+ All Categories
Home > Documents > Observed climate change in Nevada

Observed climate change in Nevada

Date post: 12-Feb-2017
Category:
Upload: vanthien
View: 223 times
Download: 0 times
Share this document with a friend
16
Observed Climate Change and the Negligible Global Effect of Greenhouse-gas Emission Limits in the State of Nevada www.scienceandpublicpolicy.org [202] 288-5699
Transcript
Page 1: Observed climate change in Nevada

Observed Climate Change and the NegligibleGlobal Effect of Greenhouse-gas Emission

Limits in the State of Nevada

www.scienceandpublicpolicy.org

[202] 288-5699

Page 2: Observed climate change in Nevada

2

Summary for Policy Makers 3

Observed climate changes in Nevada 3

Annual Temperatures 3

Precipitation 5

Drought 6

Paleodrought 6

Wildfires 7

Vector-borne diseases 8

Impacts of climate mitigation measures 10

Costs of Federal legislation 12

Nevada scientists reject UN’s hypothesis 13

References 16

Table of Contents

Page 3: Observed climate change in Nevada

3

Summary for Policy Makers

In April 2007, Nevada Governor Jim Gibbons created the Nevada Climate ChangeAdvisory Committee and tasked it with making recommendations on reducing Nevada’sgreenhouse gas emissions. Apart from the first line of the Executive Order establishingthe Committee which reads “WHEREAS, there is concern that increased emissions ofgreenhouse gases may cause a change to the climate” nowhere in the rest of the Order is“climate” mentioned, instead the remainder describes Nevada’s low per capitagreenhouse gas emissions and its abundance of renewable resources, and how theseattributes should be further encouraged, developed, and expanded upon. That theprimary emphasis of the Executive Order is on developing future energy supply,increasing conservation, and lowering costs with an eye towards economic stimulus andenergy security, rather than on mitigating perceived future climate calamities is a goodthing, for no action in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in Nevada through renewableenergy or conservation measures will have any impact of global climate (much less theclimate of Nevada).

We document this fact in this report along with providing an overview of the climatehistory of Nevada during the past century or so.

While temperatures have generally appeared to have risen across the state over the past113 years, precipitation has changed little during this time, and climate impacts, such asdroughts and wildfires are largely influenced by natural variations and cycles driven inpart by decadal variations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Further, “tropical” diseasesuch as malaria or the West Nile Virus are not so much influenced by the climate as theyare by the (already extant) and widespread presence of the host species.

And while it is true, as Governor Gibbons points out, that Nevada’s per capita greenhousegas emissions are below the U.S. national average, so too are the state’s total carbondioxide emissions which rank 35th out of the 50 states (in 2003). But this also means thatNevada’s emission have little effect on global climate. In fact, if Nevada were toimmediately cease all carbon dioxide emission, now and forever, the rate of year-over-year growth in global carbon dioxide emissions (primarily fueled by massive emissionsincreases in China) would completely subsume Nevada’s contribution in less than threeweeks time. Thus, prescribing a partial reduction, as with a complete cessation, ofNevada’s CO2 emissions will have absolutely no effect on global climate.

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for the economic consequences of greenhouse gasemissions’ reduction—they are estimated to be large, and negative, for the citizens ofNevada—despite the Governor’s optimism for promoting economic growth.

Page 4: Observed climate change in Nevada

4

Observed climate change in Nevada

Annual temperature: The historical time series of statewide annual temperatures inNevada begins in 1895. Over the entire record, there has been an upward trend, which hasresulted in temperatures in the early 21st century being about 3ºF warmer thantemperatures at the beginning of the last century. However, most of this rise is driven bythe relatively low temperatures that characterized the early decades of the 20th century. Adramatically different picture of Nevada’s temperature history emerges if the history isviewed within the timeframe of the past 80-85 years. In this context, the temperaturechange from 1920 to 2007 amounts to only about 3/4ths of a degree Fahrenheit. Thissuggests that the majority of the warming that has occurred across Nevada took placemore than 85 years ago—not the pattern that would resemble a strong influence fromanthropogenic changes to the global greenhouse gas concentrations.

