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NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANICALLY

GROWN WHEAT GENOTYPES

Abrar Hussain

Introductory Paper at the Faculty of Landscape Planning Horticulture and

Agriculture Science 20092 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

Alnarp September 2009

ISSN 1654-3580

Abrar Hussain Introductory Paper at the Faculty of Landscape Planning Horticulture and

ISSN 1654-3580

copy By the author Figure 1 reprinted with kind permission of ordersbiomatrixonecom and also available at wwwbiomatrixonecomsupport_anti-oxhtml Figure 4 reprinted with kind permission of lsquoislandfoodubccarsquo and also available at wwwlandfoodubcca301proteinprotq4htm

Summary The topic of this introductory paper is nutritional and mixing characteristics of organically grown wheat genotypes Due to large consumption of wheat based products they are among the main sources in the world of nutrition for human The wheat grain contains eg proteins carbohydrates minerals and vitamins The composition of various compounds in the wheat grain depends upon different factors such as variety soil environment management practice grain processing and post harvest methods etc Organic cultivation similarly as other cultivation practices influence amounts of different compounds in the wheat grain Organic conditions are thought to influence amount of antioxidants and other nutritional compounds in the wheat and is also known to influence bread making quality Therefore it is important to study those parameters of different wheat varieties grown under organic conditions This review paper is also discussing the mixing behavior of organically grown wheat being important in determining bread making quality Preface Dramatic changes have taken place in the food preferences by people The consumer demand for high quality food products has been increased Today consumers do not think only of food to be good and contain the needed nutrients but food can also act as ldquopreventive medicinerdquo Organic food products are appreciated in the market Wheat food products are among the most consumed foods in the world For most wheat food products bread-making is an important aspect This introductory paper is a review about nutritional aspects and bread making quality of organically grown wheat flour It intends to be a background for PhD-education aiming to investigate nutritional and mixing characteristics of organically grown wheat cultivars of Sweden

4

Contents Page NoSummary 4 Preface 4 Introduction 6 Wheat 6 Organic farming 8 Introduction and history 8 Principles of organic agriculture 8 Why is organic farming important 9 Production of organic wheat 9 Nutritional characteristics of wheat 10 Antioxidants 10 Introduction and importance 10 Tocopherols (Vitamin E) 12 Carotenoids 13 Proteins 15 Albumins and globulins 16 Gluten 17 Carbohydrates 19 Starch polysaccharides 19 Structure of amylase and amylopectin 19 Properties of starch 20 Uses of starch 21 Non starch polysaccharides 22 Cellulose 22 Pentosans 22 Minerals 23 Introduction and importance 23 Interaction between phytic acid and minerals 24 Bread making 26 History and importance 26 Role of gluten proteins in bread making 26 Gliadins 27 Glutenins 27 Sensory quality of bread 28 Rheological behavior of dough 30 Role of mixing in dough development 32 Acknowledgements 32 References 32

5

6

Introduction Today wheat is a dominant cereal crop in the world (Davidson and Passmor 1986) Total world wheat production is about 250 grams per person per day It nourishes more people than any other type of cereal grains Wheat production in Sweden has varied between 155 and 228 million metric tones during 1995-2003 and about 13 of the Swedish wheat production is used for human consumption (FAO data base 2004) Examples of wheat food products are bread pasta macaroni crackers spaghetti etc Bread is an important product of wheat flour and part of daily food consumption in many parts of the world It is an important source of carbohydrates proteins minerals and antioxidants Consumers demand for quality food is continuously increasing and thereby also the need of information about nutritional aspects Evaluation of the quality of wheat includes functional properties for bread making and nutritional composition About 70 of consumers use food choice to demonstrate their attitude (Hansen et al 2001) In the Nordic countries 50 of the consumers are conscious about ethical issues environmental problems and animal welfare Reasons of buying organic food are related to health security and environmental safety (Meier-Ploeger 2005) Nutritional composition of bread might influence health of humans The main factors that influence the nutritive value of wheat include genetics environment (soil type structure and microorganisms climate management practices) and post harvest practices (harvest time handling and processing method) (Hornick 1992) The development in agriculture during last five decades has not only increased the production tremendously but it has also given rise to increased amount of environmental problems

Wheat Wheat domestication started 10000 years ago with cultivation of einkorn a diploid wheat with seven chromosome pairs Later tetraploid wheats known as emmer and durum evolved (Heun et al 1997) Common wheat which is used to make most of the wide variety of products today is hexaploid Three species of wheat are grown today common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) Durum wheat (Triticum durum) and spelt wheat (Triticum spelta) In USA and Canada the common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) form five classes hard red winter hard red spring soft red winter hard white and soft white Different wheat classes show variation in nutritional characteristics and uses (Table 1) Durum wheat (Triticum durum) includes today the durum and red durum wheat classes and spelt wheat (Triticum spelta) Currently about 4000 wheat cultivars are grown all over the world (Posner 2000)

7

Table 1 Wheat classes their general characteristics and uses (Atwell 2001)

Class

General Characteristics

General uses

Hard red winter (HRW) High protein strong gluten

high water absorption Bread and related products

Soft red winter (SRW) Low protein weak gluten low water absorption

Cakes cookies pastries pie crusts crackers biscuits

Hard red spring (HRS) Very high protein strong gluten high water absorption

Bread bagels pretzels and related products

Hard white High protein strong gluten high water absorption bran lacks pigment

Bread and related products

Soft white High protein strong gluten high water absorption

Noodles crackers wafers and other products in which specks are undesirable

Durum High protein strong gluten high water absorption

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

Introduction and history According to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture the term ldquoorganic farmingrdquo can be defined as ldquoOrganic farming is a production system that sustains the health of soils ecosystems and people It relies on ecological processes biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects Organic farming combines tradition innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involvedrdquo (IFOAM 2007) According to FAO definition Organic farming is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health including biodiversity biological cycles and soil biological activity It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off ndashfarm inputs taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems This is accomplished by using where possible agronomic biological and mechanical methods as opposed to using synthetic materials to fulfil any specific function within the system (FAO 1999)

In simple words organic farming is the practice of growing crops without the use of chemical pesticides herbicides and fertilizers It relies mainly on crop rotation organic fertilizers and plant-based pesticides and herbicides to maintain soil productivity and tilth Organic agriculture is the oldest form of agriculture on earth Farming without the use of fertilizers and pesticides was the sole option for farmers until the end of World War II The war brought with it technologies that were useful for agricultural production For example ammonium nitrate used for munitions during World War II evolved into ammonium nitrate fertilizer organophosphate nerve gas production led to the development of powerful insecticides These developments gave economic benefits as well as environmental and social disorders (Bourn and Prescott 2002) Biological cultural and physical methods are used in organic farming to control pests and weeds

Principles of organic agriculture Organic agriculture is based on four principles (IFOAM 2007)

1 Health organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil plant animal and human beings

2 Ecology organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles work with them and sustain them

3 Fairness It should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities

4 Care Organic agriculture should be managed in a responsible manner to protect the health and well being of current and future generations

9

Why is organic farming important Consumers demand for organic foods has been increased during the last decade The consumption of organic agricultural products has increased from 15-25 during 2003-2004 in Europe (Willer and Yussefi 2005 Oberholtzer et al 2005) The factors that effect the purchasing of organic food may vary from region to region Pesticide residues in food have been found more important in the decision to purchase organic food products than concerns for the environment as a whole although the later factor is more important in some countries (Byrne et al 1992) The environmental issue most drastically influencing organic farming is global warming Chemical fertilizers pesticides and herbicides increase yield of crops but might also have harmful impact on the atmosphere and on the quality of food Conventional agriculture relies heavily on chemicals although they might disturb eco-system if they enter the soil and seep into water supplies (Hansen et al 2001)

Production of organic wheat Statistical information about the production of organically grown wheat in the world is limited International Federation of Organic Farming Movements (IFOAM) is supposed to calculate the area under organic cultivation world wide The certified organic production area in Europe (EU25) was 576 million hectares according to the Council Regulation (EEC) 209291 at the end of 2004 (Willer and Yussefi 2006) More than 23 of EU arable organic production is located in Italy (32) Germany (25) and Austria (11) (Yussefi and Willer 2002) The area under organic wheat production was 290346 hectares in 2005-06 which accounts 18 of total arable organic land in Europe (Maumlder et al 2007)

