Personality & Attitudes

QuestionAn effective manager will always hire the smartest person available.True? False? Why? What do you think?

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Personality & AttitudesPersonalityWhile intelligence is really important, personality is more likely to affect employees attitudes and behavior

The word Personality originates from the Latin word Persona which means mask.

3What is Personality??PersonalityThe sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.

The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment and how he or she feels, thinks, and behaves.

DefinitionsA sum total of the effect, actions and reactions of an individual to other individuals, groups or situations.---Stephen Robbins

Personality is relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent internal states that explains a persons behavioral tendencies.

Determinants of Personality

Heredity physical structure, reflexes, intelligence, temperament.Environment culture, sub-cultures and value systemsContribution from the Family behaviour, upbringing and atmosphere at home.Socialization Process other relevant persons, groups, and organizations.Situational Considerations immediate situation

Other Attributes/Traits of Personality in OBLocus of ControlSelf-EsteemSelf-monitoringRisk TakingType A PersonalityType B PersonalityAuthoritarianismMachiavellianismLocus of ControlLocus of ControlThe degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.InternalsIndividuals who believe that they control what happens to them. ExternalsIndividuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

Self-MonitoringThe extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships.

High self-monitors take great care to observe and control the images that they project.

High self-monitors are more involved in their jobs, perform better, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.

Downside: Dealing with unfamiliar cultures might provoke stress.

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Self-EsteemThe degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation.People with high self-esteem have favourable self-images.People with low self-esteem have unfavourable self-images.

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Risk-TakingHigh Risk-taking ManagersMake quicker decisionsUse less information to make decisionsOperate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizationsLow Risk-taking ManagersAre slower to make decisionsRequire more information before making decisionsExist in larger organizations with stable environments

Personality TypesType asAre always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;Strive to think or do two or more things at once;Cannot cope with leisure time;Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.Type bsNever suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments;Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost;Can relax without guilt.AuthoritarianismThey tend to be rigid in their positions, place high moral value on their beliefs, and are strongly oriented towards conformity to rules and regulations.They naturally prefer stable and structured work environments which are governed by clean rules and regulations.

MachiavellianismIt refers to individuals propensity to manipulate people.These people would be prone to participate in organizational politics.Interpersonal game playing, power tactics, and identifying influences systems in organizations.Suitable for jobs which demand bargaining skills.Personality DevelopmentFreudian StagesEriksons StageChris Argvris

Freudian StagesFreud (1900) developed atopographical modelof the mind, whereby he described the features of the minds structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic theory conceived the mind as only having a fixed amount ofpsychic energy.

On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists of all which can be retrieved from memory. The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real cause of most behaviour. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see.The outcome of the interaction between theId, EgoThe superego determines our adult personality.

Freud believes that there are following 5stages involved in the formation of Human PersonalityAgeMajor Characteristics0-1 yrsBasic formation of oneself1-3 yrsComing to terms with societys control3-4yrsLeading to identification, gender understanding4-6yrs to adolescenceGrowing to an AdultAdolescence to AdulthoodAn adult to mature

Theidallows us to get our basic needs metTheego's job is to meet the needs of theidby taking into account the constraints of reality.Thesuperegodevelops during thephallic stageas a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents.

IdIdis the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends.

The id is the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human's basic, instinctual drives. Id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

The id acts according to the pleasure principle the psychic force that motivates the tendency to seek immediate gratification of any impulse.

The id knows no judgments of value: no good and evil, no morality. Instinctualtrendsseeking discharge in our view, is all there is in the id.

Contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation & nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time.EgoThe ego acts according to thereality principle; i.e. it seeks to please the id's drive in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bring grief.

Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although not all of the operations of the ego are conscious.

Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory.

The ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world. ... The ego represents what may be called reason and common sense, in contrast to the id, which contains the passionsSuper EgoThe superego develops during early childhood and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed.

The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.

Thesuperegois the ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which theegooperates.

The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as disobedience and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.

Eriksons StagesErikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated byErik Erikson, identifies eight stagesthrough which a healthily developinghumanshould pass frominfancyto lateadulthood.

Eriksons Psycho-Social Stages is formulated on the fact that the role of society and of persons themselves are accorded equal emphasis with respect to the development and organization of personality.

Trust v/s MistrustInfant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofhope.

Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtThe child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofwill.

Initiative vs. GuiltAround age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a childs life. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.

Industry (competence) vs. InferiorityChildren are at the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the childs life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the childs peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the childs self esteem. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofcompetence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion During adolescence (age 12 to 18 yrs), the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn theroleshe will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue offidelity.

Intimacy vs. Isolation Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue oflove.

Generativity vs. Stagnation During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, have our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofcare.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofwisdom.

Chris Argyris Immaturity to MaturityHe proposed seven dimensions of personality with the help of a continuum that extended from immaturity to maturity.

Chris Argyris explored the concept of organizational learning and its impact on a company's growth, effectiveness and adaptability. Argyris's theories focused on single- and double-loop learning, the immaturity/maturity continuum, organizational communication and the effects of each of these on employee motivation, accountability and empowerment.