Despite this long-term rise however, annual and decadal-scale variability is stilly largelypresent. The run of recent warm years comes on the heels of a period of relatively steadytemperatures that extended from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Previous tothen, temperatures warmed rapidly from the late 1800s through the late 1930s. Thehighest annual average statewide temperature was observed in 1934.

Nevada annual temperatures, 1895-2007Annual mean temperatures

Figure 1. Annual statewide average temperature history for Nevada, 1895-2007 (available from the NationalClimatic Data Center, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/nv.html).

Page 5: Observed climate change in Nevada

5

Precipitation: Nevada typically receives the least amount of annual precipitation of anyof the 50 United States, averaging just under nine inches per year. And over the course ofthe past 113 years (since records began in 1895), there has been no statisticallysignificant overall change. During that time, Nevada’s annual precipitation has variedfrom as much as 15.83 inches falling in 1983 to a little as 4.88 inches in 1928. Instead oflong-term change, year-to-year and decade-to-decade variation dominates the record.

Nevada annual precipitation, 1895-2007

Figure 2. Statewide average precipitation history of Nevada, 1895-2007 (source: National Climatic Data Center,http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/nv.html).

Page 6: Observed climate change in Nevada

6

Drought: Since 1895, there has been a slight long-term trend towards drier conditionsacross Nevada, primarily as a result of some recent drier than normal years. Althoughclearly, annual and decadal variations dominate the long-term trend and both dry periodsand wet periods occur with regularity in the natural climate of Nevada.

Nevada drought severity, 1895-2007Palmer drought severity index

Figure 3. Monthly statewide average values of the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) for the state of Nevada,1895-2007 (data from the National Climate Data Center, www.ncdc.noaa.gov)

.Paleodrought: The droughts experienced during the past century in Nevada pale incomparison to the megadroughts that have occurred there in the past. The character ofpast climates can be judged from analysis of climate-sensitive proxies such as tree-rings.Using precipitation information about past precipitation contained in tree rings, Dr.Edward Cook and colleagues have been able to reconstruct a summertime PDSI recordfor Nevada that extends back in time about 2000 years.

Interestingly, the trend over the past two millennia has been towards generally wetterconditions. In fact, one of the wettest periods during the past 2,000 years in Nevada, andacross the American West at large, was the wet period that occurred during the early 20thcentury. But rather than anomalously wet periods, the most remarkable characteristic ofthe reconstructed drought history of Nevada is the prolonged dry periods and“megadroughts” that occurred many time in past centuries—droughts that dwarfed anyconditions experienced in recent memory. In fact, the past several hundred years have

Page 7: Observed climate change in Nevada

7

been characterized by relatively moist conditions with low variability. Prior to then, theclimate of Nevada was characterized by large swings from conditions that approached the20th century in terms of wetness to dry conditions that were far more intense and a fargreater duration than any that have been experienced since the state was settled.

The paleo-climate record give us clear indication that droughts are a natural part of theNevada’s climate system and thus should not be used as an example of events that arecaused by any type of anthropogenic climate change. Instead, they have been far worse inthe past, long before any possible human influences.

Nevada’s reconstructed paleo-drought severity

Figure 4. The reconstructed summer (June, July, August) Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) for Nevada from 0A.D. to 2003 A.D. depicted as a 20-yr running mean. (National Climate Data Center,

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/pdsi.html)

Wildfires: There is a clear link between dry conditions and the outbreak of wildfiresacross the western United States, including the state of Nevada. And, as we have seenfrom our review of the paleodrought history of Nevada, periods of low moisture levelsare not uncommon and have been occurring for at least 2,000 years.

