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The Impact of Cultural Issues in Relation to Training and Development Withinthe Private Sector in Saudi Arabia

By

A DISSERTATION

Submitted toThe University of Wolverhampton Business School

In partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree of

[enter here your degree title]

2013

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A Dissertation Entitled

The Impact of Cultural Issues in Relation to Training and Development Within

the Private Sector in Saudi Arabia

By

[Student name]

'I declare that this Dissertation/Research Project, in its entirety, my ownwork, and that it has not previously been presented in whole or part, forany other award, or published in whole or in part elsewhere.'

Signed

Date

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Abstract

The study began with an introduction to the research subject to enable the reader to

acquire a brief overview of the research question, the purpose and importance of the

study and an overview of how training and development of Saudi nationals hadevolved to date. This was followed in Chapter Two by a review of the published

literature on learning and development including how cultural norms might affect the

design and outcomes of its implementation. Chapter Three was intended to describe

the methodology employed in conducting the research that ensured it achieved what

it intended to achieve and had high levels of validity; it included an outline and

justification of the research philosophy, data collection and analysis, ethical

implications and the limitations of the study. In Chapter Four the analysis anddiscussion of the data collected was presented and the findings compared with the

prior research studies. In the final chapter conclusions were drawn as to how well

the research question had been answered and how the findings aligned with and

differed from the published knowledge on this subject. At the end of that Chapter,

suggestions were made for further research in this subject area.

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Acknowledgements

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract 3

Chapter 1 Introduction 7

1.1 Background 7

1.2 Objectives of the Research and the Research Questions 7

1.3 Importance of the Research 8

1.4 Methodology 9

1.5 Summary 9

Chapter 2 Literature Review 11

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2 Defining the Learning and Development Initiatives 112.3 Measuring the Outcomes from Learning and Development

Programmes 172.4 Cultural Considerations in Design and Implementation of Learning

Interventions 242.5 Summary 26

Chapter 3 Research Methods 28

3.1Introduction 28

3.2 Research Methodology 283.3Data Collection and Analysis 29

3.4Reliabilty and Validity 323.5 Ethics 323.6 Limitations of the Research 33

3.7 Summary 33

Chapter 4 Findings and Discussion 35

4.1 Introduction 354.2 Secondary Research Findings 354.3 The Primary Research Findings, Comparison with Prior Studies and

Secondary Research 374.4 Summary 49

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 50

5.1 Introduction 505.2 Was the Research Question Answered? 505.3 Reflection on the Study and Its Limitation 535.4 Areas for Further Study 54

5.5 Summary and Reflections 55

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References 56

Appendix A Interview Questions and Questionnaire

Appendix B Summary of Findings from Survey Questionnaire

Appendix C Summary of Findings form Manager Interviews

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures

Figure 2.1 Learning Interventions Employed by Companies 18

Figure 2.2 The Training Interventions Most Preferred 19

Figure 2.3 The Training Interventions Least Preferred 20

Figure 4.3 (a) Age Profile of Participants 38Figure 4.3 (b) Length of Service 38

Figure 4.3 (c) Regularity of Assessment by Department 41

Tables

Table 1: Comparative Effectiveness of Training Methods 22

Table 2: National Cultural Dimensions 25

Table 3:Processes Used to Assess Skill/Knowledge Levels 42

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia historically relied on the services of expatriate foreign

workers in the commercial sector, owing to the poor level of skills and knowledge ofSaudi nationals. Over the last decade, there has been a significant shift to

encourage training and development of the local population, underpinned by

Government policy and centred particularly on the private sector. This has been

supported by an employment policy called Saudisation, which forced the Saudi

employer to employ local rather than expatriate personnel (Sfakainakis, 2011) and by

the Manpower Council, which provided funds for extension and investment in training

and development of Saudi citizens (British Council, 2007). As a result, HumanResource processes and policies have evolved rapidly across government

sponsored vocational training and design and implementation of training and

development programmes within private organisations (Alzalabani, 2002). There

were significant cultural issues in relation to how these initiatives were planned and

implemented that also affected the quality of the outcomes and firms performance.

The cultural issues varied across Arab states; a study by Soltani and Liao (2010)

conducted in Iran found that perceptions of training between employees and

organisations did not align and that outcomes were frequently contradictory to

expectations.

1.2. Objectives of the Research and the Research Questions

The aim of this study is to appraise the impact of culture on the design and outcomes

of learning initiatives in Saudi Arabian private sector firms.

The objectives of the research are to:

a) Appraise the goals that medium-sized Saudi firms perceive to accomplish by

implementing HRM development within their organisations

b) Identify the range of training and development initiatives that are employed

within medium sized firms in Saudi Arabia

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c) Pinpoint the national cultural barriers that impact on the quality of outcomes

achieved by the initiatives, including religious perspectives

d) Assess the gap between the actual and intended level of outcomes from

initiatives

e) Identify the learning interventions that would be most effective in supportingthe accomplishment of organisational goals.

The research question is:

To what extent do national, cultural issues impact on the capacity for existing training

and development initiatives, implemented by firms in Saudi Arabia to, meet the

expectations of employers?

The research question is broken down into sub-questions to ensure that all the

appropriate aspects are appraised:

1. What are the key goals that employers expect to accomplish from the

training and development initiatives that they implement?

2. How are training and development needs assessed and evaluated within

the workforce/management?

3. How far do the training and development interventions employed and

implemented match the national cultural norms of Saudi nationals?

4. To what extent do the measured outcomes from training and developmentcompare with the employers expectations and goals?

5. What adaptations could be made to the current training and development

design and methodology to enhance the outcomes for employer and

employee?

1.3 Importance of the Research

The British Council (2007) report intended to assist firms to identify the skills and

knowledge training that would be required to enhance the current Saudi Arabian

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working age population so that they were equipped to meet the needs of the private

sector employer and to reduce reliance on expatriate skills. The changes in

legislation and funding for training Saudi nationals since then forced the private

sector to take the necessary action to substantially enhance the skills of local

workers (Sfakainakis, 2011; EIC, 2011). However since there was so littlecommitment to in-house investment in the early stages, the performance of private

sector firms declined (Al Dosary and Rhaman, 2005). Hence if the private sector is

to meet its performance goals, it is essential that the training and development

implemented produces the desired level of skills and knowledge in the local

workforce. This study is important not only for the survival of those firms but for the

growth of diversified economy (EIC, 2011)

1.4 Methodology

The research philosophy employed is bridged interpretivism, an approach that

facilitates an objective viewpoint enabling the findings to be assessed against a

theoretical framework, whilst including the beliefs/values of the participants (Richie

and Lewis, 2010). The primary data for the study was gathered by means of

questionnaire survey of employees, a methodology employed frequently in business

research (Saunders et al. 2009). The survey was complemented by semi- structured

interviews with two senior managers; to strengthen validity of the study

(triangulation) (Saunders et al. 2009) A mixed methods approach was

employed.(Saunders et al. 2009; Miles and Hubermann, 1994).

1.5 Summary

This Chapter described the study in outline, stating the issues regarding learning and

development of staff employed in firms in Saudi Arabia and the reasons why the

situation had evolved. It also described the vital nature of a change required for the

Saudi Government were to achieve the goal that companies employed Saudi

nationals rather than expatriate staff. This introduction enabled the reader to

establish what the research comprised, how it would be conducted in terms of

methodology so that it would add a valuable contribution to the existing knowledge.

