAL CREAM
FILLINGS
Sample Smoothness Melting Creaminess property
MPOB 1 5.4a 5.5b 6.7a
MPOB 2 5.2a 5.3b 5.6ab
Comm 1 5.9a 5.1b 5.9ab
Comm 2 5.1a 7.1a 4.9b
Figure 4. The cream is stable when sandwiched in between biscuit shells.
Figure 3. Smooth and creamy cream filling.
• the cream is firm enough (Figure 5) at ambient temperatures to hold the two biscuit shells together and yet avoid being squeezed out of the sandwich;
Figure 5. The peak of the cream does not collapse showing that the cream is stable at 30oC and at room temperatures.
Figure 6. Hardness of cream filling made with MPOB fats and commercial samples during storage at 20oC and 30oC.
SENSORY PROFILE OF CREAM FILLING
Sensory scores for cream fillings made with MPOB fats were not significantly different (p<0.05) from commercial cream fillings in terms of smoothness,
product image in order to compete in local and overseas markets. Local biscuit production includes cream crackers, oatmeal and digestive biscuits, chocolate-coated cream sandwich biscuits and other assorted biscuits. The industry is dominated by four major brand-driven companies, namely Britannia Brands, Hwa Tai Food Industries, Perfect Food Industries and Khong Guan Biscuit Factory. Besides catering for local consumption, they also export their biscuits to West Asia, Australia, Canada, UK, Southeast Asian countries, Russia and Japan. The biscuit industry continues to grow with many local producers producing unbranded biscuits targeted at the low-end market while the high quality branded products are exported. This indirectly reflects the increased use of ingredients for making biscuits, including the cream fillings which are widely used for sandwich biscuits and wafers.
In line with the increased health awareness of the risk of using trans fatty acid fats and high saturated fats, the MPOB fats for cream fillings can be the best choice for our discerning consumers. MPOB fats offer trans fatty acid-free and lower saturated fats for cream fillings unlike the lauric acid-based fats.
Notes: Comm = commercial sample. Means within a column with the sample which are not significantly different from one another (p. < 0.05).
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009 MPOB TT No. 435
PALM-BASED TRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BUTTER OIL SUBSTITUTE
477
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Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; GOH ENG MENG; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI;NOR AINI IDRIS and JAYA GOPAL
utter oil substitute (BOS) is widely used in the bakery industry to replace the expensive dairy-based butter oil. The functionality of BOS is similar to that of shortening, which is to ‘shorten’ or
tenderize baked foods (O’Brien, 1996). The unique characteristics of the BOS product compared to shortening are its strong butter flavour and a deep yellow colour.
BOS is formulated mainly from combinations of animal fats (tallow or lard) and hydrogenated oils. Fats of animal origin contain cholesterol as the major sterol, which is normally considered to be of negative value in the diet (Jee, 2002). Similarly, partially hydrogenated fats contain trans fatty acids (TFA) which are associated with adverse health effects. TFA have an adverse effect on blood lipoproteins (cholesterol) and have been shown to increase the risk of heart disease. TFA increase the risk of elevating LDL-cholesterol (the bad lipoproteins) and reducing HDL-cholesterol (the good lipoprotein). This increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (Mozaffarian et al., 2006). Currently, food manufacturers and retailers are systematically removing partially hydrogenated fats from their products. Solid fractions from palm oil are free from cholesterol and TFA, hence are suitable choices for the replacement of animal fats and partially hydrogenated fats in the formulation of BOS.
PALM-BASED TFA-FREE BUTTER OIL SUBSTITUTE
BOS is extensively used in the bakery industry for making a wide range of pastries. A well-known pastry in China (as well as in Malaysia) using BOS is the mooncake, which is made for the Autumn Festival as special gifts for family and friends (Figures 1 and 2). The formulation of BOS using palm-based oils and fats for this project was based on commercial BOS products from China.
Five commercial BOS products were obtained from China as reference. The fatty acid composition of these products confirmed the presence of animal fats in three of them. The fatty acids such as pentadecanoic acid C15:0, margaric acid C17:0 and margaoleic acid C17:1, which are present only in animal fats, were detected. The level of margaoleic acid C17:1 detected ranged from 0.3% to 0.4%, as shown in Table 1. The remaining two samples were
Figure 1. BOS from China with deep yellow colour.
Figure 2. The outer layer of the mooncake dough issoftened with BOS.
free of animal fats. TFA were detected in all the commercial products. Higher levels of TFA were detected in the two commercial products which were free of animal fats. The levels detected were 1.0%, 1.7%, 2.3%, 3.5% and 4.7% as shown in Table 2.
TABLE 1. LEVEL OF C17:1 DETECTED IN COMMERCIAL BOS AND BOS 001
Healthier palm-based TFA-free oils and fats blends were used to replace the animal fats and the partially hydrogenated oils in the formulation of a BOS. Palm-based raw materials that can be used for the BOS fat blends are shown in Table 3.
Palm-based TFA-free butter oil substitute BOS 001 was formulated. The palm-based blends were formulated to match the solid fat content (SFC) profile of the commercial products, at the working temperature of the product, i.e. with SFC of 24% at 20°C and 10% at 30°C. The SFC at 40°C was maintained below 3% to avoid a greasy mouth feel in the end-product as shown in Figure 3. The final product was produced by processing the fat blend through the perfector pilot plant (Figure 4).
The bakery performance of the BOS was determined by evaluating the creaming ability of the product. The specific volume values obtained from the creaming of a 500-g sample of the product for 12 min ranged from 2.3 to 3.4 cm3 g-1 for the commercial products. The palm-based TFA-free formulation with the addition of a suitable emulsifier was able to give a reading of 3.3 cm3 g-1, as shown in Table 4. Hence, palm-based trans-free formulations have been successfully used to replace animal and partially hydrogenated fats in the production of BOS.
BENEFITS/ADVANTAGES
1. A healthier replacement for partially hydrogenated fats – free of trans fatty acids.
2. A healthier replacement for animal fats – free of cholesterol.
3. Natural fractions of palm-based oils and fats used without hydrogenation and/or interesterification.
4. Formulated with a specially selected emulsifier to give the required creaming properties.
5. Suitable for vegetarians.6. Halal and kosher.
TABLE 3. PALM-BASED PRODUCTS FOR THE FORMULATION OF BOS
Palm fraction High melting point Medium melting point Moderator or fraction fraction modifier
Function Act as the backbone Provides structure and Used as modifier to structure texture to the product achieve the required solid fat content profile to give the required mouth-feel
Suitable level 10% to 20% 40% to 50% 30% to 50%in blend
CONCLUSION
The palm-based BOS produced was able to match the physical properties and functionalities of the commercial BOS from China. Hence, natural palm-based fractions can successfully replace animal and partially hydrogenated fats in the production of BOS and thus provide a healthier fat ingredient for the bakery industry.
Figure 3. Solid fat content of commercial BOS samples and BOS 001.
Pe
rce
nta
ge
of
So
lid
s
TABLE 4. CREAMING ABILITY OF COMMERCIAL BOS AND BOS 001
Com 2 2.3 cm3 g-1 Com 3 2.9 cm3 g-1 Com 4 3.0 cm3 g-1 Com 5 3.4 cm3 g-1
BOS 001 3.3 cm3 g-1
REFERENCES
MOZAFFARIAN, D; KATAN, M B; ASCHERIO, A; STAMPFER, M J and WILLETT, W C (2006). Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 354: 1601-1613.
O’BRIEN, R D (1996). Shortening type and formulations. Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fats Products Volume 3. Edible Oils and Fat Products and Application Technology (Hui, Y H ed.).
JEE, M (2002). Milk fats and other animal fats. Oils and Fats Authentication (Jee, M ed.). Blackwell Publishing. p. 115-142.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009 MPOB TT No. 436
PALM-BASED TRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BISCUIT CREAM FAT
478
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Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; ISA MANSOR; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI;NOR AINI IDRIS and JAYA GOPAL
ream sandwich cookies and crackers are popular snack biscuits in many parts of the world. In this category of biscuits, two identical pieces contain a layer of sweet or savoury
cream filling, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. A fat component is used in producing this biscuit cream and its content varies from 25% to 35% of the total cream.
the making of the biscuit cream are as follows:• the fat type used in making the biscuit cream
must be quick setting when placed between the shell biscuits. The cream must also resist misalignment, smearing and decapping during processing and storage.
• during storage and handling, the biscuit cream should be firm at ambient temperature
to maintain product shape and not be squeezed out on handling or when bitten.
• the cream, although firm at ambient temperature, must have organoleptic properties allowing rapid melting in the mouth to release ingredients giving
maximum flavour sensation without greasiness.
Partially hydrogenated fats were developed to replace the highly saturated solid animal fats,such as butter, tallow and lard, and wereextensively used in the edible fat segment. Previously, the partially hydrogenated fats were thought to provide a healthier alternative toanimal fats because they contain no cholesteroland have less cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids. However, this opinion has changed with evidence from nutrition research indicating that trans fatty acids (TFA), formed during thehydrogenation process, raise blood cholesterol levels and promote arteriosclerosis to a greater extent than saturated fatty acids. In view of these findings, healthier palm-based TFA-free oil and fat blends are being increasingly used to replace the partially hydrogenated oils in the formulation of biscuit cream fat.
PALM-BASED TFA-FREEBISCUIT CREAM FAT
MPOB has undertaken extensive research and found that palm-based oils and fats can be blended to give the required application and functional qualities of biscuit cream fat. Palm-based raw materials that can be used for these fat blends are shown in Table 1. A palm-based TFA-free biscuit
Figure 1. Palm-based trans fatty acid-freebiscuit cream fat.
The fat component affects the processing and the stability of the biscuit cream as well as the taste and eating quality of the biscuits. The most important factors determining the good qualities of the biscuit and the right type of fat to be used in
cream, BC 001, was formulated based on the solid fat profile (SFC) of the commercial product, as shown in Figure 3. The SFC at the processing/mixing temperature of 20ºC was maintained at 54% to facilitate the incorporation of sugar and other ingredients, and to retain the firmness of the cream. The sharp drop in SFC between 20ºC and 40ºC gives a quick meltdown of the cream that assists the flavour release from the cream, improving the organoleptic quality of the cream. The SFC at 40°C was reduced in BC001 to 3% as compared to the commercial product, Com 1, with 9% solids. The drop in the SFC at 40ºC improved the mouth-feel of the end-product as the greasiness was reduced. The final product was produced by processing the fat blend through the perfector plant, as shown in Figure 4.
TABLE 1. SUGGESTED OILS AND FATS FOR USE IN THE FORMULATION OF PALM-BASEDTRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BISCUIT CREAM
Fraction High melting point Medium melting point Moderator or fraction fraction modifier
Function Promotes fast Promotes texture and Used for obtaining the crystallization at structure formation at desirable solid fat temperatures below temperatures below 30°C. content profile to suit 30°C. the requirements of the Should melt down at intended product. Acts as the backbone temperatures above 35°C structure. to avoid greasy or waxy after-taste.
Figure 3. Solid fat content profile of commercial biscuit cream fat and BC 001.
Perc
en
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f S
oli
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Figure 4. BC 001 was processed through theMPOB perfector pilot plant.
BENEFITS AND ADVANTAGES OFPALM-BASED BISCUIT CREAM FAT
• A healthier replacement for partially hydrogenated fats, the palm-based fat blend is free of trans fatty acids.
• Natural fractions of palm-based oils and fats do not involve hydrogenation and/or interesterification.
• The blend is based on 100% vegetable fats; hence, the product is also cholesterol-free.
• The blend is formulated from specially selected fractions of palm-based oils to facilitate a higher crystallization rate that aids quick setting of the cream during processing.
• The product is firm yet melts in the mouth, and the product does not leave a waxy or greasy after-taste.
• It is suitable for vegetarians.• It is halal and kosher.
CONCLUSION
Specially selected palm-based fractions can suitably replace partially hydrogenated fats in the formulation of sandwich biscuit cream fat. The biscuit cream based on these palm fractions fulfill the extensive functional qualities required during processing, handling, storage and transport, as well as the eating qualities of the biscuit.
REFERENCES
US Patent 5374438 – Quick-setting sandwich biscuit cream fillings.
RATNAYAKE, W M N and ZEHALUK, C (2002). Trans fatty acids in foods and their labeling regulation. Healthful Lipids (Akoh, C C and Lai, O M, eds.).
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009 MPOB TT No. 437
PALM-BASED GHEE-LIKE COOKING FAT
479
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Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI and NOR AINI IDRIS
his low in trans fat ghee-like cooking fat is formulated from palm fractions and other commercial fats (Figure 1). The ratio of its saturated, monoun-saturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids is 4.4:3.7:1.0, an improvement to the ratio of natural ghee which is 25:8:1. The processing condition is unique and the product is spoonable in a tropical climate with temperature of >25°C. It retains its consistency of < 500 g cm-2 at a room temperature of 25°C–28°C without significant hardening or separating for more than six months. The product is very similar to natural ghee, both in consistency and appearance, and has a pleasant flavour, making it a very suitable medium for cooking and frying, particularly in countries in the tropics and in West Asia.
Figure 1. Palm-based ghee-like cooking fats.
PRODUCT PROPERTIES
The selected formulations for the production of ghee-like cooking fat have solid fat content profiles and melting properties similar to those of natural ghee. As shown in Figure 2, natural ghee and the selected formulations for ghee-like cooking fat show steeper slopes from 5°C–20°C, and more
gradual to horizontal slopes from 25°C-40°C. The shape of the slope indicates that the products have sharp melting properties from 5°C–20°C but retain their consistency from 25°C–40°C for spoonable property.
Figure 3 indicates that the palm-based ghee-like product is consistently soft and spoonable throughout the storage period of 25 days, and it is predicted that there will be no significant increase in hardness during storage for the subsequent six months at 25°C. Fat crystals that make up the overall texture of the product are homogeneous in shape and size as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 2. Solid fat content profile of naturalghee and ghee-like cooking fats.
Figure 3. Consistency of the ghee-like cooking fats during storage at 25°C for four weeks.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
CONSUMERS ACCEPTABILITY
The ghee-like cooking fat was tested for cooking briyani rice. The 20 sensory panellists who tested the cooked rice could not differentiate between the ghee-like cooking fat and natural ghee.
NOVELTY
The formulation has succeeded in improving the fatty acid ratio of the cooking fat over that of natural ghee. The ghee-like cooking fat contains more monounsaturated fatty acid (40% oleic acid) compared to natural ghee that contains 72.8% saturated and 23.2% monounsaturated fats. The product also contains very little trans fatty acid (0.04 g/100 g) compared to the normal commercial vegetable ghee (~17 g/100 g) and natural ghee (4.8 g/100 g). However it should be noted that the trans fatty acid present in the natural ghee is neutral.
COMMERCIAL VALUES
The expected capital investment of this technology for the basic production as shown in the process
Figure 4. Crystal size and distribution of ghee-like cooking fat at 28 days storage at 25°C (magnification 10x10).
flow chart in Figure 5 is <RM 600 000. However, no capital investment will be needed for an existing margarine, shortening, vanaspati and ghee producer.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
Price per kg RM 2.78 (RM 50 in 18 kg HDPE container )*.Cost of production per kg RM 2.62 (RM 47.12 in 18 kg).Net present value = RM 100 742.Internal rate of return = 26% .Payback = 3 years.
*When price of RBD palm oil = RM 2100 and RBD palm olein = RM 2400.
TARGET MARKET
Palm-based ghee-like cooking fats will be a healthier alternative for vegetable ghee and, to a certain extent, natural ghee. Local and overseas users of vegetable ghee, wishing to use a cooking fat similar to a natural ghee, can now use the palm-based ghee-like product.
Figure 5. Process flow chart of ghee-like cooking fat.
MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009 MPOB TT No. 438
HI-OLEIC SOFT SPREAD
480
D
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, MalaysiaP. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446
MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI
iets rich in oleic acid (e.g. olive oil, which contains up to 80% oleic acid) are found to be able to reduce blood pressure. Researchers suggested that the reduction of blood pressure is
due to the oleic acid’s physical properties, namely, the cis configuration in the 18-carbon fatty acid that leads to significant differences in the fluidity of the membrane (Petkewich, 2008) (Figure 1).
Hi-Oleic soft spread is a soft spread high in oleic fatty acid (C18:1) content and low in saturated fats (Figure 2). It is formulated from palm oil and a soft vegetable oil which is high in oleic fatty acid. There is no hydrogenation process involved in formulating the product.
The saturated fat content of this spread is as low as 10%-17%, or a maximum of 0.7 g per 5 g serving of the spread. The oleic acid contributes 70% of the total fat content. The saturated fat content is 50% lower than that of the American Heart Association (AHA) recommended formulations while the monounsaturated fatty acid content is 100% higher than the recommendations of AHA. Such a product is achieved by formulating selected oils and fats as well as having the appropriate processing condition to obtain the desired consistency (Miskandar, 2002a, b).
The processing condition is unique in that it is able to produce a spread with the desired spreadability on bread, without significant oiling out or presenting a greasy feeling on the tongue, despite the low saturated fat content and low solid fat profile (Figure 3). As the formulation has a very low saturated fatty acid content, Hi-Oleic soft spread should be kept refrigerated at 5°C-10°C so that the product will remain at a suitable consistency (< 500 g cm-2 ). At this temperature, it will be stable for more than four months with no separation or hardening (Faur, 1996; Haighton, 1965). As the product is very similar to other high-end bread spreads in the market, in terms of consistency, taste and appearance, it is suitable to be marketed under high-end fat spread with healthier properties.
Consistency is a criterion used to determine the product stability during storage, performance and consumer preference. Of the two Hi-Oleic soft spread formulations, 1089 demonstrates a very consistent yield value during storage as shown in Figure 4. The texture graph in Figure 5 shows a smooth line curve during cylinder penetration and retrieval, indicating that the spread is smooth through the entire range of the test (red region) with good spreadability. The consistency of the product is also demonstrated by its stability even after the 25th day of storage as shown in Figure 6. There is no significant oiling problem as shown by the homogeneous distribution of water droplets during storage at 5°C-20°C. Finally, it is the
Figure 2. Hi-Oleic soft spread.
Figure 3. Solid fat content profile of commercial and Hi-Oleic soft spreads.
SFC
, %
Figure 5. Texture of Hi-Oleic soft spread.
Figure 4. Penetration yield value of 1089, g cm-2 at 5, 10 and 15°C for 25 days storage.
SFC
, %
50mm
Figure 6. Water droplets distribution after 25 days at 10oC (1089). Magnification 10x10.
TABLE 1. FAT COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL AND HI-OLEIC SPREADS
Commercial Hi-Oleic spread
100 g *Per serving 100 g *Per serving
Total fat 54 - 72 -
Saturated fatty acid 10.6 0.53 12.4 0.61
Poly unsaturated fatty acid 13 0.65 6.5 0.32
Oleic acid 30 1.5 52.7 2.6
Trans 0.4 0.02 0.4 0.02
Note: *Per serving = 5 g.
TABLE 2. INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Item Yearly
Production value @RM 2.80 per 250 g tub
RM 27 955 200
Production cost RM 17 980 319.83
Profit per year RM 9 974 880.17
Investment
Capital investment RM 6 150 000
NPV RM 19 207 507
Breakeven 3 years
IRR 23%
consumer who judges our product as shown in Figure 7. Twenty-five untrained sensory panellists chose Hi-Oleic soft spread formulation 1089 over a control soft spread sample from a popular brand.
NOVELTY
The formulation is low in trans fat (0.02 g per serving) and saturated fatty acid (0.61 g per serving), but high in oleic acid content (2.6 g per serving) (Table 1).
COMMERCIAL VALUES
The product is comparable to other high-end bread spread in the market in terms of consistency, taste and appearance. For a new processor, the expected capital investment of this technology is RM 6.5 million as shown in Table 2. However, no capital investment will be needed for an existing margarine and shortening producer.
Sco
re
Figure 7. Sensory evaluation score data of commercial and Hi-Oleic spreads.
For more information kindly contact:
Director-GeneralMPOB
P. O. Box 1062050720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-87694400Website: www.mpob.gov.my
Telefax: 03-89259446
REFERENCES
FAUR, L (1996). Margarine technology. Oils and Fats Manual (Karleskind, A ed.). Vol. 2. Lovoisier Publishing, Paris. p. 951-962.
MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; YUSOFF, M S A and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002a). Effect of emulsion temperature on physical properties of palm oil-based margarine. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 79: 1163-1168.
MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; YUSOFF, M S A and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002b). Effect of scraped-surface tube cooler temperature on physical properties of palm oil margarine. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 79: 931-936.
HAIGHTON, A J (1965). The measurement of the hardness of margarine fats with cone penetrometer, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 36: 345-348.
PETKEWICH, R (2008). Oleic acid’s hypotensive effect. Chemical and Engineering News, 86: 9.