A recent study created a paleo-reconstruction of wildfires across the western U.S. duringthe past 550 years using data collected on fire scars on trees (Kitzberger et al., 2007). Inaddition to finding the expected close occurrence between wildfires and droughts, theauthors also found linkages between cycles of wildfire frequency and natural cycles ofregional climate variability, both over the Pacific as well as the Atlantic ocean. These

Page 8: Observed climate change in Nevada

8

natural cycles can go along way to explaining much of the variability in wildfireoutbreaks.

Throughout history, wildfire and drought have been linked together in Nevada and thewestern United States. And wildfires and drought are both influenced by naturaloscillations in patterns of sea surface temperature and atmospheric circulation systems inthe Atlantic and Pacific oceans. There have been times in the past that have beenextensively drier have been associated with a greater frequency of wildfires than anythingthat we have experienced in the past 100 years, prior to any widespread human impact onthe composition of the atmosphere. This demonstrates that without any humanalterations, the climate can change and vary in such a manner as to make both droughtand wildfire a much more common occurrence in the Nevada than it is today.

Vector-borne diseases: Malaria, dengue fever, and West Nile Virus, which have beenerroneously predicted to spread owing to “global warming,” are not tropical diseases.Climate change will accordingly have a negligible effect on their transmission rates.These diseases are readily controlled by well-known public health policies.

Malaria epidemics occurred as far north as Archangel, Russia, in the 1920s, and in theNetherlands. Malaria was common in most of the United States until the 1950s (Reiter,1996). In the late 1800s, when the United States was colder than today, malaria wasendemic east of the Rocky Mountains—a region stretching from the Gulf Coast all theway up into northern Minnesota.

In 1878, 100,000 Americans were infected with malaria, and some 25,000 died. Malariawas eradicated from the United States in the 1950s not because of climate change (it waswarmer in the 1950s than in the 1880s), but because of technological advances. Air-conditioning, the use of screen doors and windows, and the elimination of urbanoverpopulation brought about by the development of suburbs and automobile commutingwere largely responsible for the decline in malaria (Reiter, 1996).

The effect of technology is also clear from statistics on dengue fever outbreaks, anothermosquito-borne disease. In 1995, a dengue pandemic hit the Caribbean and Mexico.More than 2,000 cases were reported in the Mexican border town of Reynosa. But in thetown of Hidalgo, Texas, located just across the river, there were only seven reportedcases (Reiter, 1996). This is just not an isolated example. Data collected over the pastdecade have shown a similarly large disparity between incidence of disease in northernMexico and in the southwestern United States, though there is very little climatedifference.

Another “tropical” disease that is often wrongly linked to climate change is the West NileVirus. The claim is often made that a warming climate is allowing the mosquitoes thatcarry West Nile Virus to spread into Nevada. This reasoning is incorrect. West Nile

Page 9: Observed climate change in Nevada

9

Virus, a mosquito-borne infection, was introduced to the United States through the portof New York in summer 1999. Since its introduction, it has spread rapidly, reaching theWest Coast by 2002. Incidence has now been documented in every state as well as mostprovinces of Canada.

Spread of the West Nile Virus across the United States after itsIntroduction in New York City in 1999

Figure 5. Spread of the occurrence of the West Nile Virus from its introduction to the United States in 1999 through2007. By 2003, virtually every state in the country had reported the presence of virus. (source:

http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/Mapsactivity/surv&control07Maps.htm).

The rapid spread of West Nile Virus across the U.S. and Canada is not a sign thattemperatures are progressively warming. Rather, it is a sign that the existing environmentis primed for the virus. In the infected territories, mean temperature has a range morethan 40ºF. The virus can thrive from the tropics to the tundra of the Arctic – anywherewith a resident mosquito population. The already-resident mosquito populations ofNevada are appropriate hosts for the West Nile virus—as they are in every other state.

2000 20011999

20022003 2004

2005 2006 2007

Page 10: Observed climate change in Nevada

10

Impacts of climate-mitigation measures in Nevada

lobally, in 2003, humankind emitted 25,780 million metric tons of carbon dioxide(mmtCO2: EIA, 2007a), of which emissions from Nevada accounted for 43.3

mmtCO2, or only 0.17% (EIA, 2007b). The proportion of manmade CO2 emissions fromNevada will decrease over the 21st century as the rapid demand for power in developingcountries such as China and India outpaces the growth of Nevada’s CO2 emissions (EIA,2007b).

During the past 5 years, global emissions of CO2 from human activity have increased atan average rate of 3.5%/yr (EIA, 2007a), meaning that the annual increase ofanthropogenic global CO2 emissions is more than 20 times greater than Nevada’s totalemissions. This means that even a complete cessation of all CO2 emissions in Nevadawill be completely subsumed by global emissions growth in just 18 days time! A fortiori,regulations prescribing a partial reduction, as with a complete cessation, of Nevada’s CO2

emissions will have absolutely no effect on global climate.

Wigley (1998) examined the climate impact of adherence to the emissions controlsagreed under the Kyoto Protocol by participating nations, and found that, if all developedcountries meet their commitments in 2010 and maintain them through 2100, with a mid-range sensitivity of surface temperature to changes in CO2, the amount of warming“saved” by the Kyoto Protocol would be 0.07°C by 2050 and 0.15°C by 2100. The globalsea level rise “saved” would be 2.6 cm, or one inch. A complete cessation of CO2

emissions in Nevada is only a tiny fraction of the worldwide reductions assumed in Dr.Wigley’s global analysis, so its impact on future trends in global temperature and sealevel will be only a minuscule fraction of the negligible effects calculated by Dr. Wigley.

We now apply Dr. Wigley’s results to CO2 emissions in Nevada, assuming that the ratioof U.S. CO2 emissions to those of the developed countries which have agreed to limitsunder the Kyoto Protocol remains constant at 39% (25% of global emissions) throughoutthe 21st century. We also assume that developing countries such as China and Indiacontinue to emit at an increasing rate. Consequently, the annual proportion of global CO2

emissions from human activity that is contributed by human activity in the United Stateswill decline. Finally, we assume that the proportion of total U.S. CO2 emissions inNevada – now 0.75% – remains constant throughout the 21st century. With theseassumptions, we generate the following table derived from Wigley’s (1998) mid-rangeemissions scenario (which itself is based upon the IPCC’s scenario “IS92a”):

G

Page 11: Observed climate change in Nevada

11

Table 1

Projected annual CO2 emissions (mmtCO2)

YearGlobal

emissions:Wigley, 1998

Developedcountries:

Wigley, 1998

U.S. (39% ofdevelopedcountries)

Nevada(0.75% of U.S.)

2000 26,609 14,934 5,795 432025 41,276 18,308 7,103 532050 50,809 18,308 7,103 532100 75,376 21,534 8,355 63

Note: Developed countries’ emissions, according to Wigley’s assumptions, do notchange between 2025 and 2050: neither does total U.S or Nevada emissions.

In Table 2, we compare the total CO2 emissions saving that would result if Nevada’s CO2

emissions were completely halted by 2025 with the emissions savings assumed byWigley (1998) if all nations met their Kyoto commitments by 2010, and then held theiremissions constant throughout the rest of the century. This scenario is “Kyoto Const.”

Table 2

Projected annual CO2 emissions savings (mmtCO2)

Year Nevada Kyoto Const.2000 0 02025 53 4,6972050 53 4,6972100 63 7,924

Table 3 shows the proportion of the total emissions reductions in Wigley’s (1998) casethat would be contributed by a complete halt of all Nevada’s CO2 emissions (calculatedas column 2 in Table 2 divided by column 3 in Table 2).

Table 3

Nevada’ percentage of emissions savings

Year Nevada2000 0.0%2025 1.1%2050 1.1%2100 0.8%

Using the percentages in Table 3, and assuming that temperature change scales inproportion to CO2 emissions, we calculate the global temperature savings that will resultfrom the complete cessation of anthropogenic CO2 emissions in Nevada:

Page 12: Observed climate change in Nevada

12

Table 4

Projected global temperature savings (ºC)

Year Kyoto Const Nevada2000 0 02025 0.03 0.00032050 0.07 0.00082100 0.15 0.001

Accordingly, a cessation of all of Nevada’s CO2 emissions would result in a climatically-irrelevant global temperature reduction by the year 2100 of about one thousandths of adegree Celsius. Results for sea-level rise are also negligible:

Table 5

Projected global sea-level rise savings (cm)

Year Kyoto Const Nevada2000 0 02025 0.2 0.0022050 0.9 0.012100 2.6 0.02

A complete cessation of all anthropogenic emissions from Nevada will result in a globalsea-level rise savings by the year 2100 of an estimated 0.02 cm, or one hundredth of aninch. Again, this value is climatically irrelevant.

Even if the entire Western world were to close down its economies completely and revertto the Stone Age, without even the ability to light fires, the growth in emissions fromChina and India would replace our entire emissions in little more than a decade. In thiscontext, any cuts in emissions from Nevada would be extravagantly pointless.

Costs of Federal Legislation

nd what would be the potential costs to Nevada of legislative actions designed to capgreenhouse gas emissions? An analysis was recently completed by the Science

Applications International Corporation (SAIC), under contract from the AmericanCouncil for Capital Formation and the National Association of Manufacturers (ACCFand NAM), using the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS); the same modelemployed by the US Energy Information Agency to examine the economic impacts.

For a complete description of their findings please visit:http://www.accf.org/pdf/NAM/fullstudy031208.pdf

A

Page 13: Observed climate change in Nevada

13

To summarize, SAIC found that by the year 2020, average annual household income inNevada would decline by $1013 to $3283 and by the year 2030 the decline wouldincrease to between $4167 and $7598. The state would stand to lose between 10,000 and15,000 jobs by 2020 and between 27,000 and 36,000 jobs by 2030. At the same time gasprices could increase by over $5 a gallon by the year 2030 and the states’ Gross DomesticProduct could decline by then by as much as $5.7 billion/yr.

And all this economic hardship would come with absolutely no detectable impact on thecourse of future climate. This is the epitome of a scenario of all pain and no gain.

Figure 6. The economic impacts in Nevada of federal legislation to limit greenhouse gas emissionsgreen. (Source: Science Applications International Corporation, 2008,

http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/cost-of-climate-change-policies/)

Nevada Scientists Reject UN’s Global Warming Hypothesis

At least 300 Nevada scientists have petitioned the US government that the UN’s humancaused global warming hypothesis is “without scientific validity and that governmentaction on the basis of this hypothesis would unnecessarily and counterproductivelydamage both human prosperity and the natural environment of the Earth.”

They are joined by over 31,072 Americans with university degrees in science – including9,021 PhDs.

Page 14: Observed climate change in Nevada

14

The petition and entire list of US signers can be found here:http://www.petitionproject.org/index.html

Names of the Nevada scientists who signed the petition:

Opal Adams, Howard J. Adams, Leslie Anderson, PhD, J. S. Armijo, PhD, Timothy D.Arnold, Orazio J. Astarita, C. David Baer, Matthew P. Bailey, PhD, Leland B. Baldrick,Richard L. Balogh Jr., William M. Bannister, DVM, Ted Barben, Theodore R. Barben,Jon Barth, Scott Beckstrand, John Bennetts, Kenton E. Bentley, PhD, Bernard D. Benz,Rahul S. Bhaduri, Arden E. Bicker, E. Boehmer, Raul H. Borrastero, Richard P. Bowen,Charles Arthur Bower, PhD, Sydney D. Bowers, William J. Brady, Alan D. Branham,Timothy J. Bray, MD, Doug Brewer, Steve H. Brigman, James A. Brinton, MD, RobertC. Broadbent, Russell K. Brunner, Donald H. Buchholz, Paul Buller Jr., Richard A.Calabrese, Roy Eugene Cameron, PhD, Paul B. Canale, MD, Richard S. Carr III, MichaelR. Cartwright, John W. Catledge, Marc Cave, Bob A. Chambers, Ken Chambers, FredCharette, PhD, Henry Chessin, MD, Bertrand Chiasson, PhD, Randy Chitwood,Lawrence S. Chun, MD, Edward M. Cikanek, Paul B. Clark, Ronald W. Clayton, John G.Cleary, James W. Cole, J. R. Colgan, James Collier, PhD, Sharon L. Commander, TeresaA. Conner, Neil D. Cos, PhD, Sheldon F. Craddock, Dale E. Crane, Michel W. Creek,Kurt E. Criss, Marla A. Criss, Marla A. Criss (Osborne), Steven R. Custer, Jaak J. K.Daemen, PhD, Fred J. Daniels Jr., John H. DeTar, PhD, Howard W. Dickson, SteveDixon, Paul Dobak, Donald C. Dobson, PhD, Richard M. Dombrosky, Patrick J.Dougherty, Ralph C. Dow, Stephen D. Dow, MD, Doyle J. Dugan, W. P. Duyvesteyn,PhD, Carrie M. Eddy, Howard Lyman Ellinwood, PhD, Edi K. Engeln, Larry R. Engle,Karl C. Fazekas, MD, Carmen Fimiani, PhD, Robert D. Fisher, MD, David C. Fitch, W.Darrell Foote, PhD, Wilford Darrell Foote, PhD, Robert T. Forest, Helen L. Foster, PhD,Neil Stewart Fox, PhD, Forrest L. Fox, Corri A. Fox, Gary Fullington, Steven AlexanderGaal, PhD, Roy M. Gale, Peter E. Galli, Charles R. Galloway, Larry Joe Garside, JamesP. Gerner, Thomas E. Gesick, R. L. Giacomazzi, Peter F. Giddings, Dewayne EverettGilbert, PhD, James M. Gills, James S. Goft, Patrick Goldstrand, PhD, Ernesto A.Gonzaga, Robert E. Gordon, C. Thomas Gott, PhD, William P. Graebel, PhD, Mihail I.Grigore, Robert E. Gross, MD, Kathleen J. Gundy, Lewis B. Gustafson, PhD, M. CraigHaase, Jeffrey M. Haeberlin, C. Troy Haggard, Robert W. Handford, Elsie L. Harms,Floyd T. Harris, Larry W. Hatcher, William R. Henkle Jr., Michael Henson, Barbara P.Hillier, James J. Hodes, James J. Hodos, K. E. Hodson, Thomas Edward Hoffer, PhD,Lee E. Hoffman, James B. Holder, Robert C. Horton, Dan Howard, Joseph E. Howland,PhD, Liang Chi Hsu, PhD, E. L. Hunsaker, Ernest L. Hunsaker, John H. Huston, CraigHutchens, MD, John Walter Hylin, PhD, E. Carl Hylin, PhD, Arshad Iqbal, JeffreyJanakus, Lynn Jaussi, Terry L. Jennings, Donald K. Jennings, Don Jennings, Marc Z.Jeric, PhD, Scott Jimmerson, William P. Johnston, PhD, Robert A. Jones, PhD, DickJones, Edward P. Jucevic, Kirk K. Kaiser, MD, Thomas R. Kalk, William J. Kane, MD,Kathryn E. Kelly, PhD, Raymond C. Kelly, PhD, Charles P. Kelly, Robert Ray Kinnison,PhD, Stephene C. Kinsky, PhD, Herbert A. Klemme, Paul W. Knoop, MD, Robert J.

Page 15: Observed climate change in Nevada

15

Kopp, PhD, Larry D. Kornze, Mary Korpi, Curtis Kortemeier, Charle Kotulski, RobertM. Koval, Peter A. Krenkel, PhD, Dale D. Kulm, Charles A. Lacugna, Jan B. Lamb,Debbie Laney, David J. Langston, Richard G. Laprairie, Judd Larowe, MD, Clark D.Leedy, PhD, Peter E. Lenz, Thomas M. Leonard, Alfred Letcher, Carl R. Leviseur, MD,Kenton M. Loda, Vance Longley, David Lorge, Richard B. Loring, C. Barton Loundagin,Kenneth A. Lucas, MD, Paul Lumos, Farrel Wayne Lytle, Mel G. Maalouf, Joseph M.Maher, Robert L. Mann, John Craige Manning, PhD, Martin J. Manning, LindleyManning, Carl R. Manthei, Edward F. Martin, William C. Mason, William H. Matchett,PhD, David C. Mathewson, Lauren H. Mattingly, Robert J. McConkie, Lee B.McConville, Karl W. McCrea, Dayton T. McDonald, John C. McHaffie, Harold P.Meabon, Robert F. Merchant Jr., MD, G. Messenger, PhD, George Clement Messenger,PhD, George J. Miel, PhD, Greg Millspaugh, M. Myd Min, Cynthia R. Moore, Paul V.Morgan, Neil J. Mortensen, Kenneth L. Moss, Ralph D. Mulhollen, David L. Mumford,MD, Ralph G. Musick Jr., Richard F. Nanna, John Neerhout Jr., Michael L. Neeser,Owen N. Nelson, R. William Nelson, Genne M. Nelson, Daniel P. Neubauer, William N.Neumann, Joe D. Newton, Donald R. Nichols, Thomas L. Nimsic, Elray S. Nixon, PhD,Ann T. Nunnemaker, Samuel G. Nunnemeker, Mark A. Odell, Frederick KirkOdencrantz, PhD, Gary L. Oppliger, PhD, William V. Orr, Thomas Paskowski, SergioPastor, Gilbert W. Patterson, Robert Paul, Durk Pearson, Alan Embree Peckham, Alan C.Peitsch, Frank M. Pelteson, Robert A. Perkins, Richard M. Perry, Mitchel Phillips, DavidM. Pike, John Polish, John Porterfield, Alan T. Power, Neal J. Prendergast, MD, RobertF. Prichett, Victor H. Prodehl, Ralph Quosig, Charles G. Ranstrom, Kent Redwine, PhD,Fredrick K. Retzlaff, Brian Ridpath, Kevin J. Riley, Bradley R. Rising, Daniel E.Robertson, Raymond F. Robinson, R. S. Rodda, Frank A. Rogers, MD, Franklin J. Ross,Zsolt F. Rosta, Edwin S. Rousseau, Robert H. Ruf, PhD, Kim J. Runk, Myrl J. Saarem,Alva E. Saucier, Stanley F. Schmidt, PhD, William Schrand, Thom J. Seal, David W.Seeley, Sandy Shaw, Wen Shen, Bernie J. Sherin Jr., Lisa Shevenell, PhD, Michael E.Silic, Michael B. Simpson, Doug J. Siple, Olin K. Smith, John Snow, Charles D. Snow,M. Bradford Snyder, PhD, Scott E. Soderstrom, James P. Solaro, Lyle C. Southworth,Robert M. St. Louis, William R. Stanley, David J. Starbuck, Kenneth L. Steffan, Don W.Stevens, Harry B. Stoehr, John Grover Stone, PhD, Kevin W. Sur, Edward J. Sutich,Charles A. Sweningsen, Edgar R. Terlau, Tommy Thompson, PhD, David B. Thompson,PhD, Richard Thompson, Rory Tibbals, George P. Timinskas, Robert W. Titus, Luis A.Topete, Richard R. Tracy, PhD, Robert J. Trauger, John G. Trulio, PhD, Paul T. Tueller,PhD, Glenn W. Tueller, MD, Michael G. Turek, Phil L. Ulmer, Nancy Vardiman-Hall,Darrell E. Wagner, John D. Walter, PhD, Quinten E. Ward, W. Layne Weber, Walter F.Wegst, PhD, James M. Wehrman, DVM, Carl M. Welch, Herbert C. Wells, John D.Welsh, Henri Wetselaar, MD, Keni Whalen, Gordon R. Wicker, John B. Wigglesworth,Scott W. