Nutritional and Functional Properties ofNutritional and Functional Properties ofMoringa LeavesMoringa Leaves
−− From Germplasm, to Plant to Food, From Germplasm, to Plant to Food, to Health to Health
Moringa and Other Highly Nutritious Plant Resources: Strategies, Moringa and Other Highly Nutritious Plant Resources: Strategies,Standards and Markets for a Better Impact on Nutrition in AfricaStandards and Markets for a Better Impact on Nutrition in Africa
16 16 −− 18, 2006, Accra, 18, 2006, Accra, GannaGanna
Ray-Yu Yang, Lien-Chung Chang and Ray-Yu Yang, Lien-Chung Chang and Virginie LevasseurVirginie Levasseur
Nutrition Unit, Plant Breeding Unit, West Africa OfficeNutrition Unit, Plant Breeding Unit, West Africa OfficeAVRDC AVRDC −− The World Vegetable Center The World Vegetable Center
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Percentage of population
0
5
10
15
20
25
Global Least
developed
countries
Developing
countries
Economies
in transition
Developed
market
economy
countries
Underweight
Overweight
Coexist of underweight and overweight:overweight is on the rise
Source: FAO, focus 2004
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Developed countriesDeveloping countries in Africa Developing countries in Asia
Developing countries
Fruits Vegetables Total
Per capita fruit and vegetable supply (kg/person/year)
Total: 146 kg/capita/yrTotal: 146 kg/capita/yr
Veg: 73 kg/capita/yrVeg: 73 kg/capita/yr
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
AVRDC multi-strategies to improvedAVRDC multi-strategies to improvednutrition and healthnutrition and health
•• IncreasedIncreasedvegetablevegetableavailability andavailability andconsumptionconsumption
Consumption Nutrient/ bioactivecompound density
Bio-availabilityX X
•• Improved nutrientImproved nutrientand phytochemicaland phytochemicaldensitydensity
•• Enhanced ironEnhanced ironbioavailabilitybioavailability
Health outcome
•• Assessing the benefits from theAssessing the benefits from theconsumption of vegetables onconsumption of vegetables onhealth and overall economichealth and overall economicdevelopment.development.
==
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
AVRDC Vegetable Genetic ResourcesAVRDC Vegetable Genetic Resources
• The most diverse collection of vegetablegermplasm in the world.
• Contains about 55,000 accessions of 334different species from 151 countries.
• More than 300,000 seed samples distributed toresearchers in 180 countries over 30 years
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Hidden Treasures inHidden Treasures inIndigenous Vegetable GardenIndigenous Vegetable Garden
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
82,170
12,070
1.24
26
744
175
71
353
22
10
Max
0.63
17
0.17
0.2
2
2.8
0.0
1.1
0.0
0.2
Min
405190Folates, µg
1383
444
0.49
2.1
121
2.6
70
3.1
3
Mean
5648243AOA, TE
940241Total phenol, mg
0.2427Zn, mg
2.6243Fe, mg
136243Ca, mg
5.6243Vit. E, mg
77243Vit. C, mg
3.3241β-carotene, mg1.6243Protein, g
SDNIn 100 g FW
Nutrient Content RangesNutrient Content Ranges
Specie no.: ~120
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Vegetable distribution forVegetable distribution forββ-carotene-carotene
0
115
57
32
14 12 6 10
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
<0 <2 <4 <6 <8 <10 <20 <30
b-Carotene, mg/100 g fw
Fre
quency
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Vegetable distribution for IronVegetable distribution for Iron
0
7888
38
11 8 124 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
<0 <1 <2 <3 <4 <5 <10 <20 <30
Iron content (mg/100 g fw)
Fre
quency
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
10
The World Vegetable CenterAVRDCAVRDC
•• Daily consumption of 200 g vegetables isDaily consumption of 200 g vegetables isnot enough to achieve sufficient nutrientnot enough to achieve sufficient nutrientintake. Must also include nutrient-richintake. Must also include nutrient-richvegetables.vegetables.
•• Nutrient-rich vegetables are underutilizedNutrient-rich vegetables are underutilizedand merit greater attention. Additionaland merit greater attention. Additionalinvestigations will likely uncover eveninvestigations will likely uncover evenmore nutritional value in these treasuresmore nutritional value in these treasures
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
****************************PostharvestPostharvesthandlinghandling
**********************************Low inputLow input**********************************Tropically grownTropically grown
******************************Vitamin AVitamin A
********************************Fresh marketFresh market
********************ProcessingProcessing
******************************Health promotingHealth promotingfactorsfactors
******************************PhytochemicalsPhytochemicals
******************************IronIron
AmaranthAmaranthSweetpotatoSweetpotatoleavesleaves
MoringaMoringaleavesleaves
ChineseChinesecedarcedar
CriteriaCriteria
Criteria for vegetable selectionCriteria for vegetable selection
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Nutritional and AntioxidantNutritional and AntioxidantProperties of Moringa LeavesProperties of Moringa Leaves
from from GermplasmGermplasmto to PlantPlantto to FoodFoodtoto HealthHealth
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
From GermplasmFrom Germplasm
Nutrient and phytochemicalNutrient and phytochemicalcontents among four Moringacontents among four Moringa
speciesspecies
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Moringa stenopetalaMoringa stenopetala
MoringaMoringaperegrinaperegrina
Moringa drouhardiiMoringa drouhardii Moringa oleiferaMoringa oleifera
Moringa samplesMoringa samples
Bottle tree
Slender tree
Bottle tree
Slender tree
Groups
MadagascarLeaf, stem3 yrdrouhardiiMO31
3 yr
3 yr
3 yr
Treeage
Arabia, redsea areaLeaf, stemperegrinaMO30
Kenya,EthiopiaLeaf, stemstenopetalaMO28
Leaf, stem,seedoleiferaMO27 India
OriginPart foranalyses
SpeciesSamplenumber
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Nutrients in four Moringa speciesNutrients in four Moringa species
5.05.02.92.95.85.85.75.7
Prot.Prot.gg
7457458.78.7141438838811112929drouhardiidrouhardii4584585.65.62828264264552121peregrinaperegrina7117115.45.4181840040013132424stenopetalastenopetala6386389.29.2252545945915152424oleriferaolerifera
CaCamgmg
IronIronmgmg
VitVit E Emgmg
VitVit C Cmgmg
ββ-Car-Carmgmg
DMDMSpecieSpecie100 g fresh mature leaves
•• No No stachyosestachyose or or raffinoseraffinose were detected in leaves were detected in leaves•• Low in oxalate (~25 mg/100g, only 5% of oxalate inLow in oxalate (~25 mg/100g, only 5% of oxalate in
spinach)spinach)
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Dominant Antioxidants in Moringa leavesDominant Antioxidants in Moringa leaves
8010094 88
210
6574 70
0
50
100
150
200
250
Phenolics Ascorbate
An
tio
xid
an
t co
nte
nt,
_m
ol/g
1.6 0.91.1
2.3 1.12.8
0.4 0.7
0
5
10
15
20
25
a-Tocopherol b-Carotene
olerifera
stenopetala
peregrina
drouhardii
((µµmole/g on dry weight basis)mole/g on dry weight basis)
Methods:Methods: HPLCHPLCHPLCHPLCColorimetric,Colorimetric,measuringmeasuring totaltotaloxidized ascorbateoxidized ascorbate
FolinFolin method, method,cchlorogenichlorogenicacid equivalentsacid equivalents
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Phytochemicals in Phytochemicals in Moringa oleiferaMoringa oleifera
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time [min]
-50
0
50
100
Intens.[mAU]
YG-24-05.D: UV Chromatogram, 350.4 nm YG-24-05.D: EIC 612 ±All YG-24-05.D: EIC 570 ±All
350 nm
Quercetin-3-glucoside
Quercetin-3-O-6”-malonyl-glucoside
Kampherol-3-O-6”-malonyl-glucoside
Kampherol-3-glucoside
Glucosinolates
m/z 570 m/z 612
Monoacetyl 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benxylglucosinolateisomers
4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benxylglucosinolate
FlavonoidsFlavonoids
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Conclusion 1Conclusion 1
•• High nutrients, antioxidants andHigh nutrients, antioxidants andglucosinolatesglucosinolates, and low oxalate, and low oxalatecontents are common features of thecontents are common features of thefour M. species.four M. species.