The next stage was to identify and outline the existing published research relevant to

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providing a theoretical framework for the research and which was recorded in the

next Chapter.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter was used to explore the findings of relevant published studies, whichwould enable the research question to be refined and suitable sub-questions to be

shaped, which would ensure that the appropriate theoretical framework could be

applied to this study. This review provided an overview of the rationale that

companies had for providing employee learning and development programmes

including: the expected outcomes; how the organisation determined exactly what

training and development should take place; the range of training and development

interventions available and the reasons why specific ones might be chosen; ways inwhich the effectiveness of the outcomes was measured. In addition the influence of

national and organisational culture on the design and delivery of the learning and

development programme was appraised.

2.2 Defining the Learning and Development Initiatives

2.2.1 Definition and Purpose of Organisational Learning and Development

The learning and development that occurred in organisations was often referred to as

Human Resources Development, since this inferred that the employee was regarded

as one of the firms resources in the same way as finance or machinery. It was

suggested that a firm could differentiate itself from its competitors by identifying its

key resources and continually developing them to adapt to changes in the external

environment so that the individuals and the firm possessed unique skills that

increased its chances of outperforming its rivals (Barney, 1991). A similar idea was

put forward by Hamel and Prahalad (1994) that a firm developed core competences,

which evolved with changes in circumstances and that enabled the organisation to

retain competitive advantage, since other firms could not replicate them easily.

However it was difficult to define those human resource characteristics, which were

most likely to add value to the organisation; the included the ability to learn,

cognition and dexterity (Boudreau 1993, in Kamoche 1994). However Kamoche

(1994) stated that the employees behaviour was of vital concern, since this was a

competence discernible in his/her actions. Hence valuing the human resource over a

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period of time involved appraising the enhancement of the combination of skills,

knowledge and ability; measuring those factors that represented identifiable

expertise. In other words evaluating the increase in skills, knowledge and abilities,

which enabled the organisation to adapt to changing markets and to develop

products/services by use of innovative practice. The manner in which the humanresource was viewed and managed within the organisation was found to have an

impact on the learning and development methods employed. Human Resource

Management (HRM) could be defined in a number of ways, but two distinct

definitions were relevant in this study, hard and soft HRM (Torrington et al. 2008). In

the hard model the workforce was viewed as an operational cost that must be

minimised and managed. The rationale, according to Gill (1999), was related to

scientific management models. since the workforce was regarded as an inert entitylacking creativity. As a consequence employee skills, qualities and knowledge were

measured on an individual basis, against what was needed by the firm. In contrast

the soft version of HRM focused on communication, motivation and leadership.

Employees were believed to exhibit proactivity and were competent individuals who

would collaborate with the company to accomplish organisational goals (Kaye, 1999).

In this model the employee added value to the business and shared the interests and

concerns of the business owners. Hence the selection of employees was based on

identifying the most talented people who could be developed as required by the firm,

and compensated for their loyalty and efforts (Drucker, 1996). The two approaches

represented extremes that reflected the management theories X and Y (Mc Gregor,

1960, in Mullins, 2010). In theory X, which aligned with hard HRM the typical

employee was considered unwilling to work and must be controlled heavily,

persuaded to reach goals and penalised for not doing so. This individual was only

interested in job security and not career progression, since he worked at the lowest

motivation levels. In Theory Y, which embraced a similar philosophy to soft HRM,

the employee relished being at work and worked without heavy controls, was

committed to helping the company to meet its objectives, through adopting a

creative, problem solving approach and progressing in his career. On-going

research suggested that the majority employees cannot be strictly categorised as

perceived by Mc Gregor (1960) and Mullins (1985) supports this argument by

suggesting that managers adapt their approach to the context or period in which HR

policies were created.

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When management of human resources was integrated into the firms corporate

strategic goals, then the term Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) was

applied. This was described by Salaman et al. (2005) as a specific approach to

employment management, which intended to achieve competitive advantage

through the strategic deployment of a highly committed, capable workforce through avariety of cultural, structural and personal practices including: human resource

planning, employee selection, learning and development and performance appraisal.

However Kayes (1999) study suggested that, rather than soft HRM being employed

widely, the predominant policies employed in SHRM placed emphasis on

management objectives rather than human employee standpoints, and were of the

'hard' form. The implication was that performance objectives would be met in the

short term but had very negative effects on employees in terms of job security andlower job satisfaction, and Kaye (1999) suggested that if HRM was to successfully

integrate with business strategy, the form of SHRM employed would need to be

broadened. Reinforcing this view, Johnson et al. (2008) suggested that the use of a

hard SHRM model without integration of the soft aspects regarding behaviour,

would make the outcomes less effective. These factors would be achieved by

employment of suitable learning interventions that would improve employee

competences and complement the unique soft or cultural behaviours of the firm

(Kinnie, 2008); employ hard (resource) and soft (human) as Kaye (1999) urged.

This theme was also investigated by Truss et al. (1997), who linked it directly to

Mc Gregors X and Y theories of management of tight control (hard model) and Y

employee commitment (soft model), respectively suggesting that the model, which

an organisation employed impacted directly on the employee learning and

development interventions preferred by the firm. As a consequence, companies

were forced to choose specific types of learning and development interventions

around the preferred policy. The findings of the in-depth study of eight UK

organisations, of which five generated the highest profit levels, found that the

development initiatives employed most often were hard HRM, in direct conflict with

published company statements that proposed individual employee development as

the fundamental HR goal. In other words, the focus was on short term goals and

strategic control, which the authors suggested had serious implications for

performance outcomes. In contrast the concept of high performance working focused

on strategies which could be categorised as: high commitment management (HCM)

(Wood 1996, in Boxall and Purcell 2008), which was based on gaining employee

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commitment; high involvement work systems (HIWS) Lawler (1986); high

performance work systems (HPWS), which used the HRM best practice model

(Boxall and Purcell, 2008).

The theories of high performance working were the universal model, strategic fit andthe resource-based view. The universalist approach considered that work should be

conducted in a standardised manner and guidelines must be adhered to; there were

four policy goals. Firstly an SHRM approach of full integration of strategic and HRM

goals, which managers implemented with their teams. Hence, employee involvement

motivated individuals to be highly committed, achieve organisational goals, and to

work in a flexible manner. The employees were described as likely to be multi-skilled

and empowered, and quality would be assured as a consequence of adherence tothe rules (Guest, 1989). The approach was employed for several decades; best

practice employee selection and performance appraisal techniques believed to be

effective (Boxall and Purcell, 2008). An example of best practice proposed by Pfeffer

(1998) embraced seven HR initiatives, which in combination, were believed to

generate employee commitment and improved organisational performance; job

security, effective recruitment, empowered teams, high pay linked to set targets,

training/development, undifferentiated status levels and information sharing.

Strategic fit related to practices that were appropriate a specific organisations

culture and or industry setting. The model had an external/ vertical approach plus a

complementary internal/ horizontal one. The external focus was on competitors and

often employed Porters (2008) generic strategy to design HR practices. Schuler and

Jackson (1987) suggested that HR policies and practices, that matched the specific

generic strategy employed by the organisation, for example a differentiation strategy,

would imply HR policies encouraging innovation but for cost leadership, it would be

imperative to minimise costs and maintain high quality. Hence the shape of best fit

HR policies and practices altered to align with the stage in the organisations life

cycle; informal structure at early life cycle stage and more formal as the firm matured

(Boxall and Purcell, 2008). The internal part concentrated on the HR policies

developed to ensure that there was a logical, integrated process that would generate

desired outcomes. This commenced with recruitment; effective employee selection

led to high performance and was supported by appropriate rewards linked to

performance appraisal and training; a rational pathway to achievement of

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organisational objectives that accomplished the employee behaviours, defined as

appropriate by the firm (Torrington et al. 2008). However weaknesses in best fit

strategy were its individualist approach and it was contrary to working practices in

cultural settings in less developed countries, in which teamwork was the cultural

norm (Boxall and Purcell, 2008); Hofstede et al. 2010).

The resource-based approach regarded employee competences as highly valuable,

difficult to replicate and, according to Barney (1991) and Hamel and Prahalad (1994),

the most successful firms possessed specific competences that gave them

competitive advantages. Hence if an organisation recruited and developed talented

human resources, this would leverage performance; the concept of talent

management evolved from this base (Collings and Mellahi, 2009). A study by Akhtarand Mak (2003) extended this principle by comparing the employee value to

technology; employee competence was difficult to replicate, had to be adapted to the

changing external environment and should be retained within the organisation,

whereas technology could be purchased and disposed of readily, with potentially little

impact on the firm's performance. Hence this theory increasingly stressed the

importance of employee retention strategies in SHRM policy.

Human Resource Development (HRD) had many definitions but Taylor (2010 )

suggested that this was the process by which talent was developed as a long term

strategy, in contrast to learning that was a narrow, self-directed, work-based process

that enhanced employee capability to adapt to different circumstances (Taylor, 2010)

although Oxford Dictionaries online (2012) described learning as the process of

acquiring knowledge or skills by means of one or all of study, experience and or

being taught, and training as the process of teaching a specific skill or behaviour.

These words were frequently used interchangeably although huge variances in

meaning existed. The HRD process employed a variety of formal and informal

learning interventions that enabled employees to acquire a range of skills and

knowledge in a planned manner over time; its focus was long term in contrast to

learning, which had short term orientation. Definitions of HRD were appraised by

Hamlin and Stewart (2011, p 210), who considered that overall there were four

purposes for its use:

improving individual or group effectiveness and performance

improving organisational effectiveness and performance

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developing knowledge, skills and competencies

enhancing human potential and personal growth

This broader context was used by firms, which instigated professional long term

programmes to plan strategies and content (Garavan, 1991).

2.2.2 Determining Training and Development Needs

Training Needs Analysis (TNA) was defined by Clark (2003) as the procedure used

by an organisation to collect data with the purpose of helping it to improve its

performance through development of the skills and/or knowledge of its staff. This

process should be conducted systematically if it were to be effective, according to

Boydell (1976); it must be completed before any training began and linked to

corporate objectives so that areas of weak organisational knowledge or skills be

minimised. The CIPD (2011) description similarly stated that TNA was

a structured process to establish where there were deficiencies in employee

knowledge, skills, attitude and behaviour, which Kamoche (1994) suggested was vital

to valuing the human resource. CIPD (2011) emphasised that the purpose of TNA

was to meet the existing and future knowledge and skill needs of the business and it

should be shaped by the corporate strategy. TNA was the start of a cycle of training

that moved from design, to delivery and finally evaluation of the outcomes (Bowman

and Wilson 2008); interpretation of TNA was very broad as were opinions of what it

could accomplish. However Sloman (2003)proposed that such an approach was

over-prescriptive and that learning was a continuous process, in which individuals

needed to take responsibility for their own learning rather than rely on their employer.

The connection between learning, development and company performance

emphasised by academic studies was reinforced by ODonnell and Garavan (1997),

especially in the context of rapidly changing technology and globalisation. However

the authors suggested that organisational culture would have a significant impact on

conducting the TNA but establishing what the beliefs and values were was difficult.

The identification of the firms perceptions, attitudes and values were needed to plan

the learning and development required to meet future external challenges. Human

Resource professionals must proactively align people development with corporatestrategy to develop practices and policies appropriately. A framework of nine HRD

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characteristics was devised by Gaaravan (1991) to link the two; these included HRD

policies that started with the organisations mission and vision and ended with

evaluation of interventions. The support of senior management and scanning the

internal and external organisational environment were considered vital to effective

training design and outcomes.

The changing interpretation of TNA was demonstrated by the findings of Ibqual and

Khan (2011); TNA had traditionally signalled the starting point for training design by

a HR specialist but it was now a concern of all proactive managers to shape a range

of solutions, appropriate to individuals and groups, which supported them in

achieving their work tasks. The authors literature scan ofTNA produced

interpretations such as need, needs assessment, needs analysis, training needsassessment, and training needs analysis. However the goals of TNA had changed

from learning programme design to accomplishment of corporate goals that were

often linked to identifying non-training initiatives, such as highlighting areas in which

management decisions were required.

According to Kaufman (1994), the process of needs assessment was that in which

needs were established and then placed in order of priority on the basis of the

implementation cost versus the consequences to performance of ignoring that need.

TNA could be summarised as a vital process, which identified gaps in organisational

skills and knowledge that inhibited accomplishment of corporate goals and

competitiveness in an environment of advancing technology and globalisation.

2.3: Measuring the Outcomes from Learning and Development Programmes

2.3.1: Employee v Employer Evaluation of Appropriate Training Interventions

The success of organisational learning and development initiatives was dependent

on the impact the employers choices had on the employees; how much they

motivated the recipient to learn and apply new ideas and skills that enhanced

individual and firm performance. The degree of improvement was a key factor in

levering competitive advantage (Barney, 1991: Hamel and Prahalad, 1994).

Employers could gather employees opinion to critically evaluate the interventions

offered, to assess those implemented and to plan future HRD strategies. The CIPD

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(2008) employee survey, the most recent that included comparison between

employer and employee views, was conducted in public and private sector

organisations of various sizes employing telephone interviews with 751 individuals.

The findings showed that 92% of participants considered the training received in the

previous year successful. The most frequent training interventions were classroomtraining, on the job training and desk based learning, with the e-learning employed

by 69%, and regarded as self-taught (figure 2.1). The employer survey CIPD (2012)

revealed that the most popular employer generated training had changed

significantly; in-house training remained the most frequent and was increasingly

used, coaching by managers was the second choice but used less than previously

and on the job training was third preference with substantially increased use. The

reasons for these changing trends was the recession and companies resorting to in-house resources.

Figure 2.1: Learning Intervent ions Emp loyed by Com panies

Source: CIPD (2008)

The most popular forms of training were those in which there was interpersonal

interaction and more managers training employees than reported in the previous

similar CIPD survey, in 2002. Managers initiated training most often (49%) followed

by HR/training department and employee self-initiation, which implied that high

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involvement of employees in selection of training interventions. In CIPD (2008), 68%

of all feedback on training employed was received by managers but this statistic

provided no useful data on the proportion of companies using systematic evaluation

procedures and CIPD (2012) recorded just 11% of the participants suggesting that

training evaluation was likely to increase. The increasing role of managers asemployee trainers was demonstrated by CIPD (2012) and greater emphasis on

integration of the learning and development initiatives with organisational

development was found, suggesting a growing commitment to SHRM and driven by

the need for return on investment. The most (figure 2.2) and least effective (figure

2.3) interventions, reported in CIPD (2008) were also determined. On the job

training and coaching were most preferred with learning from books, the internet and

classroom training being the least popular amongst employees.Figure 2.2: The Train ing Intervent ions Mo st Preferred

Source: CIPD (2008)

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Figure 2.3: The Train ing Intervent ions Least Preferred

Source: CIPD (2008)

The CIPD (2008) survey suggested that less educated employees those from lower

socio-economic backgrounds received fewer learning opportunities, particularly in

smaller organisations, however age was not found to be a deciding factor in such

cases. The CIPD (2012) survey provided no updated information on these factors..

The studys findings strongly suggested that, where the organisation promoted

mutual learning rather being concerned only with what it felt most appropriate to meet

organisational objectives, learning and development interventions were more

effective; preferences of individuals in particular roles were shown to be an important

consideration, for instance managers preferred external coaching whereas non-

managers methods in which close contact with others employees was preferred.

(CIPD, 2011). The research findings all suggested that when employers relied on

learning interventions, which failed to match employees learning preferences, the

expected organisational performance improvements were not accomplished. Whilst

CIPD surveys provided valuable insights into UK based companies, the

generalisability even within the UK perspective, was treated with caution since

response rates to the surveys tended to be low, for instance CIPD (2012) online

survey had a 3.6% response rate. Hence reference to the findings of other studies

was vital. However, although a variety of written materials was available to training

professionals, academic studies seemed to be very limited.

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A study by Carroll et al. (1972) revealed that a significant issue for employers

attempting to critically evaluate the comparative effectiveness learning and

development interventions suggested little had changed regarding differing opinions

on learning methodology between employer and recipient since then. The research

participants, 200 training directors in 500 large companies, provided opinions ofeffective learning interventions, which the researchers compared with the existing

published literature. They found that prior studies were directed at college students

rather than the workplace environment and different findings were to be expected.

The study compared nine training methods and six specific objectives using a survey

questionnaire; 59% were completed and analysed. The average effectiveness

ratings given to the training methods for each of six objectives were compared using

a t test. The methods compared were shown in table 1. In all cases the learningobjectives were: to acquire knowledge, change attitudes, acceptance by the

participant, retention of knowledge learned, development of interpersonal skills and

development of problem solving skills. Carroll et al(1972) reported that the Training

Directors considered 50% of the learning interventions would be effective for a

particular training objective whereas the others were not. Significant agreement was

detected between the findings of their study and earlier research, except regarding

lectures, since this method was considered a less effective intervention for several of

the objectives by the Directors but was this was not the case in other studies..

According to Carroll et al. (1972) bias was present in the Training Directors

responses, since participative methods had become more fashionable and non

specialists could use the lecture method. The researchers commented that

business games were rated less highly in earlier studies than by Training Directors

and that lecture, conventional and TV lectures, and sensitivity training were generally

rated higher by previous studies that by the Training Directors.

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was limited by this factor . Clifford and Thorpes (2007) research also demonstrated

that formal classroom training did not represent the most cost effective returns but it

was a popular management choice, since it meant that managers did not have to

deliver the programme, but indicated support for employee development; the process

fulfilled a political agenda. Another strategy for favouring use of this intervention wasthat employees training in new legislation could be proven; a legal obligation and

insurance for firms against claims that could be made as a result breach of new laws,

reinforced by CIPD (2009). The effectiveness of formal methodology for legislative

purposes or other factual input was expressed in CIPD (2008), which suggested that

employees only partially retained the aural information in formal training and that this

represented a distinct weakness of the method; concurring with Carroll et al. (1972).

Studies indicated that organisations were limited in what was achieveable as a result

of learning and development interventions, since the methodology employed frequently

related to accomplishment of short-term goals rather than developing longer term

individual plans to holistically enhance the skills and knowledge of employees and often

those who developing long term development plans lacked the requisite vision (CIPD

2011; Truss et al. 1996). The shortcomings in the capacity of individuals or groups

selecting training to make effective, appropriate choices, may have influenced the

findings of academic research, which often suggested that investment in training was

far from maximised regarding enhancement of organisational performance.

2.3.2 Organisational Evaluation of the Impact of Employee Training

The learning interventions implemented by organisations most often failed to

optimise performance because they were not evaluated, according to Kirkpatrick

(2007). He suggested an evaluation framework: the manager should continually

monitor the learning programme and assess the employees skill levels regularly so

that individual training needs could be determined; the employee and employer

should jointly plan the training programme to provide the employee with insight as to

the performance levels expected and the mutual benefit to him/her and the

organisation; joint objectives agreed before training commenced; joint manager-

employee evaluation of progress as the learning programme continued and

agreement of amendments to leverage skills in the areas where gaps became

apparent (Kirkpatrick, 2007). The evaluation must be evidence based, according to

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Nunn (2011). A model developed by Kirkpatrick (1959) had a four stage evaluation

framework; firstly obtaining employee feedback on the experience; secondly

appraising the extent of learning; thirdly measuring performance improvement as a

direct result of the training; finally measuring enhancement in company performance,

for example, productivity. The studies by Kirkpatrick (2007) and CIPD (2006)demonstrated that the third step was rarely measured and only 20% of companies

attempted to measure the return on their training investment.

2.4 Cultural Considerations in Design and Implementation of Learning

Interventions

Culture was described by Hofstede et al(2010, p5) as the collective programming

of the mind and explained the differences in how individuals from different origins

felt, thought and acted; therefore culture distinguished employees according to the

norms held. Culture had several layers: national, derived from the native country;

gendermale or female; religious/ ethnic background; social class, consequential on

educational/professional experience and the organisation in which the individual

worked (Doole and Lowe, 2008). National cultures had four dimensions Hofstede et

al. (2010); Power Distance (PDI), Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), Collectivism (IDV)

and Masculinity (MAS). PDI related to the distribution of power within a group;

members might have significant power (large PDI value) while the majority had little

(low PDI value). IDV related to the extent to which individuals looked after

themselves (high value IDV) or preferred close groups that made decisions jointly

and looked after joint interests (collectivism or low IDV). MAS, referred to distribution

of values; it was associated with behaviours such as assertiveness, power, being

self-centred, suggested as male. Female traits, were exemplified by caring. UAI

implied the degree to which regulations were imposed to minimise shocks; nations

low on UAI were more tolerant of opinions that were dissimilar to theirs, manifested

by an unwillingness to express emotions and having few rules. Later research by

Hofstede et al. (2010) resulted in addition of two dimensions; long term versus short

term orientation (LDV) and indulgence versus restraint. LDV inferred that the

national traits was focused on future rewards, which meant adapting to change as it

occurred, in contrast to short term orientation in which the past was held in high

esteem, exemplified by national pride and saving face. The term indulgencesuggested a society that believed enjoying life was more important than being held

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back by social norms, as represented restraint. Saudi Arabias dimensions; rating in

table 2, according to Hofstede et al (2010); comparisons with USA and UK were

provided since published research accessed in this literature review was frequently

conducted in those countries and reflected their cultural norms.

Table 2: Nat ional Cultural Dimens ions Saudi Arabia

Saudi

ArabiaUSA UK

PDI 95 40 35

IDV 25 91 89

MAS 60 62 66

UAI 80 46 35LTD no score 29 25

Source: Hofstede et al. (2010)

The power-distance dimension for Saudi Arabia compared with USA/UK indicated

that the employees would generally not wish to interact with the trainer of a formal

programme but expect to be given knowledge and skills and little feedback.Managers, particularly senior managers, by contrast might not be influenced by what

the person(s) conducting the learning intervention suggested. Hence both the

individual(s) delivering the training intervention and the employee level concerned

would have to be carefully balanced in terms of power distance to encourage

effective interaction and real learning. The low individuality of Saudi nationals

inferred a preference for group learning (with their peers owing to PDI preference)

and decision making when training. The success of the learning intervention would

be based on group performance; hence if individual performance outcomes were

required the learning specialist would need to assess them within a group

environment. Some interventions might be difficult to implement, for instance

individual presentations. MAS scores were similar for all three nations; hence

Saudis would be expected to be quite assertive and wish to learn for their own

purposes (self-interest). However introduction of aspects of the training that might

surprise or concern could prove to be an issue; policies, procedures and boundaries

around the training would explained to delegates before the training programme took

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place. A study by Rao (2011) concerning the impact of national culture on learning

and development methodology and the nature of the delivery in India, which had an

even higher PDI score than Saudi Arabia, reinforced the need for the trainer to be

perceived as having expert status and that high UAI cultures such as Saudi Arabia

would find e-learning methods too high risk, since they would fear that the culturewould let them down. In addition an e-learning method, where the employee worked

alone, would be unsuitable for national cultures with low IDV such as Saudis had;

this study substantiated the suggestion of group based activity.

This appraisal indicated that the national culture of the employees must be carefully

considered by those developing learning and development programmes for

organisations; the specific values and beliefs of the staff, the most effective learningmodes and organisational culture (Berger, 1998). Practical aspects of the training

programme in Saudi Arabia were of key importance, religious and cultural beliefs

should be carefully considered so that those delivering training understand them to

ensure that no offence is given in gestures, language or learning arrangements. In

addition the Muslim religion, for example, must be accommodated by ensuring the

schedule prayer breaks during the day and separated male and female facilities such

as washrooms

2.5 Summary

This literature review indicated the key factors to be explored when conducting field

research to establish the impact national cultural issues would have when designing,

implementing and evaluating learning and development in private companies in

Saudi Arabia. Generally organisations implemented training and development

initiatives to improve employee performance levels and therefore to make the

company more competitive, profitable and able to survive in the longer term. In order

to ensure that the training and development was effective, several factors needed to

be considered; training needs were established in a rigorous manner that matched

corporate objectives and employee preferences; employees and managers agreed

specific learning initiatives of mutual benefit; the new skills were applied successfully

in the job role; extent of improvement of the employees skills assessed and any

weaknesses observed so that further training could occur; improvement in employee

and organisational performance measured to provide feedback on the effectiveness

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of training received. However all of these aspects required development in the

context of national cultural preferences to ensure that employees were motivated to

participate fully.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 Introduction

The Literature Review refined the research question and shaped the sub questions

that would ensure all aspects of it were adequately studied. The subject matter of thisresearch was concerned with the theoretical aspects and with the people who would

provide and receive the training; employer and employee. Hence the research

methodology was selected that enabled f acts as well, as opinions and beliefs to be

considered; an interpretivist philosophy employing qualitative methods (Ritchie and

Lewis, 2010). The purpose of this chapter was to present and justify the rationale

behind the selected research methodology employed.

3.2 Research Philosophy

An interpretivist philosophy was considered the most appropriate for this research

since a positive approach that linked cause and effect was required to appraise the

facts and compare them with the theoretical framework derived from the Literature

Review. In addition objective aspects regarding the values and beliefs of the

organisations concerned and their employees was a required; interpretivism allowed

both aspects to be evaluated simultaneously. If a positive view alone had been

taken, the research would have lost valuable insights into how decisions were, how

these impacted on the individuals employees and on performance outcomes; a less

significant contribution made to understanding the impact of culture on

learning/development design and outcomes. This enabled the researcher to link the

objective facts with the outcomes that were based on each individuals unique

understanding of them that had resulted from their personal set of values (Johnson

et al. 2009). The origins of this philosophy were attributed to Kant (1781) in Ritchie

and Lewis (2010); Kant (1781) perceived that a persons environment was

determined by two key factors; what s/he observed directly and what his/her senses

suggested the observation to mean. The influence of the individuals beliefs and

values when s/he reflected on what s/he had seen, affected the interpretation and it

was this second part of the interpretation that led to divergence between opinions of

different individuals because each person used his/her own moral freedom to make a

decision on meaning and so made the outcomes of interpretation uncertain.

Individuals linked their historic, social and cultural experiences with observations

(Dilthey 1860-70s, in Ritchie and Lewis 2010) and in the workplace context of this

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study this was an entirely appropriate suggestion since it considered cultural

influences on the manner that learning and development improved organisational

performance. Since this study also used a theoretical framework to assess the

impact of a number variables on the outcomes of training interventions the

underlying philosophy was bridged interpretivism with positivism (Weber 1864-1920, in Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). The consideration of participants views and

beliefs was reinforced by Saunders et al. (2009; the researcher using this approach

should attempt to imagine him/herself as an employee in the participants workplace;

empathise to gain greater insight into contemporary management issues which

focused on understanding complex, unique contexts and factors that existed at a

particular time. An empathetic approach was represented by conducting the

appropriate literature review, which assessed cultural differences, carefully wordedquestions to encourage opinions to be given about any information the participant

wished to include.

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis

The study employed primary and secondary data and used a mixed methods

approach. The primary data was collected using two survey instruments,

questionnaires and interviews, a method frequently used in collection of primary data:

it was cost effective, in terms of time required for participants to complete the

document and the researcher to design it; minimum financial resources were

required; standard questions were asked of each participant; administering and

collecting the questionnaire responses could be conducted in a variety of ways, for

instance by email (Ritchie and Lewis, 2010, Saunders et al. 2009). The questionnaire

was composed of open and closed questions, which enabled concerns to be

gathered that were interpreted later and led to greater understanding of the links

between culture, performance outcome levels and the nature of learning and

development initiatives designed and implemented (Creswell, 2008). The

questionnaire was structured in a logical sequence, used standard questions so that

participants had the same opportunities to provide facts and opinions (Johnson et al.

2009). The questionnaire survey was acknowledged to be a relatively simple data

collection method, although acknowledged as being difficult to design effectively,

leading the researcher to follow the advice of research methods experts, for instance

Saunders et al. (2009) and Ritchie and Lewis (2010). The semi-structured interviews

held with two managers were used to support data collection; these were intended to

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enable a comparison of the responses with those collected in the questionnaire, with

the degree of alignment representing a measurement of the studys validity through

triangulation (Saunders et al. 2009).

The secondary data relevant to the Saudi Arabian context and culture was accessedfrom academic texts, peer reviewed journals, publications by respected institutions

and quality press; EBSCO and library facilities used for this purpose. Search words

such as learning interventions, human resource development, evaluating learning,

were entered into the databases. Google was employed to search for quality

newspaper articles and to identify academic journals (Saunders et al. 2009; Hart,

2010).

Population Sample

The questionnaire participants represented a purposive, non-probability sample of

fifty individuals, employed in a small private Saudi firm of fifty people, the sampling

frame, justified as representative of the whole population. The researcher was aware

that, owing to work constraints and self-selection, in which some employees could

decline to participate, it might not possible to survey all employees.

Data Collection Methods

A mixed methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative data, was employed.

The quantitative aspect was used to present the strength of opinions, whereas the

qualitative data embraced all responses to the questionnaires and to the interviews.

The qualitative methods formed the predominant approach and a means to

encourage participants to provide personal views. The researcher was able to reflect

on the words and phrases the participants used and the emotions and behaviour

observed. In the semi-structured interviews, participants permitted use of a voice

recorder so that the researcher had accurate recall of what had been said than taking

notes(Saunders et al. 2009). As a consequence the researcher was able to reflect on

the conversations and look repeatedly for patterns and themes (Creswell, 2008) that

could be grouped together in tables and/or matrices as suggested by Miles and

Huberman, (1994). The research instruments were tested before use to ensure that

they could not be misinterpreted or lead the participant to provide a specific answer;

amendments were made on the basis of comments made during proofing the

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documents and increased the reliability of the study (Saunders et al. 2009). Data

collection took place over a very short time period, a snapshot of views and

practices occurring at that moment.

Questionnaire DesignThe design of the questionnaire was proven as a vital factor in increasing reliability

and validity of the data gathered as well as encouraging participants to answer all the

questions (Ritchie and Lewis (2010; Johnson et al. (2009). The instrument was

structured carefully, arranged in an attractive, easy to follow, coherent format so that

one question linked to the previous one and headed with a statement explaining the

purpose of the study. All questions were short statements to reduce the tendency for

ambiguity. Three question types were employed; category questions in which oneanswer was possible; rating questions to collect varying views; open questions that

explored specific issues in more depth and provided opportunity for free expression.

Category questions were used to provide a profile of the respondents their role in the

organisations; very few were used as too many questions of this type deterred

respondents from completing the questionnaire or led to a quick lack of interest

(Johnson et al. 2009).

The ratings questions enabled respondents to select one of five possible responses

and were used to discover attitudes and how they were framed

The open questions were used with ratings questions to uncover more detail and to

gather feelings, or were used alone to explore a particular topic (Creswell, 2008;

Saunders et al. 2009; Ritchie and Lewis, 2010).

Data Analysis

The survey questionnaires were collected and checked for completeness, the

number of responses was recorded and the percentage completed calculated. The

responses were transferred, question by question, to an Excel spreadsheet, which

was a template enabling the researcher to record the frequency with which the same

or a similar response was given; this enabled patterns to be detected. A separate

Word document was opened to record responses to each open question and to

group remarks reflecting similar themes, which formed the basis of the discussion

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and conclusion chapters (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The voice recording were

transcribed onto a Word Document, the responses to individual questions copied and

pasted into one document per question. Some data was expressed as charts and

graphs, to enable the reader to identify trends easily and to create greater interest

(Johnson et al. 2009).

3.4 Reliability and Validity

The level of reliability was detected by the consistency in responses made by the

participants and the employment of a pilot study prior to distribution of survey

instruments. However the survey was conducted over a short time period, which

could have had implications for its replicability since the organisational environment

and its ways of dealing with performance are subject to frequent change (Ritchie andLewis, 2010). The chances of high reliability were enhanced by translating

documents into the local language and a native speaker conducting the manager

interviews.

The validity as dependent on the extent to which the findings aligned with the

research objectives. Validity was assessed in two ways, measuring the internal and

external validity. The study findings were used to answer the sub questions recorded

in Chapter 1. The construct validity was considered in question design, since the

questions were constructed on the basis of the literature review, improving construct

validity. A high degree of convergence of the findings with those of previously

research would also indicate high study validity (Ritchie and Lewis 2010; Miles and

Huberman, 1994). Another sign of high validity would be similarity of responses made

by managers and those recorded in the questionnaires; triangulation of data was the

measure of internal validity. Since just one company was used for the survey, the

generalisability of the findings was low; there was no guarantee that same findings

would result if other companies in Saudi Arabia had been used. However use of thick

description in the discussion provided enhancement of the generalisability since it

could assist future researchers to set a context for their work (Ritchie and Lewis,

2010).

3.5 Ethics

The study did not commence until the company had been approached to obtain

permission to conduct the survey with employees. Employees were then invited to

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participate in the research and were assured that any information gathered from

them would remain confidential. They were informed that the report would be

structured so that no individual could be identified from comments made. The

managers were asked to agree (or not) to having interviews recorded on a voice

recorder. The participants were asked to read the header paragraph that explainedthe purpose of the survey, the confidentiality their responses would receive, prior to

commencing the survey, and then asked to sign and confirm their willingness to go

ahead. The participants were assured that they could withdraw from the survey at

any time and, could omit any question as appropriate (Saunders et al. 2009; Ritchie

and Lewis, 2010).

3.6 Limitations of the Research

A core limitation of this study was time, since this impacted on the number of

participants and made the generalisability limited to the single company that

participated in the research. The participants might not have always been totally

honest in their responses, as a consequence of personal agendas. The researcher

was aware of his inherent bias owing to interest in the subject area and his personal

values and beliefs, which had influenced the design and would influence the

interpretation of the questions and answers. However there was little published

research on this important subject area; the findings would enhance current

knowledge levels.

3.7 Summary

This chapter set out the methodology used in the research and provided a robust

structure that enabled others to replicate the work and to judge its validity. It also

assisted the researcher to enhance the level of validity since it enabled a definite

focus so that the research accomplished what it set out to achieve. Chapter Four

recorded the findings of the study that employed these research methods and

discussed what emerged.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presented the primary research findings and documented relevant,

available secondary research derived from publicly available, reliable data sources.

The findings discussed in this Chapter enabled the researcher to draw conclusions

and make recommendations in Chapter 5. The secondary research findings were

recorded first, so that the relevant studies could be aligned with primary research

findings that followed. The findings of both surveys commenced with a profile of the

participants and outline of the Company, followed by a report and discussion of the

responses, as related to the sub questions stated in Chapter 1. The findings were

compared with those of prior research as presented in Literature Review.

4.2. Second ary Research Find ings

The growing trend for Saudi Arabia to reduce its dependence on foreign labour and

encourage higher levels of employment of Saudi nationals, as a result of government

policy and intervention, has been the subject of considerable attention (British

Council, 2007; EIC, 2011; Sfakainakis, 2011;Madhi and Barrientos (2003). As theCountry expanded economically with the aid of foreign investment, it recognised the

need to ensure the long-term employability and development of its own population, if

it was move away from dependence on the oil and gas industry. New legal

frameworks for worker protection and delivery of basic rights, for instance annual

leave, health and safety and working hours, had also been introduced by the

government to support this development (Mellahi, 2007). Despite these actions

progress had been slow, as indicated by Kasim (2009) who reported the poor skills of

the local people and the dearth of training that occurred. The Saudisation

programme highlighted the need to employ HRM practices such as training,

development, remuneration and reward, in order to redress this issue (Rees et al.

2007) and to align these with the overall strategic focus. The Saudisation policy

intended to transform the employment market away from dependence on expatriate

workers (Mellahi and Wood, 2001; Sheehan, 2005). However, as Williams et al.

(2011) noted, there were significant challenges for private sector Saudi firms in

employing higher numbers of Saudi employees and meeting their strategic goals.

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Many nationals considered the wages offered to be too low, the level of qualification

too high, and the fact that English was frequently a requirement, as inappropriate.

These factors were combined with the lack of job security and a deficiency of on the

job training and management concerns about loss of competitive edge as a

consequence of employing local talent (Sadi and Al-Buraey,2009). A furtherdifficulty, highlighted by Al Dosary (2004), was the high level of government

intervention, in regards to providing vocational or technical education and training

courses, which led many firms to fail to perceive the need to develop and implement

in-house training and development. The opinion of Saudi nationals was that the

private sector was unwilling to make the necessary investment in the human capital

of the organisation, resulting in high turnover of Saudi nationals. These factors of

failure to invest, poorer skill levels of Saudi nationals compared with expatriate staffand staff turnover impacted negatively on economic performance in the private sector

(Al-Dosary and Rahman, 2005).

The Saudi government objectives were to increase the overall competence levels of

its national labour force through a combination of government education and

commercial human resources development practices but there have been a number

of issues (Achoui, 2009). A study conducted by Fadhel (2007) examined 52

companies in the Country and found that, whilst 63.5% had a Human Resources

Department and structure, of these only 40.4% had a defined development

programme. It was also noted that most training was conducted on the job rather

than through a defined, incremental process. This was combined with a view that

over half those organisations participating in the study did not feel that outsourcing

training and development was a viable option: there was no consistency in

measurement of any training provided and no clear indication of variation in regards

to how employees were selected for training. Despite this, there was growing

recognition of the importance of training in private firms, motivated by government

intervention and incentives, although as Baqadiret al. (2011) indicated, there

remained a substantial gap between the skills required by private sector

organisations and the abilities of the potential workforce.. As Ajarimah (2001)

remarked, this change was likely to have a major impact on the importance of human

resources to overall accomplishment of strategic aims for Saudi firms in the future;

this situation remained unchanged a decade later (Forstenlechneret al. 2012). The

academic research also indicated that Saudi firms needed to understand how the

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4.3.3: Employer Expectations for the Training and Development Initiatives

Implemented

The employees were asked to state their main job objectives and how the skills and

knowledge development received was linked to them. Their responses were: towork effectively as a team, as well as on an individual basis; to cooperate with each

other; to be able to give credible feedback to the manager. They also suggested

that a key objective was to be motivated. The employee participants believed that

skills and knowledge development was intended to support the company to obtain its

objectives and to find solutions to organisational problems, as well as to satisfy the

employees development needs. The first manager stated that the Company's

objectives for providing training and development was to increase the skills andproductivity of all employees and therefore to increase company revenues. The

second managers perspective was different proposing that development initiatives

intended to motivate the employee and to provide him with external English language

since this expertise was required by the company. The responses indicated that the

employees did not fully understand the term objective, as a goal, and expressed

behaviours perceived as expected as a consequence of the development initiatives.

It was evident that employees understand what the desired effects were, and that

these were to drive company performance and to consider the employees personal

development needs and, by doing so, encourage them to enhance work

performance. While the managers' comments did reinforce and add validity to the

study regarding training to ensure accomplishment of company goals through

encouraging certain behaviours, they did not state that employee needs were

considered. The secondary research suggested that there was a need for private

Saudi firms to employ HRM practices such as training and development and align

these to strategic goals (Rees, 2007). The objective of managers appeared to align

with Barney (1999) that the employee was a resource of the firm, underpinned by the

mention of developing English language skills which would aid its competitive

advantage and with Hamel and Prahalad (1994), in that the company was adapting

to changes in its external environment to compete. If the employees view and that of

manager two were taken into account, there was some evidence of employee

behaviour as a concern that underpinned the objectives of developing the workforce,

as suggested by Kamoche (1994). The findings confirmed an SHRM approach being

taken by the Company, since training and development was employed to ensure

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performance goals were met (Salaman et al, 2005), that this practice concurred with

Saudi economic objectives and that the employees and one senior manager

perceived a 'soft' form of SHRM as employed, in which the employee needs were

taken into account (Kaye, 1999; Torrington et al. 2008) and Theory Y management

approach (McGregor1960, in Mullins, 2010). The second managers perspectivereflected the hard form of HRM, in which the accomplishment organisations goals

was the underlying reason for staff development, aligning with Truss et al(1997) and

suggesting that his approach to employee management was closer to theory X, the

employee being persuaded to reach goals (Mc Gregor 1960, in Mullins, 2010).

Consideration of the views of all participants implied similarity to Kinnies (2008)

model of learning interventions, which combined the hard (resource) and soft

(human) elements as recommended by Kaye (1999) and in direct conflict with theidea that both forms were unlikely to be employed in a firm concurrently as proposed

by Truss et al(1997). There was evidence of the resource-based view, high

performance working approach, as indicated by managers and employees remarks

about improving performance by enhancing skills, partly as a response to external

environmental changes. However these responses also indicated some aspects of a

strategic fit model (Boxall and Purcell, 2008; Torrington et al. 2008) existed in the

Company since there was external focus on competitors, in the implementation of

English language training, some integration of development needs and organisational

revenue targets and need to motivate workforce to attain higher levels of

performance. The employee comments also suggested that several of the seven

elements of strategic fit, suggested by Pfeffer (1998) were in existence, specifically,

job security demonstrated by lengths of service, information sharing through

encouragement of team working and collaboration/communication and training and

development. The purpose of HRD, employed by Hamlin and Stewart (2011) was

strongly reflected by the findings; improving individual and group performance,

improving organisational performance, developing skills and competences.

Hence the study found that the employers key goals underpinning training and

development in this organisation were to motivate employees to accomplish

enhanced performance, to remain competitive and, possibly to satisfy employee

needs for self-development. This was accomplished through an SHRM approach,

which combined hard and soft forms of the model and a high performance working

approach that reflected elements of the resource-based and strategic fit models.

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4.3.4: Assessment and Evaluation of Training and Development

4.3.4.1 Assessing Training Needs

The second section of the employee questionnaire concerned skills and knowledge

in the company, including how and when this was assessed. The office staffparticipants stated that their skills and knowledge was tested four times a year and

the warehouse twice a year. The answer revealed that the participants in which

departments the participants were employed (4.3 (c)); all ten of the office staff (100%

of office staff) responded to the questionnaire and fifteen warehouse personnel, 60%

of the participant group. This assessment frequency was somewhat confirmed by the

managers; one manager stated every three to six months, indicating when it was

appropriate, and the other every three months, indicating a potentially differentassessment approach. The manager responses mirrored the potentially diverse

management styles highlighted in previous section

Figure 4.3 (c): Regular i ty of Ass essmen t by Department Numbers

The next question concerned the ways in which skills and knowledge were assessed,

findings recorded in Table 3. Office and warehouse staff all had informal meetings

with their manager, the most frequent method employed. In the office, 60% of

individuals experienced observation while working, whereas all the warehouse staff

were subjected to this assessment type. Three warehouse employees received

feedback data that related to their performance, inferring that it had been measured;

20% of the warehouse staff and just 12% of . However eight employees (32%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

office warehouse

number of participants

assessment regularity

annually

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stated that their manager measured their performance, 5 warehouse and 3 office

personnel, and just five warehouse staff were supported to improve their

performance by their manager. Interviews with HR, formal appraisal meeting and

agreeing objectives were not experienced.

Table 3: Processes Used to As sess Ski l l /Kno wledg e Levels

Process Response Process Response

On job observation O-6

W-15

Meeting after training to discuss

how much I felt I had learnt

O-2

W-5

Formal appraisal with

manager

0 I receive data to see how well I am

doing?

W-3

Informal chat with manager O-10

W-15

My manager measures my

performance?

O-3

W-5

Interview with person from

HR

0 My manager helps me to improve

performance by seeing objectives to

improve

W- 5

Meeting to agree

objectives before I go on

training programme

0 Other:

Please specify:

0

Key: O = office W = Warehouse

The initial question to managers with regard identifying the process for assessment

of training needs, was not understood and instead responses concerned training

interventions. This suggested either a lack of knowledge concerning the technical

difference or the translation of the question into Arabic and/or the re-translation back

into English were not effective. However another question provided some details of

the processes involved. One manager stated two processes; the observation of

employees working with customers and listening to the Assistant Manager who was

responsible for assessment of skills, however no details was given of what that

process entailed. When specifically asked who was responsible for assessment of

employee skills/knowledge, this manager stated HR Manager and Sales Manager,

which appeared to conflict somewhat with Assistant Manager in the earlier response.

The second manager suggested it took a long time to make an assessment of eachemployee, as he needed to have significant knowledge of them and also suggested

that the employee assessed himself. In addition, this manager stated that employee

skills and knowledge could be assessed by the level of bonus, which in turn reflected

their motivation. The response to the specific person involved in the assessment also

confirmed HR Manager as well as 'another power manager' in the firm; the identity of

the second manager involved was not evident but inferred a senior manager. The

secondary research suggested that, since this company had an HR Manager, it was

similar to the majority (64.6%) of Saudi companies, as found by Fadhel (2007). The

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findings from senior manager interviews and the employee survey were in

reasonably close agreement, since managers mentioned on the job observation and

inferred discussions with managers. However the employees specified informal

chats with managers but did not indicate, in any case, that this was a HR manager.

Verification of HR or Sales Manager involvement was not possible but the fact thatno sales people participated, might account for this. The wording of the question six

in the questionnaire may have had some bearing on the response since the

respondent may have had an informal chat with HR manager and not what they

perceived as an 'interview'. As a consequence, the findings confirmed by one of the

managers and employees, stated that on the job observation and chats with

managers were the two major methods of assessing training needs.

The findings implied that forms of HRD defined by Taylor (2010) were not inoperation but training needs assessment was similar to the definition of learning,

narrow, work based and self-directed (Taylor, 2010), as suggested by the second

managers comment about employees assessing themselves, and that level of bonus

indicated degree of enhancement of skills, in other words work based. The regularity

of the assessment process suggested a somewhat systematic approach as

recommended by Boydell (1976) but not the type of in-depth knowledge gathering

that either Clark (2003) or CIPD (2011) described. The second manager's comments

about assessing the behaviour over a period of time, seemed to reinforce his earlier

comments that linked to Kamoches (1994) statement that valuing the human

resource in the assessment process was a vital factor to its effectiveness. The

organisational culture did appear to affect the TNA, as suggested by the findings of

ODonnell and Garavan (1991), and there was some evidence in these first two

section of the perceptions, attitudes and values of the firm being integrated into this

process; for instance, the need for English and for using training as a means of

enhancing motivation. However the degree to which nine characteristics of HRD

(ODonnell and Garavan, 1991) were integrated was very limited; it had scanned its

external environment to some degree and regularly looked inwards in what appeared

to be a rather informal manner. The mode of TNA was very similar to Ibqual and

Khan (2011) needs assessment, intended to achieve individual work tasks for the

accomplishment of organisational goals, which reflected the changing interpretation

based on context rather than being a more sophisticated model described by

Kaufmann (1994).

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4.3.4.2 Recording Knowledge and Skills Data

The managers were asked how skills and knowledge levels of each employee were

recorded. The first manager stated that the Assistant Manager provided periodic

reports, in which the levels of performance, new skills, productivity and interactionwith customers were recorded. However the second manager did not state that any

formal record existing, merely that every department had a manager whom he

trusted and that each departmental manager had a deputy who possessed all the

skills that his manager had, inferring some attempt at succession planning but no

formal records of employee skill levels. These responses re-affirmed different

management styles and ideas, as well as inferring that there was no standardisation

regarding learning and development within the organisation. Hence the baselinefrom which to measure increasing levels of skill (Kamoche, 1994) was not robust and

the HRD employed could not be regarded as planned or have a long term

perspective, as envisaged by Taylor (2010) and Garavan (1991). The secondary

research confirmed these facts, since Fadhel (2007) found that only 40% of Saudi

organisations had any developed learning programme and Baqadiret al(2011) that

there was a skills gap in what existed compared with what was required by Saudi

firms to meet national economic goals. In this case it was the management skills

gaps of robust skills audit and training needs analysis that aligned with the secondary

research, as well as confirming the researchers prior statement that HRD was not

present in a developed format.

4.3.4.3 The Evaluation of Training

The evaluation of training was not investigated in any detail with the employee

questionnaire but some insight was obtained. Of those who had received training,

two office staff and five warehouse personnel had undertaken a formal meeting with

their manager to evaluate what had been learnt. The managers were specifically

asked how the completed training and development initiatives were evaluated for

effectiveness. The first manager stated that its positive impact was shown in the

increase in revenue levels and customer satisfaction, which he considered to be a

good indication of the level of learning enhancement. The second manager did not

understand the question; the response had no relevance. The first manager re-

confirmed that the Assistant Manager conducted the evaluation but the second

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manager stated that he carried it out with his Deputy Manager since the owner of the

company trusted him to do so. The responses to the last question on evaluation

required information on how the evaluation results were used within the firm, and

elicited a response as to who used the information but not for what purpose; they

agreed that managers and deputy managers used it. The managers responses tothis section reinforced the facts given by employees, that evaluation did take place to

some degree but most of the descriptive content given by the managers implied that

their management skills in the HRM field were not well developed, which aligned with

the findings of secondary research that there were huge skills gaps in knowledge in

private firms in Saudi Arabia (Baqadir et al 2011; Achoui, 2009; Fadel, 2007;)

The positive aspect was that some evaluation was occurring, whereas Kirkpatrick

(2007) and CIPD (2006) found that this was rarely the case and that improvement inskill levels was not benchmarked in any way, and certainly not directly against

measurable outcomes. However, there was evidence here, of the informal use of a

model similar to Kirkpatrick (1999) and Nunn (2011), where some feedback was

obtained and evaluation made against the increase in revenues and customer

satisfaction.

4.3.5 Training and Development Interventions Implemented and Alignment with

Cultural Norms of Saudi nationals

4.3.5.1: Training and Development Interventions Implemented

Several questions were posed to employees and managers regarding selection of

interventions and preferences. The employees preferences for specific training

interventions were on average in the following order

Feedback sessions

Career Planning Advice

Job Rotation

Group Project Teamwork

Mentoring

Secondments

E-learning

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No votes were registered for classroom training, learning at further education

institutions, internal knowledge sharing or use of audio-visual learning aids.

When asked why certain choices were preferred: coaching was mentioned as being

first choice since it improved skills in interacting with customers; group project work

since it helped in collaboration with others and how to communicate with them;career planning advice since managers were good at giving this. These responses

inferred significant lack of understanding of the terms used in the questionnaire,

owing to the differences in the order of the preferences listed and the rationale for

them. Mentoring was used but coaching referred to and career advice may have

been confused with learning from the manager. The employees did not like learning

English but it was acknowledged as necessary for the company development.

Formal classroom training was least preferred but also stated as most important andknowledge sharing not acknowledged but attitudes to it were positive in a question

that followed. The degree of ambiguity and confusion in the responses inferred that

they were of little value to increasing the academic knowledge in this area of study

and that, either the terms used were not understood, or the knowledge of employees

about training interventions was limited; the latter would tend to confirm secondary

research findings of Kasim (2009) about the dearth of training and low skill levels

reported by Baqadiret al(2011). The responses to questions relating to knowledge

sharing of knowledge demonstrated a positive attitude this and comment that some

managers were more willing to share their skills than others, but no managers

appeared to avoid sharing. The employees were generally positive about the

training and development they had received at the company. The discrepancy

between these remarks and the data in the initial question, which revealed that 60%

had received no training, were confusing and led the researcher to wonder if the

participants were giving the responses they perceived management or he wished

rather than a description of the actual situation. The managers stated that they chose

training interventions based on the company requirements and particularly the need

to train those with low skill levels, as well as the needs of the company at the time.

The first manager again linked the training intervention with the income requirement.

The second manager added nothing of any meaning, since the question appeared to

have been misinterpreted. Both managers both stated that employees chose

whether they wished to participate in any training implemented by the company and,

if they wished to attend their manager would need to sanction it. The training that

was of an on-going nature was specified as formal lectures that took place in a 'hall'

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dedicated for that purpose, and which represented instruction in matters, such as

how to work effectively with customers including telephone work. The second

manager also mentioned external training. When asked for personal views on the

most effective type of training, the answers demonstrated lack of understanding o