OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
STUDY NOTES
UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT ORIENTED
PROGRAMMING
1. Object Oriented Programming Paradigms
2. Comparison of Programming Paradigms
3. Basic Object Oriented Programming Concepts
4. Comparison with C
5. Overview of C++
6. Pointers
7. Functions
8. Scope and Namespaces
9. Source files and programs.
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INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAM
Procedure Oriented Programming (POP)
The high level languages, such as BASIC, COBOL, C, FORTRAN are commonly
known as Procedure Oriented Programming.
Using this approach, the problem is viewed in sequence of things to be done, like
reading, processing and displaying or printing. To carry out these tasks the function
concepts must be used.
♦ This concept basically consists of number of statements and these statements are
organized or grouped into functions.
♦ While developing these functions the programmer must care about the data that is
being used in various functions.
♦ A multi-function program, the data must be declared as global, so that data can be
accessed by all the functions within the program & each function can also have its
own data called local data.
♦ The global data can be accessed anywhere in the program. In large program it is
very difficult to identify what data is accessed by which function. In this case we
must revised about the external data and as well as the functions that access the
global data. At this situation there is so many chances for an error.
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Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
♦ This programming approach is developed to reduce the some of the drawbacks
encountered in the Procedure Oriented Programming Approach.
♦ The OO Programming approach treats data as critical element and does not allow
the data to freely around the program.
♦ It bundles the data more closely to the functions that operate on it; it also protects
data from the accidental modification from outside the function.
♦ The object oriented programming approach divides the program into number of
entities called objects and builds the data and functions that operates on data
around the objects.
♦ The data of an object can only access by the functions associated with that object.
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Comparison of Programming Paradigms
S.No.
Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming(C) (C++)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Programs are divided into smaller Sub-programs known as functions.
New data and functions can beadded easily.
It is a Top-Down Approach
Data cannot be secured andavailable to all the function
Here, the reusability is not possible, hence redundant code cannot be avoided.
It does not have any accessspecifier.
Data can move freely from function to function in the system.
Overloading is not possible.
Example of POP are : C, VB,FORTRAN, Pascal.
Programs are divides into objects & Classes.
New data and functions can be added easily.
It is a Bottom-Up Approach
Data can be secured and can be available in the class in which it is declared.
Here, We can reuse the existing oneusing the Inheritance concept.
It has access specifiers named Public, Private, Protected, etc.
Objects can move and communicate with each other through member functions.
Overloading is possible in the form of Function Overloading and Operator Overloading.
Example of OOP are : C++, JAVA,Small talk.
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Concepts of OOPS
The general concepts of OOPS comprises the following.
1. Object
2. Class
3. Data abstraction
4. Inheritance
5. Polymorphism
6. Dynamic Binding
7. Message passing.
1. Object
Object is an entity that can store data and, send and receive messages. They are
runtime entities; they may represent a person, a place a bank account, a table of data or
any item that the program must handle. It is an instance of a class.
They may also represent user-defined data such as vectors, time and lists. When a
program is executed, the object interacts by sending messages to one another. Each
object contain data and code to manipulate the data objects can interact without having
to know details of each other’s data or code. It is sufficient to know the type of message
accepted and the type of response returned by the objects.
2. Classes
A class is a collection of objects of similar type. Classes are user defined data
types and behave like the built in types of a programming language. For example
mango, apple and orange are members of the class fruit. Then the statement FRUIT
MANGO; will create an object mango belonging to the class fruit. The syntax used to
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create an object is no different than the syntax used to create an integer object in C. If
fruit has been defined as a class, then the statement
fruit mango;
will create an object mango belonging to the class fruit.
3. Data abstraction and encapsulation:
The wrapping up of data and its functions into a single unit (class) is known as
encapsulation. The data is not accessible to the outside world and only those functions
which are wrapped in the class can assess it> these functions provide the interface
between the objects data and the program> this insulation of data from direct access by
the program is called DATA HIDING (or data abstraction). Since the classes use the
concept of data abstraction they are known as ABSTRACT DATA TYPES (ADT)
4. Inheritance:
In heritance is the process by which objects of one class acquire the
properties of objects of another class. It supports the concept of hierarchical
classification. For example the bird robin is a part of the class flying birds which again
a part of bird. As given in the diagram below each derived class shares common
characteristics with the class from which it is derived.
In OOP, the concept of inheritance provides the idea of reusability. This means that
we can add additional features to an existing class without modifying it. This is possible
by deriving a new class from the existing one. The new class will have the combined
features of both the classes. The real appeal and power of the inheritance mechanism
is that it allows the programmer to reuse a class that is almost, but not exactly, what he
wants.
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5. Polymorphism:
Polymorphism means the ability to take more than one form. For example an
operation may exhibit different behavior in different instances. The behavior depends
upon the types of data used in the operation. For example consider the operation
addition. For two numbers, the operation will generate a sum . if the operands are
strings, then the operation would produce a third string by concatenation.
Here in the below given diagram a single function draw () does different operation
according to the behavior of the type derived. I.e. Draw () function works in different
form.
Polymorphism plays an important role in allowing objects having internal structures
to share the same external interface. This means that a general class of operations may
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be accessed in the same manner even though specific actions associated with each
operation may differ. Polymorphism is extensively used in inheritance.
6. Dynamic Binding
Dynamic binding means that the code associated with a given procedure call is not
known until the time of the call at run-time. It is associated with polymorphism and
inheritance. A function call is associated with a polymorphic reference depends on the
dynamic type of that reference.
7. Message Communication
An object oriented program consists of a set of objects that communicate with each
other. Objects communicate with one another by sending and receiving information
much the same way as people pass messages to one another. Objects have a life
cycle. They can be created and destroyed. Communication with an object is feasible as
long as it is alive.
Benefits or Advantages of OOPS
♦ The complexity of software can be managed easily.
♦ Data hiding concept help the programmer to build secure programs
♦ Through the class concept we can define the user defined data type
♦ The inheritance concept can be used to eliminate redundant code
♦ The message-passing concept helps the programmer to communicate between
different objects.
♦ New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.
♦ OOPS ties data elements more closely to the functions that operates on.
Basics of C++ Programming:
C++ was developed by BJARNE STROUSSTRUP at AT&T BELL Laboratories in
Murry Hill, USA in early 1980’s.
Strousstrup combines the features of ‘C’ language and ‘SIMULA67’ to create more
powerful language that support OOPS concepts, and that language was named as “C
with CLASSES”. In late 1983, the name got changed to C++.
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The idea of C++ comes from ‘C’ language increment operator (++) means more
additions.
C++ is the superset of ‘C’ language or extension of ‘C’ language, most of the ‘C’
language features can also applied to C++, but the object oriented features (Classes,
Inheritance, Polymorphism, Overloading) makes the C++ truly as Object Oriented
Programming language.
Structure of C++ Program
Section 1 : Header File Declaration Section
1. Header files used in the program are listed in this section.
2. Header File provides Prototype declaration for different library functions.
3. We can also include user define header file.
4. Basically all preprocessor directives are written in this section.
Include files provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system
library.
Eg: #include <iostream.h>
#include – Preprocessor Directive
iostream.h – Header File
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Section 2 : Global Declaration Section
1. Global Variables are declared here.
2. Global Declaration may include
♦ Declaring Structure
♦ Declaring Class
♦ Declaring Variable
Section 3 : Class Declaration Section
1. Actually this section can be considered as sub section for the global declaration
section.
2. Class declaration and all methods of that class are defined here.
3. A class is a way to bind and its associated functions together. It is a user defined
datatype. It must be declared at class declaration part.
Section 4 : Main Function
1. Each and every C++ program always starts with main function.
2. This is entry point for all the function. Each and every method is called indirectly
through main.
3. We can create class objects in the main.
4. Operating system call this function automatically.
main( )
{
...........................
}
Program execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. The
closing brace of the main function is the logical and of the program.
Section 5 : Method Definition Section
1. This is optional section . Generally this method was used in C Programming.
2. Member function definition describes how the class functions are implemented.
This must be the next part of the C++ program.
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Input / Output Statements
Input Stream
Syntax:
cin >> var1 >> var2 >>;
cin is a keyword, it is an object, predefined in C++ to correspond to the standard input
stream.
>> is the extraction or get from operator. Extraction operation (>>) takes the value from
the stream object on its left and places it in the variable on its right.
Eg:
cin>>x;
cin>>a>>b>>c;
Output Stream:
Syntax:
cout<<var1<<var2;
cout is a keyword, predefined object of standard output stream
<< is called the insertion or put to operator. It directs the contents of the variable on its
right to the object on its left. Output stream can be used to display messages on output
screen.
Eg:
cout<<a<<b; cout<<”value of x is”<<x;
cout<<”Value of x is”<<x<<”less than”<<y;
Tokens
The smallest individual units in a program are known as tokens. C++ has the
following tokens
♦ Keywords
♦ Identifiers
♦ Constants
♦ Strings
♦ Operators
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Keywords
• It has a predefined meaning and cannot be changed by the user
• Keywords cannot be used as names for the program
variables. Keywords supported by C++ are:
asm auto break case catch char
class const continue default delete do
double else enum extern float for
friend goto if inline int long
new operator private protected public register
return short signed sizeof static struct
switch template this throw try typedef
union unsigned virtual void volatile while
The specific C++ Keywords
There are several keywords specific to C++
asn catch class delete
friend inline new operator
private protected public template
this throw try virtual
Identifiers
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes, etc. created by
the programmer.
Rules for naming these identifiers:
1. Only alphabetic characters, digits and underscores are permitted.
2. The name cannot start with a digit.
3. Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
4. A declared keyword cannot be used as a variable name.
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(i) Variables:
It is an entity whose value can be changed during program execution and is known
to the program by a name.
A variable can hold only one value at a time during program execution.
Eg:
Allowable variable names Invalid names
i 1_B – 1st letter must be alphabet
sum $xy - 1st letter must be alphabetA_B x+b - special symbol ‘+’ not allowed
A-1B
Declaration of Variables
Syntax
datatype variablename;
There are 2 features of variables which are supported by C++. They are,
(i) Dynamic Initialization of Variable
(ii) Reference Variable
(i) Dynamic initialization of variable
In C language, al the variables should be declared only at the beginning of
the program. But in C ++, they can be initialized wherever it is necessary in
the program.
Eg. Program:
void main()
{
int sum=0;
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
int avg=sum/10; //Dynamic initialization of avg
cout<<”Sum is”<<sum;
cout<<”Average is”<<avg;
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}
Output:
Sum is 55
Average is 5.5
(ii) Reference Variable:
A reference variable provides an alias (alternative name) for a previously
defined variable.
For example, if we make the variable total a reference to the variable sum,
then total & sum can be used interchangeably to represent that variable.
A reference variable is created as follows:
datatype & ref_name = var_name;
Eg:
float sum = 100; float
& total = sum; cout
<< sum << total;
Both the variables refer to the same data object in the memory
i.e. total sum
100
Eg. Program:
void main()
{
int sum=0;
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
int avg=sum/10; //Dynamic initialization of avg
int &total=sum; //Alias name for sum is total
cout<<”Sum is”<<total;
cout<<”Average is”<<avg;
}
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Output:
Sum is 55
Average is 5.5
Datatype
It is the type of data, that is going to be processed within the program. A variable can be
declared anywhere in the program before its first use.
Type Conversion:
(i) Implicit type conversion
(ii) Explicit type conversion
Implicit type conversion
It will be done by the compiler, by following the rule of lower type converted to higher
type.
Eg: int y = 10;
float z = 10.5,x;
x = y+z; (y is converted to float type by compiler)
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x = 10.0 + 10.5
x= 20.5 (result var. x is must be float)
Explicit type conversion
It will be performed by the programmer. According to the need of this in the
program.
Syntax: datatype
(var) Eg: int y = 10;
float z = 2.5;(resultant type of y+z is float, that is converted explicitly to int
type) x = int (y + z);
Now the result is of int type.
Constants
A quantity that does not change is known as constants.
Types of constants:
Integer constants- - Eg: 123, 25 – without decimal point
Character constants - Eg: ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘*’, ‘1’
Real constants - Eg: 12.3, 2.5 - with decimal point
Strings
A sequence of characters is called string. String constants are enclosed in double
quotes as follows
“Hello”
Operators
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