•• M. M. peregrinaperegrina was the uppermost forwas the uppermost forantioxidant; antioxidant; M. oleiferaM. oleifera has the has thehighest nutrient values among thehighest nutrient values among thefour.four.
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
To PlantsTo Plants
Nutrient and phytochemical contents inNutrient and phytochemical contents inMoringa leaves as affected by accession,Moringa leaves as affected by accession,
harvesting season and leaf stageharvesting season and leaf stage
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Effects of variety, leaf type and season onEffects of variety, leaf type and season onnutrient and phytochemical contentsnutrient and phytochemical contents
•• Experimental designExperimental design–– RCBDRCBD–– Factors:Factors:
•• Variety:Variety: 10 10 M. oleiferaM. oleifera accessions, 3 field accessions, 3 fieldreplicationsreplications
•• Leaf typeLeaf type: mature, young shoots: mature, young shoots•• Harvesting seasonHarvesting season: hot-wet (June), cool-dry: hot-wet (June), cool-dry
(Jan), spring (April)(Jan), spring (April)•• Analyses:Analyses:
–– Protein, 3 vitamins, 2 minerals, phenolics,Protein, 3 vitamins, 2 minerals, phenolics,antioxidant activity (AOA)antioxidant activity (AOA)
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
High density planting and pruning enableHigh density planting and pruning enableconvenient and continuous harvests ofconvenient and continuous harvests of
young shootsyoung shoots
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
HarvestingHarvesting
Young shoots grows quickly afterYoung shoots grows quickly afterthe harvestthe harvest
Air temperature and rain fallAir temperature and rain fall
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Apr-
04
May-
04
Jun-
04
Jul-
04
Aug-
04
Sep-
04
Oct-
04
Nov-
04
Dec-
04
Jan-
05
Feb-
05
Mar-
05
Apr-
05
Air tem
pera
ture
(_
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Rain
pre
cip
(m
m)
Air temperature
Rain precip
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Nutritional values of mature Nutritional values of mature moringa moringa leavesleavesfor three harvestsfor three harvests
51 b±68154 a±80270 c±558Phenolics, mg
1211 a±4166205 b±2341862 a±4380AOA, μmol TE
2.3 b±14.82.6 a±17.43.6 a±18.1Vitamin E
21 c±20628 a±32018 b±244Vitamin C
0.9 b±13.80.7 c±7.81.8 a±20.1β-carotene
2.35 c±4.101.00 a±9.730.84 b±6.24Iron, mg
67 a±48148 b±44866 b±434Calcium, mg
0.44 b±2.590.22 a±3.040.41 a±3.17Sugars, g
0.11 c±1.470.13 a±1.930.16 b±1.83Fiber, g
0.89 b±6.460.30 b±6.590.35 a±7.59Protein, g
1.5 b±21.40.7.b±21.40.9 a±23.8Dry matter, g
Mature leaves
April2005(Spring)January 2005 (Winter)June 2004
(Summer)100 g FW
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
40 c±461100 a±73168 b±552Phenolics, mg
219 c±1307381 b±2223449 a±3381AOA, μmol TE
0.45 c±2.861.60 b±4.081.76 a±6.09Vitamin E
21 c±18335 a±29425 b±256Vitamin C
0.58 b±2.561.00 b±2.751.15 a±6.96β-carotene
0.34 c±1.401.36 a±4.221.08 b±2.86Iron, mg
9±7449±8420±88Calcium, mg
0.34 c±1.880.28 b±2.190.34 a±2.52Sugars, g
0.17 b±1.430.16 b±1.390.13 a±1.59Fiber, g
0.35 c±3.480.57 b±4.030.46 a±5.33Protein, g
1.1 c±12.21.7 b±15.41.5 a±17.7Dry matter, g
Young shoots
April (Spring)January 2005 (Winter)June 2004 (Summer)Components.
Nutritional values of Nutritional values of moringamoringa young shoots young shootsfor three harvestsfor three harvests
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Conclusion 2Conclusion 2•• Variation among 10 Variation among 10 M. oleiferaM. oleifera accessions for accessions for
nutrient contents was small so breeding for highernutrient contents was small so breeding for highernutrient content not worthwhile. Varietal selectionnutrient content not worthwhile. Varietal selectionshould focus on horticultural traits.should focus on horticultural traits.
•• Mature leaves were more nutritious than youngMature leaves were more nutritious than youngshoots and could be quickly dried with minimumshoots and could be quickly dried with minimumnutrient loss; however, young shoots exhibited betternutrient loss; however, young shoots exhibited bettereating quality and more acceptable for the fresheating quality and more acceptable for the freshmarket.market.
•• Seasonal effects caused 1.5 Seasonal effects caused 1.5 –– 3x content variation for 3x content variation forvitamin A, iron and antioxidants in vitamin A, iron and antioxidants in moringa moringa leaves;leaves;higher vitamin A was obtained in hot-wet seasonhigher vitamin A was obtained in hot-wet seasonwhile higher iron and vitamin C were found in cool-while higher iron and vitamin C were found in cool-dry.dry.
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
to Foodto Food
Nutrient and phytochemical contents inNutrient and phytochemical contents inMoringa leaves as affected byMoringa leaves as affected byprocessing temperature andprocessing temperature and
simulated gastrointestinal digestionsimulated gastrointestinal digestion
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Young shootsYoung shootsfor fresh marketsfor fresh marketsin Taiwanin Taiwan
Mature leaves for commercial products:Mature leaves for commercial products:Leaf extracts and tea bags sold in TaiwanLeaf extracts and tea bags sold in Taiwan
50°C oven dried50°C oven driedmoringa moringa powder forpowder fornutritional analysisnutritional analysisand animal studiesand animal studies
17.315.4AOA, mmol TE9.98.6Glucosinolates, mmol
33Polyphenols, g2120Iron, mg
16701760Calcium, mg165169Tocopherols, mg157582Vitamin C, mg110154β-Carotene, mg
88Fiber, g2828Protein, g
50°°C dryFreeze dryPer 100 g DW
Mild-heat drying maintained most nutrients/Mild-heat drying maintained most nutrients/phytochemicals in phytochemicals in moringamoringa leaves leaves
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Temperature effect on antioxidant activitiesTemperature effect on antioxidant activities(AOA) of (AOA) of Moringa oleiferaMoringa oleifera leaves leaves
Water solublesuper oxidescavenging
Methanol soluble AOA Water soluble AOA
0
30
60
90
120
150
-20 25 50 100
SO
DE
, 1
00
un
it/g
dry
0
50
100
150
200
250
-20 25 50 100
AB
TS
w, T
E/g
dry
0
50
100
150
200
250
-20 25 50 100
AB
TS
m,
TE
/g d
ry
TreatmentsTreatments
100100°C/10 min°C/10 min5050°C/10 min°C/10 minRT, 25RT, 25°C°C-20-20°°C / 4hrC / 4hrBoilingBoilingMild heatMild heatFreshFreshFreezingFreezing
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
AOA changes before and afterAOA changes before and aftersimulated digestionsimulated digestion
40
8021
30
8774
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Fresh Digested Fresh Digested
AO
A (
TE
, _
mo
l/fla
sk)
AOA of dialysate
AOA of remainder
ILP assay ABTS assay
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
In Vitro Iron bioavailability ofIn Vitro Iron bioavailability ofMoringa leavesMoringa leaves
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Fresh leaves 50_ oven dried
Dia
lyzable
iro
n, ppm
Raw
Cooked
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
0
5
10
15
20
25
MB
(MB
+C
ab)
Tom
ato
MB
+T
om
MB
(MB
+D
L)
Ka
le
MB
+K
ale
MB
(MB
+S
P)
Dia
lyzab
le iro
n, u
g
Ca
bb
ag
e
MB
+C
ab
MB
( MB
+T
om
)
Mo
ring
a
MB
+D
L
MB
(MB
+K
ale
)
Sw
eet P
MB
+S
P
Effect of Selected Vegetables on In Vitro
Iron Bioavailability of Mungbean
Effect of Selected Vegetables on In Vitro
Iron Bioavailability of Mungbean
MB: MB: mung mung bean, Cab: cabbage, Tom: tomato, DL: drumstick leavesbean, Cab: cabbage, Tom: tomato, DL: drumstick leaves(Moringa), SP: sweet pepper(Moringa), SP: sweet pepper
mungbean andmungbean andmoringamoringa were boiled were boiledtogether fro 10 mintogether fro 10 min
Conclusion 3Conclusion 3
•• Boiling Moringa leaves in water enhancedBoiling Moringa leaves in water enhancedaqueous AOA, and the AOA was maintainedaqueous AOA, and the AOA was maintainedafter simulated digestionafter simulated digestion
•• Cooking Moringa leaves increased availableCooking Moringa leaves increased availableiron and raised total available iron of mixturesiron and raised total available iron of mixtureswith mungbean.with mungbean.
•• Mild-heat drying maintained most nutrients/Mild-heat drying maintained most nutrients/phytochemicals in Moringa leaves andphytochemicals in Moringa leaves andprovides a way for long term preservation andprovides a way for long term preservation andcontinuous nutrient/antioxidant supplycontinuous nutrient/antioxidant supply
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
to Healthto Health
•• As dietary micronutrients and As dietary micronutrients andantioxidants for human useantioxidants for human use
•• Added to fodder for livestock production Added to fodder for livestock production
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Moringa leaves:Moringa leaves:
•• as a micronutrients and antioxidants in dietsas a micronutrients and antioxidants in dietsfor human usefor human use
•• added to fodder as a potential bioceuticaladded to fodder as a potential bioceuticalagent to substitute for antibiotics in livestockagent to substitute for antibiotics in livestock(broiler chicken) production(broiler chicken) production
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Immuno-modulation Immuno-modulation activity of driedactivity of driedmorinag morinag powder in diet for human usepowder in diet for human use
•• Intervention with a diet containing 5%Intervention with a diet containing 5%moringamoringa powder was investigated using a rat powder was investigated using a ratmodel and compared to a 5% commonmodel and compared to a 5% commoncabbage diet, and a nutrient-sufficient dietcabbage diet, and a nutrient-sufficient dietwithout without vegetable.vegetable.
•• The preliminary results after 3 weeksThe preliminary results after 3 weeksindicated that the indicated that the moringamoringa diet reduced diet reducedblood triglycerides, enhanced immuneblood triglycerides, enhanced immuneresponse due to increased peripheral andresponse due to increased peripheral andsplenocytesplenocyte T-cell proliferations. T-cell proliferations.
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Conclusion 4Conclusion 4•• The study implies the consumption of The study implies the consumption of moringamoringa
enhances the immune response of nutrient sufficientenhances the immune response of nutrient sufficientsubjects.subjects.
•• In addition, consumption of nutrient andIn addition, consumption of nutrient andphytochemical-rich vegetables, like phytochemical-rich vegetables, like moringamoringa, leads, leadsto a better immune response compared toto a better immune response compared toconsumption of vegetables that are rich in fiber butconsumption of vegetables that are rich in fiber butlower in nutrient or phytochemical content, likelower in nutrient or phytochemical content, likecommon cabbage.common cabbage.
•• Moringa should be promoted for greaterMoringa should be promoted for greaterconsumption to improve nutrition and strengthenconsumption to improve nutrition and strengthenimmune functions.immune functions.
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006
Moringa dishesMoringa dishes
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments
Food Science Dep.and Adv FoodTechnology Center
Animal Science
AppliedMicrobiology
Genetic Resourceand Seed Unit
Plant Breeding UnitNutrition Unit
Prof. B. C. WengNational ChiayiUniversity, Taiwan
Prof. TC LeeRutgers, the StateRutgers, the StateUniversity of NewUniversity of NewJerseyJersey
Prof. JC HsuNational Chug-HsinUniversity, Taiwan
Dr. L EngleMr. LC ChangLab staffAVRDC-The World Veg
Center
Moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: Strategies, standards and markets for a betterimpact on nutrition in Africa. Accra, Ghana, November 16-18, 2006