Organic wheat field in Alnarp Sweden

10

Nutritional characteristics of wheat

Antioxidants

Introduction and importance An antioxidant is a donating atom of an electron to a free radical A molecule is only a free radical if it possesses one or more unpaired electron (Fig 1) Thus an antioxidant is any substance that delays or prevents oxidation also when the antioxidant is present in low concentrations compared with those of the oxidizable substrate (Halliwell and Gutteridge 2007) Mechanisms of antioxidants consist of free radical quenching transition metal chelating reducing peroxide and simulation of in vivo antioxidative enzyme activities (Zhou and Liangli 2004) Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals which start chain reactions that damage cells Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates In addition antioxidants provide defense by chelating transition metals and preventing them from catalyzing the production of free radicals in the cell (Bonoli et al 2004) Antioxidants include beta-carotene the vitamins A C E and certain trace elements such as copper (Cu) manganese (Mg) selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) In addition phenols and many other non-nutrients to plants may act as antioxidant (Stanner et al 2004) Antioxidants may change oxidative condition and prevent biologically significant molecules such as DNA proteins and membrane lipids from oxidative damage (Zhou et al 2004) The pathology of a number of chronic diseases including cancer involves damage to cellular components by free radical ie Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) ROSs are generally very small molecules and are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons ROSs are capable of causing damage to DNA which is associated with coronary heart disease ROS include oxygen ions free radicals and peroxides During environmental stress conditions ROS levels can increase dramatically resulting in significant damage to cell structures As ROSs are free radicals antioxidants might terminate ROS attacks and thereby being of primary importance in prevention of diseases (Yu 2008)

11

Figure 1 Antioxidant molecule (wwwbiomatrixonecom) Cereals fruits and vegetables are major sources of antioxidants containing hundreds of beta carotene vitamins and trace elements with antioxidant activity Thus consuming cereals fruits and vegetables result in a potentially beneficial effect on human health by providing defense against oxidative damage (Miller et al 2000) In grain antioxidants are concentrated in the bran fraction mainly as phenolic compounds in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid (Hatcher and Kruger 1997 Adom and Liu 2002 Saadi et al 1998) A previous phytochemical investigation established that phenolic acids tocopherols and carotenoids are the natural antioxidants present in wheat grain and its fractions (Cheng et al 2006) In wheat antioxidants like carotenoids and vitamin E content vary according to growth location (Yu et al 2003) Resistance of wheat varieties to diseases such as fusarium head blight or orange wheat blossom might be linked to phenolic compounds contents (Abdel-Aal et al 2001 Atroshi et al 2002) The effect of phenolic compounds in bread dough is not clear but this could be related to dough elasticity through oxidation reaction (Labat et al 2000 Wang et al 2002) Antioxidants play a fundamental role in plants by protecting them from elements such as sunlight and severe oxygen stress (Tominaga et al 2005) The compounds most frequently damaged during biochemical processes in humans are unsaturated fatty acids in lipids cholesterol different functional polypeptides and proteins and nucleic acids (Stratil et al 2006) Activity of antioxidants in foods and biological systems depends on systemsrsquo system composition and partitioning properties of the antioxidants between lipid and aqueous phases (Diaz-Reinoso et al 2006)

12

Tocopherols (Vitamin E) Vitamin E is the generic term used to describe a family of eight lipid-soluble antioxidants the tocopherols (α- β- γ- and δ-tocopherol) and tocotrienols (α- β- γ- and δ-tocotrienol) Tocopherols and tocotrienols are collectively named as tocols The basic structure of tocols comprises a 6-hydroxychroman group and a phytyl side chain made of isoprenoid units (Fig 2) The chroman group may be methylated at different positions to generate different compounds with antioxidant activity (Liu 2007) Tocopherol and tocotrienol have similar structures except that tocopherols contain saturated phytol side chains while tocotrienols have three carbon-carbon double bonds in the phytol side chain Tocol compounds are found in many foods including whole grains where they are mostly present in the germ fraction High levels of tocols are also present in oils nuts fruits and berries

Figure 2 Chemical structure of tocols (wwwbenbestcom)

Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant by itself but its effectiveness is magnified when taken with other antioxidant especially vitamin C selenium (Se) and beta-carotene Higher vitamin E intake is associated with decreased incidence of heart disease in both men and women (Yu 2008) Tocopherols help to prevent the peroxidation of membrane phospholipids and to avoid cell membrane damage through its antioxidant action The most important function of vitamin E in the body is antioxidant activity and maintenance of membrane integrity by inhibiting peroxidation (Liu 2007) In humans absorption is believed to be associated with intestinal fat absorption in which 40 of the ingested tocopherol is absorbed All types of vitamin E were shown to accumulate in adipose fat tissue of human (Cuthbertson et al 1940) The phospholipids of the mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membranes in the adipose fat tissues of human are the sites for alpha tocopherol concentration Tocopherols prefer lipids for their storage so this character of tocopherols makes them possible to locate in the interior of the cell membrane bilayers (Halliwell 1992 Borg 1993) Tocopherols go into the blood by means of lymph where they are coupled with plasma proteins and form chylomicrons (Liu 2007)

13

Carotenoids Carotenoids are the most widespread pigments of nature with yellow orange and red colors They have received substantial attention because of both their role as pro-vitamins and antioxidants Carotenoids are classified into hydrocarbons (carotene) and their oxygenated derivatives (xanthophylls) More than six hundred different carotenoids have been identified which occur widely in plants microorganisms and animals (Liu 2007) Carotenoids have a 40- carbon skeleton of isoprene units Isoprene is a hydrocarbon with double bond insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents The structure of carotenoids may be cyclised at one or both ends Thus it has ability to accept different numbers of hydrogen atom and oxygen-containing functional groups Some examples of acyclised and cyclised carotenoids are shown in Figure 3 (Liu 2007) The antioxidant function of beta-carotene is to remove the free radicals from cell membrane lipids and protect it from the destructive effects of oxidative degradation The quenching involves a physical reaction in which the energy of the excited oxygen is transferred to the carotenoid forming an excited state molecule (Krinsky 1993)

14

Figure 3 Chemical structures of carotenoids and tocopherols (a) β-Carotene (b) astaxanthin(c) canthaxanthin(d) zeaxanthin(e) lutein (f) β-cryptoxanthin (g) lycopene (h) bixin (i) α-tocopherol (j) γ-tocopherol (modified from Straub 1987)

15

Proteins Proteins are an important source of energy and an essential component of our diet Proteins from different foods in our diet contain a number of amino acids There are 22 amino acids divided into essential and non-essential amino acids Essential amino acids must be included in our diet since they cannot be synthesized within the body Nutritional value of the food depends on proteins composition and upon their specific amino acid composition (Friedman 1996) Wheat is an important source of proteins since large amounts of wheat is often included in the diet and wheat contains 8-20 proteins Wheat proteins are classified into several groups on the basis of their solubility properties genetic background and amino acid composition etc (Loponen et al 2004) The most well known classification system classifies the wheat proteins into albumins globulins gliadins and glutenins on the basis of solubility (Osborne 1924) (Table 2) Table 2 The systematics of wheat proteins is classified into groups on the basis of their solubility by Osborne (1924) Proteins Soluble in Location in

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Embryo (metabolic proteins) and endosperm cells (cytoplasmic proteins)

Globulins Dilute salt solutions (05 M NaCl)

Embryo and aleurone layer (storage proteins) and endosperm cells (cytoplasmic proteins)

Gluten proteins

Gliadins 70-80 ethanol Endosperm (storage

proteins) Glutenins Dilute acids or alkali solutions (005 M acetic acid)

The amount of different proteins varies according to the type of wheat cultivars and growing conditions (Payne et al 1981 Johansson and Svensson 1998 Wieser and Seilmeier 1998 Johansson et al 2000) The protein composition of typical hexaploid wheat grain is shown in Table 3 with references to studies from different countries

16

Table 3 Protein composition of typical wheat grain I Australia (Stone and Savin 1999) II USA (Shukla 1975) III Canada (Orth and Bushuk 1972) IV Germany (Wieser et al 1980) V FAO (Aykroyd and Doughty 1970) Protein

I II III IV V

Non-gluten Albumins 22 3-5 8-9 15

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Gluten Gliadins 40 69 35-40 33 45

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

The major wheat storage proteins are gliadins and glutenins present in the starchy endosperm cells of the grain They are synthesized and deposited in the endosperm through the secretory system Ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum are the synthesis place for polypeptides After synthesis polypeptides are translocated into the lumen (Shewry et al 2002) Disulphide bond and protein folding take place in the lumen The final destination of the proteins may also vary with the protein type and with the age and stage of development of the tissue Some of the proteins appear to be transported via the Golgi apparatus into the vacuole where they form protein deposits (Shewry 1999)

Albumins and globulins Albumins and globulins are the non-gluten proteins in wheat and they are water-soluble and salt-soluble respectively The albumins and globulins are considered nutritionally better than the gluten proteins because of the amino acid compositions with higher contents of essential amino acids (lysine and methionine contents in the albumins and globulins) (Lasztity 1984) Albumins and globulins constitute from 12 to 37 of total wheat flour protein (Table 2) Albumins are known to have many different functions and are thus of different types eg glycoprotein amylases inhibitors serpins purotionins etc The glycoproteins are covalently linked with carbohydrates Many albumins are enzymes such as carbohydrases like α-amylases β-amylases or proteolytic enzymes etc (Matz 1991) Albumins such as α-amylasetrypsin inhibitors (Buonocore et al 1985 Shewry et al 1984) serpins (Oslashstergaard et al 2000) and purotionins (Garcia-Olmedo et al 2002) are considered to have a function of nutrient storage and inhibitor of insect and pathogen attack on

17

germinating seed Puroindolines influence grain hardness (Morris 2002) The globulins are divided into two groups on the basis of sulphur containing amino acids these are the 7S and 11S globulins Both the 7S and 11S globulins are composed of multiple subunits (Shewry 2000)

Gluten Gluten is the elastic rubbery protein present in wheat rye barley and to a lesser degree in oats Rice and maize do not contain gluten Gluten can be readily prepared by gently washing flour under a stream of running water This removes the bulk of the soluble and particulate matter to leave a protein aqueous mass that retains its cohesiveness on stretching (Shewry et al 2002) The proteins present in gluten are normally called prolamins The prolamins or gluten proteins in wheat can be classified as are shown in Figure 5 The gluten proteins are divided into three groups HMW proteins (HMW glutenin subunits) the sulphur-rich proteins (LMW glutenin subunits γ-gliadins and α-gliadins) and the sulphur-poor proteins (ω-gliadins) on the basis of amino acid composition and molecular weight (Miflin et al 1983 Madgwick et al 1992 Shewry 1996 2000) Gluten proteins substantially control the quality of wheat and allow the dough to be processed into a lot of different end-use products including breads (MacRitchie 1984) The structures of gluten proteins and properties make them interesting for studies relating to functional properties (Shewry and Tatham 2000)

Figure 4 Gluten structure (wwwlandfoodubcca301proteinprotq4htm)

18

Figure 5 Summary of classification and nomenclature of wheat gluten proteins HMW glutenin subunits are classified as HMW proteins and form interchain disulphide bonds LMW glutenin subunits γ-gliadins and α-gliadins are classified as S-rich prolamins and form intrachain disulphide bonds The ω-gliadins are classified as S-poor proteins and form no disulphide bonds (Madgwick et al 1992 Shewry 1996)

Gluten protein

Insoluble in alcohol water mixtures 70 (vv) ethanol

Soluble in alcohol-water mixtures 70 (vv) ethanol

Glutenins (polymers)

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW-GS LMW-GS γ-gliadins α-gliadins ω- gliadins

HMW

Interchain SS bonds Intrachain SS bonds No SS bonds

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

Starch polysaccharides Starch is the most important polysaccharide and found in abundance in many plants Starch is also a major component of wheat grain and present in its endosperm Wheat grain contains about 63-66 of starch figures being higher for soft wheats than for hard wheats (Toepfer et al 1972) The major components of starch are amylose and amylopectin The contents of amylose and amylopectin are significantly different among varieties of cereals The ratio of amylose and amylopectin differs among starches The level of amylose and amylopectin in wheat flour is 25ndash28 and 72ndash75 respectively (Shibanuma et al 1994) However some mutant wheat genotypes as well as maize barley rice etc contain either increasing amylose content or increasing amylopectin content (Kiribuchi-Otobe et al 1997)

Structures of amylose and amylopectin Amylose and amylopectin both are homopolysaccharides and based on D-glucose the size and shape of these molecules differ enormously Different methods such as methylation and hydrolysis including end group analysis and periodate oxidation are important in providing information on the types of linkages and the sizes of the molecules (Cornell and Hoveling 1998) The structure of amylose consist of α-(14)-linked D-glucopyranosyl units and contains five hundred to six thousand glucose molecules It is well known that a fraction of the amylose molecules is slightly branched by α-(16)-linkages (Hizukuri et al 1981 Shibanuma et al 1994) In contrast amylopectin is a very large highly branched chain molecule with a DP ranging from 3x105 to 3x106 glucose units and consists of α-(16)-linked D-glucopyranosyl units attached to α-(14)- bonds (Zobel 1988) (Fig 6 )

20

Figure 6 General structure of amylose and amylopectin (httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAmylopectinsvg) Studies about structures of amylose and amylopectin can be carried out in different solvents using viscometry It has been shown that 05 moll of KOH dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and formamide were good solvents for amylose (Banks and Greenwood 1975)

The molecular size distribution of amylose changes with respect to the crop Most starches showed molecular weights for amylose from 150 000 to 400 000 (800 to 2200 glucose units) The value obtained depends on both the solvent used and the method used for the estimation Commonly viscometric methods using an Ubberlohde capillary flow viscometer are applied Estimation of the molecular size of amylopectin is more difficult mainly because of a wide variation in the distribution of molecular size (ie heterodispersity) Amylopectin is a much larger and less coiled molecule than amylose (Cauvain 2003)

Properties of wheat starch Starches have different distribution of the granule size among crops The largest granule size of starch is about 50μm and the smallest 2μm Wheat starch granules show concentric shells under scanning electron microscopy when treated with enzymes (French 1984) The lipid content of wheat starch is roughly proportional to the surface areas of the fractions thereby strongly suggesting that the lipid is concentrated near the surface of the granules (Whattham and Cornell 1991) Different methods are used to find

21

the particle size of wheat starch among which sedimentation and centrifuge are important (Cornell and Hoveling 1998) Laser beam diffraction methods are common because they are rapid use little quantity of sample and are applicable to samples with larger particles In other methods low-angle laser light scattering (LALLS) relies on a gas laser passing through a stirred suspension of the material being tested the focused rays pass to a photosensitive detector for measurement of light intensity and diffraction angle

Starch granules are insoluble in water although swelling of the granules are noticed due to the splitting of surface membranes Starch in grains contains about 12-18 water and half of this bounded chemically form a type of crystal lattice called lsquospherocrystalrsquo Formation of pastes on heating in water is one of the most important physical properties of starch (Cauvain 2003) The temperature at which the granules swell and burst to form pastes depends upon the plant source of the starch and are affected by the concentration of the starch the rate of heating and the presence of sugars fats and other food components Microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry are used to estimate these changes to the granules (Hung et al 2007) One of the most important chemical properties of starch is its hydrolysis using acids or enzymes When starch pastes are treated with acids amylose and amylopectin are hydrolysed to lower molecular weight carbohydrates known as dextrins and finally to oligosaccharides and simple sugars This breakdown occurs because of attack on the glycosidic bonds by H+ ions The complete breakdown to glucose in quantitative relationship of reactants and products can be represented as follows (C6H10O5) n+nH2O rarr nC6H12O6 (glucose) Starch pastes give smaller molecules after the action of amylases α-amylase give the product named dextrins but with β-amylase maltose is formed With the enzyme β-glucosidase dextrins can be converted to glucose (BeMiller 1991)

Uses of starch

Starch is important in homes and industrial uses In the food industry its pasting properties are utilized for gravies soups custards and desserts of various types Wheat corn and potato starches and their derivatives are commonly used These derivatives have special properties such as starch ethers and esters (e g phosphates) giving better clarity and stability to the product (Englyst and Hudson 1997) Baked products like biscuits and cakes etc have starch in them The addition of starch to flours with less protein improves the lightness of texture required in baked goods such as sponges and pastry Syrups from starch are used in the confectionery and brewing industries Its adhesive properties provide low cost bonding to make cardboard boxes Starch and its modified forms are also used for the sizing of paper and fabrics (Cauvain 2003)

22

Non-starch polysaccharides

Cellulose

Cellulose contents in wheat are about 3 (Toepfer et al 1972) It is a β -14 glycan also called an equatorial group when the oxygen attached to carbon 1 is more in the plane of the ring The structure brings considerable difference to the physical and chemical properties of the polymer Cellulose is more fibrous than starch and α ndashamylase has no activity on it Cell walls of the lignified bran layers have more amounts of cellulose (Matz 1991) Cellulose contents of white flour are less than 1 but other non-starch polysaccharides are also present to the extent of about 3 Wheat bran contains more percentage of non-starch materials normally about 9 cellulose and 29 of other non-starch polysaccharides (Fincher and Stone 1986) Thus whole meal flour is a better source of these polysaccharides than is white flour

Pentosans

Pentosan is considered as the main component of the non-starch polysaccharides in cereal Pentosans in wheat dominantly are comprised of pentosan sugar that is L- arabinose and D-xylose Pentosans are normally called hemicelluloses and play an important role in food absorption by decreasing absorption of lipid and cholesterol therefore pentosan is very useful in human diet (Mohammadkhani 2005 Lineback and Rasper 1988)

Wheat grain pentosans contribute to water absorption of flour and viscosity of doughs In bread making industry loaf volume improved crumb and crust characteristics are due to pentosans especially when treated with pentosanase enzymes (Higgins 2002) Dough rheological characteristics and macaroni production processing are correlated with the amounts of pentosans in flour (Menger 1976) Pentosan increase the dough extensibility in durum wheat and also have effect on time of dough development and dough viscosity (Jelaca and Hlynka 1971 1972)

23

Minerals

Introduction and importance

Wheat grain and its products are known to be important sources of minerals for man and livestock (Iskander and Murad 1986) Mineral are vital components of plant metabolism and often stored in seeds (Peterson et al 1983) For plant growth and development minerals play an important role either as essential nutrients or through their effect on enzyme systems (El Gindy et al 1957) In wheat grain 16 percent consists of minerals but the contents decreases to 04 percent after milling to white flour (Fujino et al 1996) There is variability in mineral element contents among different parts of wheat grains Except for amounts of C and O in grains grain cortex contains mainly K P and Se while amounts of Cl Si S Mg and Ca are low The aleurone layer of wheat grains contain high amount of P K and Mg while amounts of Si Se S Ca Cl and Fe are low The concentration of minerals in the endosperm layer was low except for C and O

The mineral contents of cereal grains are affected by a number of factors including soil climate and cultural practices There is genetic differences in case of mineral element contents among wheat cultivars (Dikeman et al 1982)

Mineral composition of wheat grown under different environments revealed that there were differences in ash K Mn and Mg contents while only minor differences in Fe Zn P and Cu contents were found Organic and conventional farming were shown to have a great effect on mineral contents of wheat grain (Bourn and Prescott 2002) The extractability of P and Mg was significantly higher in wheat varieties grown under inorganic conditions as compared with those grown under organic conditions The reason for higher amount of P and Mg in inorganic conditions is high application of fertilizers Correlation between P and Mg contents was found significant (Koivistoinen et al 1974) Significant differences have also been found for the contents of Ca Cu Mn P and Zn between cultivars grown organically and inorganically Significantly higher contents of Cu and Mn was found in inorganically as compared to organically grown wheat (Punia and Khetarpaul 2007 Ryan et al 2004)

Minimizing the loss of aleurone layer in the milling process can improve the nutrient value of wheat flour (Li et al 2007) Bioavailability of the minerals from cereal food also depends upon the extent of milling Milling of wheat into flours caused a decrease in Se contents also influenced by extraction percentage of flour (Lorenz et al 1980) Wheat bran contained the highest quantity of Se while white flour showed the lowest (Ferretti and Levander 1974)There is difference of mineral contents in soft and hard wheats Soft wheats contained significantly less Se relative to hard wheats (Lorenz et al 1980) Table 4 data show the mineral content in cultivars of HRS (Hard Red Spring) and HRW (Hard Red Winter) All minerals with the exception of B and Cd are higher in HRS as compared to HRW wheats

24

Table 4 Mineral content () in cultivars of hard red spring (HRS) and hard red winter (HRW) wheats (Erdman and Moul 1982)

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

Interactions between phytic acid and minerals

Phytic acid myo-inositol hexakisphosphate or IP6 is a naturally-occurring compound found in all seeds of plants The phytic acid has beneficial as well as anti-nutritional effects for humans (Feil 2001 Fredlund 2002) Phytic acid plays a positive role in some processes in human body due to its antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic effects (Alabastar et al 1996) However it also strongly inhibits the absorption of iron and other essential minerals in human intestine (Hallberg et al 1987 Alabastar et al 1996) Furthermore phytic acid has an influence on postprandial glucose absorption and also cause decrease in plasma cholesterol and triglycerides (Yoon et al 1983 Katayama 1995) Consumption of phytic acid by humans and animals is mainly through cereal grains and legumes or foods made from them A high level of phytic acid (6-10 mgg) has been observed in wheat flour while in the refined flour concentration was reduced to 2-4 mgg In commercially milled flours the concentration of phytic acid is lower than in flours produced in a domestic environment Whole meal bread is an important source of minerals but also contains high amounts of phytic acid which is known to impair their absorption in human body (Febles et al 2002)

Phytic acid is the major phosphorus (P) storage compound in plant seeds and 80 of seed total P is bounded in it The remaining P is represented by soluble inorganic phosphate and cellular P (P bound in nucleic acids phosphorylated proteins P-lipids P-sugars) Due to the presence of negatively charged phosphate groups phytate forms mixed salts with mineral cations which are assumed to play an important role in mineral storage However it reduces the availability of essential nutrients thus being considered a natural anti-nutrient substance (Ko and Gold 1990) Phytic acid is found in the form of mono and divalent cations it also make complexes with proteins (Harland and Morris 1995)

25

Phytate salts are called phytins and they contain major amount of K and Mg whereas other metals such as Ca Zn Fe or Cu are found in much smaller amounts (Lopez et al 2002) Phytic acid forms complexes with metallic ions and is thereby decreasing bioavailability of mineral elements Interaction of phytate with proteins vitamins and minerals are also factors that limit the nutritive value of wheat (Smith and Circle 1978)

26

Bread making

History and importance Bread is used as a staple food it is made and eaten in most countries of the world The term rsquobreadrsquo is used to describe a wide range of products with different shapes sizes crusts textures colors softness eating qualities and flavors thus the terms good or bad quality tend to have no real meaning except to the individual making the assessment (Cauvain 2003) Bread is made from four main ingredients that are flour water yeast and salt (Mckevith 2004) Bread making goes back to prehistoric time when seeds from a mixture of grasses were ground to flour and water was added to form dough (Patient and Ainsworth 1994) In many parts of world the nature of bread making has retained its traditional form while in some it has changed dramatically (Cauvain 2003) Bread may be made from various cereals grains and legumes However wheatrsquos unique properties like flavor nutrients long shelf life and gluten forming make it an important cereal for bread making (Nelsson 1985 Jenkins 1975) Bread making is both a chemical (eg actions of oxidants) and a physical process (eg expansion of gas bubbles heat transport) affected not only by material but also mechanical processing like kneading molding and baking parameters and recipe (Kokelaar 1994) The viscoelastic properties of wheat gluten give major contribution to baking quality and these are due to interactions among the gluten proteins ie the gliadins and glutenins and the other components ie lipids carbohydrates and soluble proteins (Pomeranz 1968 Shewry and Tatham 1999 ) It has been proposed that the β-spiral structure of High Molecular Weight Glutenin Subunits (HMW-GS) may contribute to the elastic mechanism of gluten (Belton 1999) The good correlation between the amount of linked prolamins (disulfide linkage) and dough strength shows the importance of polymers in determining the viscoelastic properties of dough (Field et al 1983)

Role of gluten proteins in bread-making Wheat (Triticum aestivum L) seed-storage proteins represent an important source of energy being also involved in determination of bread-making quality (Cooke and Law 1998) The gluten proteins (gliadin and glutenin) constitute 80 to 85 of total flour protein and contribute to the properties of elasticity and extensibility to doughs that are essential for functionality of wheat flours (Shewry et al 1995)

27

Gliadins Gliadins are soluble in ethanol and play a role in the formation of gluten (along with glutenins) although they form intra-molecular disulfide bridges due to their low content of charged amino acids (Wieser 2007) Charged amino acids in dough normally cause reduction during the formation of disulfide bonds (Belitz and Grosch 1986) Gliadins have a high content of proline and glutamine and are grouped into α- β- γ- ω-gliadins in order of decreasing mobility in gel electrophoresis (Mitofanova 1976 Pomeranz 1988) The α- and γ-gliadins have restricted role in formation of gluten polymers via interchain disulphide linkage but their disulphide bonds are important in retaining the folding structure that provide information about non-covalent bonding in proteins (Wrigley et al 1998 Shewry 2000) The strong non-covalent protein-protein interactions (mainly hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions) of the gliadins gives viscosity and extensibility to the gluten (Madgwick et al 1992 Shewry 2000) High concentration of gliadins in the grain gives a poor nutritional quality of the flour because the gliadins are very poor in some essential amino acids ie lysine and tryptophan (Shukla 1975)

Glutenin The glutenins consist of polymeric proteins which are linked by interchain disulphide bonds After reduction process of glutenin the electrophoresis give two groups of proteins on the basis of molecular weight HMW-GS and low molecular weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GS) (Wang et al 2006) HMW-GS make the high contribution to the doughs elastic properties by being the main responsible for the gluten network (Cornish et al 2006) Bread-making performance of wheat flour has also been related to the glutenin polymer size distribution (Huebner and Wall 1976 Bottomely et al 1982) The molecular weight (MW) distribution of glutenin polymers has been shown to have main role in dough properties and baking performance The largest polymers termed lsquoglutenin macro polymerrsquo (GMP) make the greatest contribution to dough properties GMP contents in wheat flour are strongly correlated with dough strength and loaf volume The molecular weight of glutenins is ranging from about 500000 kDa to more than 10 million kDa (Wieser et al 2006) Due to large MWs glutenins belongs to the largest proteins in nature HMW-GS constitute only around 8-10 of the gluten protein (Halford et al 1992) LMW-GS are nearly 20 of total gluten proteins (Wieser and Kieffer 2001) All hexaploid bread wheat cultivars contain six HMW subunit genes of which three to six are expressed (Margiotta et al 1996) Each expressed gene gives an average 2 of the total seed proteins (Shewry 1999)

28

Sensory quality of bread It is well known that composition of flour has a strong impact on sensory quality of bread Whole-meal flour bread is different in term attributes such as colour aroma flavour and texture compared to the white flour (Kihlberg 2004) In leavened bread texture is the key factor for quality perception Texture is mainly influenced by protein content and composition (Finney and Barmore 1948) Texture is also used as a parameter in evaluation of bread quality (Lawless and Heyman 1999) The bread crumb also depends upon textural properties and attributes such as softness and strength Flour possessing strong dough mixing chracterstics correlates with strong bread crumb (Scanlon et al 2000) Taste of wheat flour varies by the extent of grinding (Gesslein 1995) The sensory quality of bread is influenced by many factors at each step in the bread making process from wheat cultivation to final bread for consumers Growth location influences rheological properties of dough made with inorganically and organically grown wheat (Gunnarsson and Haslund 1995) Factors such as type of soil climate genotype (Samuel and East 1990 Johansson et al 2001 Zhu and Khan 2002) time and year of harvest (Andersson et al 1994 Graybosch et al 1995 Johansson et al 2002) influence the quality of wheat but also the type of milling and baking technique affect the sensory quality of the bread (Kihlberg et al 2004)

29

Figure 7 Flow chart describing components that determine breadmaking quality (Mason et al 2007)

30

Rheological Behavior of Dough Rheology is the study of the flow and deformation of materials (Barnes 2000) Rheological behavior of a material is measured by applying a controlled strain or deformation on it for a unit time and resulting force response is measured The main responses are hardness modulus viscosity stiffness and toughness of the material (Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern 2003) There are two types of flows shear (liquid elements flow over each other) and extensional (adjacent elements flow away from each other) (Barnes 2000) The purpose of rheological measurements is to get a description of mechanical properties obtain information related to molecular structure and composition and simulation of material performance during processing (Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern 2003) It is difficult to take out samples during different bread making processes without disturbing those processes Therefore prediction of a range of conditions for these processes has to be determined by the use of mathematical modeling system (Scott and Richardson 1997) For example the mixing and sheeting process of bread making has been simulated (Love et al 2002) Rheological techniques are based on extensional and shear flows The main techniques used for cereal properties measurement are divided into descriptive empirical techniques and fundamental measurements (Bloksma and Bushuk 1988) Descriptive empirical techniques involve measurements by Texturometer Consistometer Amylograph Farinograph Mixograph Extensigraph various flow viscometers and fermentation recording devices (Table 1) (Muller 1975) The most common types of the fundamental rheological tests for cereals are small deformation dynamic shear oscillation small and large deformation shear creep and stress relaxation large deformation extensional measurements and flow viscometry (Table 5)

31

Table 5 Methods for determining rheological bahaviour in cereal products (Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern 2003)

Method Products Property measured

Empirical methods Mixers farinograph mixo-graph reomixer Extensigraph Alveograph AmylographRVA Consistometer Flow viscometers Fermentometers Penetrometers Texturometers TPA Fundamental methods Dynamic oscillation concentric cylinders parallel plates Tube viscometers capillary pressure extrusion pipe flow Extension uniaxial biaxial dough inflation system lubricated compression

Dough Dough Dough Gluten Pastes Suspensions Sauces Fillings Fluids Pastes Dough Semi-solid foods Gels Solid foods Fluids Pastes Batters Doughs Fluids Sauces Pastes Doughs Solid foods Doughs

Mixing timetorque apparent viscosity Extensibility Biaxial extensibility Apparent viscosity gelatinization temp Apparent viscosity Apparent viscosity Height volume Firmness Hardness Texture firmness Dynamic shear moduli dynamic viscosity Viscosity in-line viscosity Extensional viscosity Strain hardening

32

Role of mixing in dough development The bread-making involves a number of technological processes such as mixing fermentation and baking Mixing of flour and water give rise to a homogenous viscoelastic dough and helps the air movement of doughs (Bloksma 1990) Mixing has a significant effect on the rheological properties of wheat dough and determines the quality characteristics of wheat products Dough mixing action develops viscoelastic properties of wheat gluten and induces changes in the gluten protein composition (Skerritt et al 1999) Most of rheological studies indicate the occurring changes within the specific gluten protein fraction ie polymeric during mixing and resting of dough Mixing consists of three basic elements distribution of materials hydration and energy input to stretch protein molecules The energy input phase of mixing cause protein development due to shear and extensional deformation (Bloksma and Bushuk 1988) The development of a gluten protein network during dough mixing can be monitored by dough mixers such as the Farinograph and the Mixograph (Goesaert et al 2005) During mixing the resistance of dough mixing first increases then reaches an optimum development phase and decreases during what is called lsquoover-mixingrsquo During dough fermentation gluten proteins become less extractable due to changes in the gluten protein network (Veraverbeke et al 1999) The gluten protein network retains the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation and during the initial stages of baking (Goesaert et al 2005) Glutenin is responsible for the character of vital wheat gluten during mixing Increased amount of glutenin increases the strength and toughness of bread dough and additions can be used as a functional protein source in processed products The use of too much glutenin produces overly strong dough (Boland et al 2000)

Acknowledgements I would like to thanks my supervisors Eva Johansson Hans Larsson and Ramune Kuktaite who critically reviewed this introductory paper

References Abdel-Aal E-SM Hucl P Sosulski FW Graf R Gillott C and Pietrzak L 2001

Screening spring wheat for midge resistance in relation to ferulic acid content Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 3559ndash3566

Adom KK and Liu RH 2002 Antioxidant activity of grains Journal of

Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 6182-6187 Alabaster O Tang Z and Shivapurkar N 1996 Dietry fibre and the chemopreventive

modulation of colon carcinogenesis Mutation Res350185-197

33

Andersson R Hamalainen M and Aman P 1994 Predictive modelling of the bread-

making performance and dough properties of wheat Journal of Cereal Science 20 129-138

Atroshi F Rizzo A Westermarck T and Ali-Vehmas T 2002 Antioxidant nutrients

and mycotoxins Toxicology 180 151ndash167 Atwell WA 2001 Wheat flour Practical guideline for the food industry Eagan press

handbook series 2-7 Aykroyd WR and Doughty J 1970 Wheat in human nutrition Banks W and Greenwood CT 1975 Starch and its components Edinburgh University Press 141- 152 Barnes HA 2000 A hand book of elementary reology (Aberystwyth Wales Institute of

Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics The University of Wales) Belitz H-D and Grosch W 1986 Food Chemistry Springer Verlag 270-271 Belton PS 1999 On the elasticity of wheat gluten J Cereal Sci 29(2) 103-107 BeMiller JN 1991 Prospects for industrial utilization of sugar beet carbohydrates In

Lichtenthaler Carbohydrates as Organic Raw Materials VCH New York chap 10

Bloksma AH 1990 Rheology of breadmaking process Cereal Foods World 35 (2) 228ndash236

Bloksma AH and Bushuk W 1988 Rheology and chemistry of dough Chap 4 In

Wheat Chemistly and Technology Vol 2 (Y Pomeranz ed) 523-584 Boland MA Dhuyvetter K and Howe M 2000 ldquoEconomic Issues with Certified

and Bin-Run Wheat Seedrdquo MF-2498 K-State Research and Extension publication 2000

Bonoli M Verardo V Marconi E and Caboni MF 2004 Antioxidant phenols in

barley (Hordeum vulgare L) flour comparative spectrophotometric study among extraction methods of free and bound phenolic compounds Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 52 5195ndash5200

Borg DC 1993 Oxygen free radicals and tissue injury In Oxygen Free Radicals in

Tissue Damage Tarr M Samson F editors Boston Birkhaumluser

34

Bottomley RC Kearns HF Schofield JD 1982 Characterization of wheat flour and gluten proteins using buffers containing sodium dodecyl sulphate J Sci Food Agric 334481ndash91

Bourn D and Prescott J 2002 A comparison of the nutritional value sensory qualities

and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 42(1)1-34

Buonocore V De biasi M-G Giardina P Poerio E and Silano V 1985

Purification and properties of an alpha-amylase tetrameric inhibitor from wheat kernel Biochim Biophys Acta 8-31 40-48

Byrne PJ Toensmeyer UC German CL and Muller HR 1992 Evaluation of

consumer attitudes towards organic produce in Delaware and the Delmarva region J Food Distribution Res 29-44

Cauvain SP 2003 Bread making overview In XPCauvain (ed) Bread Making

Improving Quality Woodhead Publishing Ltd Cambridge UK Cheng Z Su L Moore J Zhou K Luther M Yin J and Yu L 2006 Effects of

postharvest treatment and heat stress on availability of wheat antioxidants Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 5623-5629

Cornell HJ and Hoveling AW 1998 Wheat chemistry and utilization cleveland

CRC press Cornish GB Bekes F Eagles HA Payne PI 2006 Prediction of dough properties

for bread wheat In Wrigley C Bekes F Bushuk W editors Gliadin and gluteninmdashthe unique balance of wheat quality St Paul Minn American Assn of Cereal Chemistry

Cooke RJ Law JR 1998 Seed storage protein diversity in wheat varieties Plant

Varieties and Seeds 11 159ndash167 Cuthbertson WFJ Ridgeway RR and Drummond JC 1940 The fate of tocopherols

in the animal bodyBiochem J 34(1) 34ndash39 Davidson and Passmore 1986 Human Nutrition and Dietetics Edinburgh Churchill and

Livingstone Diaz-Reinoso B Moure A Dominguez H and Parajo JC 2006 Supercritical CO2

extraction and purification of compounds with antioxidant activity Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 2441-2469 Dikeman E Pomeranz Y and Lai FS 1982 Minerals and protein contents in hard red

winter wheat Cereal Chem 59 139ndash142

35

Dobraszczyk BJ and Morgenstern M 2003 Reology and bread makink process

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Englyst H N and Hudson G J 1997 Starch and health Special publication-Royal

Society of Chemistry 205 9ndash21 Erdman JA Moul RC 1982 Mineral composition of small-grain cultivars from a

uniform test plot in South Dakota J Agric Food Chem 30 169ndash174 FAO 1999 Organic Agriculture Committee on Agriculture 25-29 January Rome httpwwwfaoorgunfaobodiesCOAGCOAG15X0075EhtmP99_8218 FAO statistical data 2004 Sweden wwwfaoorgagAGPAGPCdocfieldwheateuropeswedenhtm Febles Cl Arias A Hardisson A Rodnguez-Alvarez C and Sierra A 2002 Phytic

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content of grains and cereal products J Agric Food Chem 22 1049ndash1051 Field JM Shewry PR and Miflin BJ 1983 Solubilisation and characterisation of

wheat gluten proteins correlations between the amount of aggregated proteins and baking quality J Sci Food Agric 34(4) 370-377

Fincher GB and Stone BA 1986 Cell wall and their components in cereal grain

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and spring wheats Cereal Chemistry 25 (5) 291-312 Fredlund K 2002 Inhibition of calcium and zinc absorption by phytate in man

Methodological studies and hydrothermal processing of cereal to improve absorptionPhD thesis Chalmers University of Technology Goteburg University Goteburg

36

French D 1984 Organization of starch granules in Starch Chemistry and Technology 2nd ed Whistler RL Be Miller JN and Paschall EF eds New York Academic Press 183- 247

Friedman M 1996 Nutritional value of proteins from different food sources J Agric

Food Chem 446-29 Fujino Y Kuwata J Mano Y Ohnishi M 1996 Other grain components In Henry

RJ Kettlewell PS (Eds) Cereal grain quality Chapman and Hall 289-317 Garcia-Olmedo F Carmona MJ Lopez-Fando J J Fernandez J A Castagnaro A

Molina A Hernandez-Lucas C Carbonero P 2002 Characterization and analysis of thionin genes In Plant Gene Research Genes Involved in Plant Defense Boller T Molina A ed (New York Springer) 283-302

Gesslein S 1995 Kvalitetsegenskaper hos olika livsmedel Ar svenskproducerat battre

Vete No 10 The Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry

Goesaert H Brijs K Veraverbeke WS Courtin CM Gebruers K and Delcour JA 2005 Wheat flour constituents How they impact bread quality and how to impact their functionality Trends in Food Science and Technology16 (1ndash3) 12ndash30

Graybosch R A Peterson C J Baenziger P S and Shelton D R 1995

Environmental modification of hard red winter wheat flour protein composition Journal of Cereal Science 22(1) 45-51

Gunnarsson A Haslund T 1995 Forsok med olika odlingsformer i Kristianstad lanndash

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Halford NG Field JM Blair H Urwin P Moore K Robert L Thompson R

Flavell RB Tatham AS and Shewry PR 1992 Analysis of HMW glutenin subunits encoded by chromosome-1A of bread wheat (Triticum aestiuum L) indicates quantitative effects on grain quality Theor Appl Genet 83( 3) 373-378

Hallberg L Rossander L and Skanberg A B 1987 Phytates and the inhibitory effect of bran on iron absorption in man American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45 988-996

Halliwell B 1992 Antioxidants in human health and diseases Annual Review in Nutrition 16 33-50

37

Halliwell B and Gutteridge JMC 2007 What is an antioxidant In Free Radical in

Biology and Medicine Oxford University Press United Kingdom 80-81 Hansen B Alroslashe HF and Kristensen E S 2001 Approaches to assess the

environmental impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark Journal of Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 83 11ndash26

Harland BF and Morris ER1995 Phytate A good or bad component Nutrition

Research 15 733-754 Hatcher DW and Kruger JE 1997 Simple phenolic acids in flours prepared from

Canadian wheat relationship to ash content color and polyphenol oxidase activity Cereal Chemistry 74 337ndash343

Heun M Schafer PR Klawan D Castagna R Accerbi M Borghi B Salamini F 1997 Site of einkorn wheat domestication identified by DNA fingerprinting

Science 278 1312-1314 Higgins JM 2002 The role of carbohydrate hydrolases in breadbaking PhD Thesis

Victoria University Australia Hizukuri S Takeda Y and Yasuda M 1981 Multi-branched nature of amylose and

the action of debranching enzymes Carbohydrate Research 95 205ndash213 Hornick SB 1992 Factors affecting the nutritional quality of crops Am J Altern

Agric 7 63-8 Huebner FR and Wall JS 1976 Fractionation and quantitative differences of glutenin

from wheat varieties varying in baking quantity Cereal Chem 53258ndash63 Hung PV Maeda T and Morita N 2007 Study on physicochemical characteristics of

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IFOAM 2007 Annual report of international fedration of organic agriculture movement

Iskander FY and Murad MM 1986 Mineral and protein in four hard red winter wheat varieties and fractions derived there form Journal of Food Science 51 1522-1526

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and their relation to mixing characteristics of dough Cereal Chem 48 211-222

38

Jelaca SL and Hlynka I 1972 Effect of wheat-flour pentosans in dough gluten and bread Cereal Chem 49 489-495

Jenkins 1975 Sylvia Bakerv Technology-Book 1 Toronto Lester and Orpen Ltd

(Chapter 1 Flour) Johansson E and Svensson G 1998 Variation in bread-making quality Effects of

weather parameters on protein concentration and quality in some Swedish wheat cultivars grown during the period 1975-1996 Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 78 109-118

Johansson E Svensson G and Tsegaye S 2000 Genotype and environment effects on

bread-making quality old Swedish-grown wheat cultivars containing high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits 2 + 12 or 5 + 10 Acta Agricultura Scandinavica 49 225-233

Johansson E Kuktaite R and Prieto-Linde M L 2001 Improving wheat quality by

modifying protein composition Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences Section B Natural Exact and Applied Sciences 55(5-6) 185-190

Johansson E Nilsson H Mazhar H Skerritt J MacRitchie F and Svensson G

2002 Seasonal effects on storage proteins and gluten strength in four Swedish wheat cultivars Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 82(11) 1305-1311

Katayama T 1995 Effect of dietary sodium phytate on the hepatic and serum levels of

lipids and on hepatic activities of NADPH-generating enzymes in rats fed on sucrose Bioscience and Biotechnological Biochemistry591159-1160

Kihlberg I 2004 Sensory quality and consumer perception of wheat bread

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Kihlberg I Johansson L Kohler A Risvik E 2004 Sensory qualities of whole wheat

pan bread-influence of farming system milling and baking technique Journal of Cereal Science 39 67ndash84

Kiribuchi-Otobe C Nagamine T Yanagisawa T Ohnish M and Yamaguchi I

1997 Production of hexaploid wheats with waxy endosperm character Cereal Chemistry 74 72ndash74

Ko KM and Gold DV 1990 Ferric ion-induced lipid peroxidation in erythrocyte

membranes effect of phytic acid and butylated hydroxytolueneMollecular Cell Biochem95 125-128

39

Koivistoinen P Nissinen H Varo P Ahlstrom A 1974 Mineral element composition of cereal grains from different growing areas in Finland Acta Agric Scand 24 327ndash334

Kokelaar JJ 1994 Physics of bread making Doctoral thesis Wageningen Agricultural

University Wageningen The Netherlands Krinsky NI 1993 Actions of carotenoids in biological systems Annual Review of

Nutrition 13 561-587

Labat E Morel MH and Rouau X 2000 Wheat gluten phenolic acids occurrence and fate upon mixing Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48 6280ndash6283

Lasztity L 1984 The chemistry of cereal proteins CRC Press Boca Raton Florida

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372 LiuRH 2007 Whole grain phytochemicals and healthJournal of Cereal Science 46

207-219 Lopez HW Leenhardt F Coudary C and Remesy C (2002) Minerals and phytic

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Degradation of HMW Glutenins During Wheat Sourdough Fermentation Journal of Cereal Chemistry 81(1) 87-93

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69 Love RJ Hemar Y Morgenstern M McKibbin R 2002 Modelling the sheeting of

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MacRitchie F 1984 Baking quality of wheat flours Advances in Food and Nutrition Research 29 201ndash277

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Lafiandra D 1996 Detection of y-type subunit at the Glu-A1 locus in some Swedish bread wheat lines Journal of Cerial Science 23 203-211

Mason H Navabi A Frick B OrsquoDonovanJ Niziol D and Spaner D 2007 Does

growing canadian western hard red spring wheat under organic management alter its breadmaking quality Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems22(3) 157-167

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10 244-247 Mohammadkhani A 2005 Study of pentosan (non starch polysaccharides) in durum

wheat and its relation to quality of protein and grain hardness index Pakistan journal of nutrition 4 (4)208-209

Morris C F 2002 Puroindolines the molecular genetic basis of wheat grain hardness Plant Molecular Biology 48 633-647

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Muller HJ 1975 Complement Annual Review of Biochemistry 44 697-724 Maumlder P Hahn D Dubois D Gunst L Alfoumlldi T Bergmann H Oehme M

Amadograve R Schneider H Graf H Velimirov A Flieszligbach A and Niggli U 2007 Wheat quality in organic and conventional farming results of a 21 year field experiment Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture87 (10) 1826-1835

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May 85 1070-1076 Oberholtzer L Dimitri C and Greene C 2005 lsquoPrice premiums hold on as US organic market expandsrsquo Outlook Report VGS30801 Economic Research Service US

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baking qualities Cereal Chem 49 268-275 Osborne TB 1924 The vegetable proteins Longmans Green Co London Patient D and Ainsworth P 1994 The chemistry of flour and bread Nutrition and Food

Science 3 22ndash4 Payne P Holt L and Law C 1981 Structural and genetical studies on the high-

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Peterson CJ Johnson VA and Mattern PJ 1983 Evaluation of variation in mineral

element concentrations in wheat flour and bran of different cultivars Cereal Chem 60 450ndash455

Pomeranz Y 1968 Relation between chemical composition and bread making

potentialities of wheat flour Advances in food research 16 335-455 Pomeranz Y 1988 Composition and functionally of wheat flour components In

Pomeranz Y (Ed) Wheat Chemistry and Technology II Am Assoc Cereal Chem Inc St Paul USA 97-158

Posner ES 2000 Wheat In Kulp K Ponte JG (Eds) Handbook of cereal science

and technology Marcel Dekker cop New York 1-99 Punia D and Khetarpaul N 2007 Physiochemical chracterstics nutrient composition

and consumer acceptability of wheat varieties grown under organic and inorganic farming conditions Food SciNutr31-22

42

Ryan MH Derrick JW and Dann PR 2004 Grain mineral concentration and yield of wheat grown under organic and conventional management Journal Sci Food Agric 84 207-216

Saadi A Lempereur I Sharonov S Autran JC and Manfait M 1998 Special

distribution of phenolic materials in durum wheat grain as probed by confocal fluorescence spectral imaging Journal of Cereal Science 28 107ndash114

Samuel AM East J 1990 Organically grown wheat-the effect of crop husbandry on

grain quality In Aspects of Applied Biology 25 Cereal Quality II Association of Applied Biologists Horticulture Research International Wellesbourne Warwik 199ndash207

Scanlon MG Sapirstein HD Fahloul D 2000 Mechanical properties of bread crumb

prepared from flours of different dough strength Journal of Cereal Science 32(3) 235-243

Scott G and Richardson P 1997The application of computational fluid dynamics in the

food industry Trends in Food Science and Technology 8 119ndash124 Shewry PR 1996 Cereal grain proteins In Henry RJ Kettlewell PS (Eds) Cereal grain quality Chapman and Hall London 227-250 Shewry P R 1999 The synthesis processing and deposition of gluten proteins in the

developing wheat grain Cereal Foods World 44 587ndash589 Shewry PR 2000 Seed proteins In M Black and JD Bewley Editors Seed

Technology and its Biological Basis Sheffield Academic Press Sheffield 42ndash84

Shewry PR and Tatham AS 1999 The characterisation structures and evolutionary relationships of prolamins in Shewry PR and Casey R Seed Proteins Kluwer

Academic Publishers Dordrecht 11-33 Shewry P R Tatham A S 2000 Wheat gluten Paper presented at 7th International Workshop Gluten (University of Bristol) Shewry P R Halford N G Belton P S and Tatham A S 2002 The structure and

properties of gluten an elastic protein from wheat grain Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 357 133-142

Shewry PR Field JM Faulks AJ Parmar S Miflin BJ Dietler MD Lew E J-

L and Kasarda DD 1984 Purification and N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis of high molecular weight (HMW) gluten polypeptides of wheat Biochem Biophy Acta 78823

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Shewry P R Napier JA and Tatham A S 1995 Seed storage proteins structures and biosynthesis The Plant Cell 7 945-956

Shibanuma K Takeda Y Hizukuri S and Shibata S 1994 Molecular-structures of

some wheat starches Carbohydrate Polymers 25 111ndash116

Shukla TP 1975 Cereal proteins Chemistry and food applications CRC Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 6 1-75

Skerritt JH Hac L and Bekes F 1999 Depolymerization of the Glutenin macropolymer during dough mixing I Changes in levels molecular weight distribution and overall composition Cereal Chemistry 76 395ndash401

Smith AK and Circle SJ 1978 Soybean Chemistry and TechnologyAvi Pub Comp

Inc Westport Connecticut Stanner SA Hughes J Kelly CN and Buttriss J 2004 A review of the

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Stone PJ Savin R 1999 Grain quality and its physical determinants In Satorre EH Slafer GA (Eds) Wheat ecology and physiology of yield determination

Food Products Press 85-120 Stratil P Klejdus B and Kuban V 2006 Determination of total content of phenolic

compounds and their antioxidant activity in vegetablesndashEvaluation of spectrophotometer methods Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 607-616

Straub O 1987 Key to carotenoids Pfander H (ed) 2nd edn Birkhaumluser Basel Toepfer EW Polansky MM Eheart JF Glover HT Morris ER Hepburn FN

and Quackenbush FW 1972 Nutrient composition of selected wheats and wheat products XI Summary Cereal Chem 49 173-186

Tominaga Y Kobayachi Y Goto T Kasemura K Nomura M and Yasshi Y 2005

DPPH Radicalndashscavenging effect of several phenylpropanoid compounds and their glycoside derivatives Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 125 (4) 371ndash375

Veraverbeke WS Courtin CM Verbruggen IM and Delcour JA 1999 Factors governing levels and composition of the sodium dodecyl sulphate-unextractable glutenin polymers during straight dough breadmaking Journal of Cereal Science 29 129ndash138

44

Wang M Hamer RJ vanVliet T and Oudgenoeg G 2002 Interaction of water extractable pentosans with gluten protein effect on dough properties and gluten quality Journal of Cereal Science 36 25ndash37

Wang YG Khan K Hareland G and Nygard G 2006 Quantitative glutenin

composition from gel electrophoresis of flour mill streams and relationship to breadmaking quality Cereal Chemistry 83 (3) 293ndash299

Whattam J and Cornell HJ 1991 Distribution and composition of the lipids in starch fractions from wheat flour Starch Staerke 43 152-156 Wieser H 2007 Chemistry of gluten proteins Food Microbiology 24 (2) 115ndash119 Wieser H and Seilmeier W 1998 The influence of nitrogen fertilisation on quantities

and proportions of different protein types in wheat flour Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 76(1) 49-55

Wieser H and Kieffer R 2001 Correlations of the amount of gluten protein types to the technological properties of wheat flours determined on a micro-scale J Cereal Sci 34 19ndash27

Wieser H Seilmeier W and Belitz HD 1980 Vergleichende Untersuchungen uumlber partielle Aminosaumluresequenzen von Prolaminen und Glutelinen verschiedener Getreidearten I Proteinfraktionierung nach Osborne Z Lebensm-Unters Forsch 170 17ndash26

Wieser H Bushuk W and MacRitchie F 2006 The polymeric glutenins

Willer H and Yussefi M 2005 The world of organic agriculture Statistics and emerging trends (IFOAM Bonn)

Willer H and Yussefi M 2006 The worldoforganic agriculture Statistics andemerging

trends International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Bonn

Wrigley F Bekes and W Bushuk 1998 Gliadin and Glutenin the Unique Balance of Wheat Quality St Paul American Association of Cereal Chemistry 213ndash240

Yoon JH Thompson LU and Jenkins DK1983 The effect of phytic acid on in vitro rate of starch digestibility and blood glucose response Am J Clin Nutr38835-842

Yussefi M and Willer H 2002 Organic agriculture worldwide statistics and future

prospects Stiftung Oekologie and Landbau (SOEL) Bad Durkheim Germany Yu L 2008 Wheat Antioxidants Chapter 1 Overview and prospective 1-3

45

Yu L Perret J Harris M Wilson Jand Haley S 2003 Antioxidant properties of

bran extracts from Akron wheat grown at different locations Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51 1566ndash1570

Zhu J and Khan K 2002 Quantitative variation of HMW glutenin subunits from hard

red spring wheats grown in different environments Cereal Chemistry 79 783ndash786

Zhou K and Liangli Y 2004 Effects of extraction solvent on wheat bran antioxidant

activity estimation Lebensm-Wiss ndashTechnol 37 717-721 Zhou K K Su L and Yu L 2004 Phytochemicals and antioxidant properties in wheat

branJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 6108-6114

Zhou K Yin J and Yu L 2006 ESR determination of the reactions between selected

phenolic acids and free radicals or transition metals Food Chemistry 95 446-457

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StarchStaerke 40 1ndash7 Oslashstergaard H Rasmussen SK Roberst T H and Hejgaard J 2000 Inhibitory serpins

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wwwbenbestcomnutrceutVitaminEhtml wwwbiomatrixonecomsupport_anti-oxhtml wwwlandfoodubcca301proteinprotq4htm

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
  - - Introduction and history
    - Principles of organic agriculture
    - Why is organic farming important
    - Production of organic wheat
    - - Nutritional characteristics of wheat
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        Tocopherols (Vitamin E)
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        Albumins and globulins
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        Starch polysaccharides
        
        Structures of amylose and amylopectin
        
        Properties of wheat starch
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        History and importance
        
        Role of gluten proteins in bread-making
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        Sensory quality of bread
        
        Rheological Behavior of Dough
        
        Role of mixing in dough development
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References
        
        
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 PTB 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ltFEFF005500740069006c0069007a00610163006900200061006300650073007400650020007300650074010300720069002000700065006e007400720075002000610020006300720065006100200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740065002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002000610064006500630076006100740065002000700065006e0074007200750020007400690070010300720069007200650061002000700072006500700072006500730073002000640065002000630061006c006900740061007400650020007300750070006500720069006f006100720103002e002000200044006f00630075006d0065006e00740065006c00650020005000440046002000630072006500610074006500200070006f00740020006600690020006400650073006300680069007300650020006300750020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020015f00690020007600650072007300690075006e0069006c006500200075006c0074006500720069006f006100720065002egt13 RUS 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 SKY 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 SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 TUR 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 UKR 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF 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Page 2: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

Abrar Hussain Introductory Paper at the Faculty of Landscape Planning Horticulture and

ISSN 1654-3580

4

5

6

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 3: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

4

5

6

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 4: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

4

5

6

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 5: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

5

6

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 6: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

6

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 7: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

7

Class

General uses

Pasta

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 8: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

8

Organic Farming

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 9: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

9

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 10: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

10

Antioxidants

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 11: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

11

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 12: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

12

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 13: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

13

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 14: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

14

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 15: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

15

Non-gluten protein

Albumins Water

Gluten proteins

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 16: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

16

I II III IV V

15 Globulins 15 10 4-5 7

Glutenins 23 16 35-50 46 40

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 17: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

17

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 18: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

18

Gluten protein

Gliadins (monomers)

HMW

S- rich S- poor

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 19: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

19

Carbohydrates

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 20: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

20

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 21: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

21

Uses of starch

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 22: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

22

Cellulose

Pentosans

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 23: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

23

Minerals

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 24: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

24

Mineral Elements

HRS

HRW

K P S

Mg Ca B Ba Cd C

048 033 020 018 0037 096 42

0065 45

037 027 014 015 003 099 41

0096 41

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 25: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

25

26

Bread making

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

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Bread making

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 27: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 28: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 29: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 30: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 31: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 32: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 33: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 34: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 35: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 36: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 37: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 38: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 39: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 40: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 41: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 42: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 43: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 44: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

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Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

Page 45: NUTRITIONAL AND MIXING CHRACTERSTICS OF ORGANICALLY … › 4074 › 1 › hussain_a_091026.pdf · “preventive medicine”. Organic food products are appreciated in the market.

45

Introduction
- Wheat
- - Organic Farming
      - Antioxidants
        
        
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Proteins
        
        
        Gluten
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        
        
        
        Uses of starch
        
        
        Cellulose
        
        Pentosans
        
        Minerals
        
        
        
        Bread making
        
        
        
        Gliadins
        
        Glutenin
        
        
        
        
        Acknowledgements
        
        References

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