Abraham Maslow

Maslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potentialHierarchy of NeedsMaslows Need Hierarchy Maslows theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a persons behavior.A satisfied need ceases to motivate.Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds were categories as five levels of lower-higher-order needs.

Individual must satisfy lower-level needs before they can satisfy higher order needs.

Satisfied needs will no longermotivate.

Motivating a person depends on knowing atwhat level that a person is on the hierarchy

POTENCY of NeedThe needs are INNATE, but they are not ofequal potency (strength). They are arranged in a hierarchy of potency.

An Individual Is Motivated By Her/his most PotentUnsatisfied Need

Attitude

What is an Attitude??

It expresses an individual positive and negative feeling about some objects. It describes an individuals feelings, thoughts and predisposition to act toward some object in the environment.An attitude is the psychological response to a person, an object, to a situation, to society and to life itself that generally influence our behaviors and actions.

They are formed by our judgments or evaluations of people, society, objects, events and occurrences etcbased on our values and beliefs. These beliefs include our beliefs in ourselves and in life or our belief in the future.

Other factors in a given situation may influence our behavior. We can also have different attitudestowardsthe same thing depending on whom we are dealing with, the actual context of an exchange or an event oroccurrence.AttitudeA lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, advertisements, or issues.

Anything toward which one has an attitude is called an Attitude Object.

An attitude is: Lasting because it tends to endure over time.General because it applies to more than a momentary event.

Attitudes help us make all forms of choices such as:Very product-specific behaviors, andMore general consumption-related behaviors. Components ABC ModelAffective Component The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Behavioral Component An intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something

Cognitive Component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Example:Functions of AttitudeKnowledge Function (Knowledge gained by past experience guide the attitude on a specific situation)

Adaptive Function (adjust to the work environment)

Ego-defensive Function (defend their self-image)

Expressive Function (Expressing the organizational values)

ValuesValues are our gut level beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, normal or abnormal.

A value is a belief, a mission, or a philosophy that is meaningful. Whether we are consciously aware of them or not, every individual has a core set of personal values.

Values are the ideas in the mind of men comparable to norms in that they specify how people should behave. Values also attach degrees of goodness to activities and relationships.Importance of ValueValues play an important role in the integration and fulfilment of mans basic impulses and desires in a stable and consistent manner appropriate for his living.

They are generic experiences in social action made up of both individual and social responses and attitudes.

They build up societies, integrate social relations.

They mould the ideal dimensions of personality and range and depth of culture.

They influence peoples behaviour and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.

They have a great role to play in the conduct of social life.

They help in creating norms to guide day-to-day behaviour.

Sources of Values Home School Religion History Society Books Philosophy Science Culture

Types of ValuesTerminal ValuesInstrumental Values Other Values

Types of Value Personal These are considered essential principles on which we build our life and guide us to relate with other people. They are usually a blend of family values and social-cultural values, together with our own individual ones, according to our experiences.

Family These are valued in a family and are considered either good or bad. These derive from the fundamental beliefs of the parents, who use them to educate their children. They are the basic principles and guidelines of our initial behaviour in society, and are conveyed through our behaviours in the family, from the simplest to the most complex.Material These values allow us to survive, and are related to our basic needs as human beings, such as food and clothing and protection from the environment. They are fundamental needs, part of the complex web that is created between personal, family and social-cultural values. If exaggerated, material values can be in contradiction with spiritual values.

Spiritual They refer to the importance we give to non-material aspects in our lives. They are part of our human needs and allow us to feel fulfilled. They add meaning and foundation to our life, as do religious beliefs.Social-cultural These are the prevailing values of our society, which change with time, and either coincide or not with our family or personal values. They constitute a complex mix of different values, and at times they contradict one another, or pose a dilemma.

Moral The attitudes and behaviours that a society considers essential for coexistence, order, and general well being

Terminal ValuesIn our personal lives, Terminal Values are those things that we can work towards or we think are most important and we feel are most desirable terminal values are desirable states of existence.Terminal Values signify the objectives of the life of a person the ultimate things the person wants to achieve through his or her behavior (the destination he wants to reach in life).

Some examples are- Family security: taking care of loved ones Freedom: independence; free choice Equality: brotherhood; equal opportunity for all Self-respect: self esteem A world at peace: free of war and conflict

Instrumental Values

Instrumental Valuesarecore values,permanent in nature, comprise personal characteristics and character traits. Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes of behavior and include values like honesty, sincerity, ambition, independence, obedience, imaginativeness, courageousness, competitiveness, and also some negative traits too. Organizations also have Instrumental Values (which can be ascertained from the organizational culture) and these are permanent in nature and difficult to change.Instrumental Values are difficult to change.

For example, the instrumental values of a PSU will differ from that of an MNC though both may be in the same business.

PerceptionA process by which individuals select , organize & interpret inputs from their senses in order to give meaning to their environment.

What is Perception? The process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

It helps better understand how people make attributions about events. We dont see reality. We interpret what we see and call it reality.

Major Elements of PerceptionThe PerceiverThe Target The Situation

The Perceiver

--Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: AttitudesMoodsMotivesSelf ConceptInterestCognitive structureExpectationsThe Target The Situation

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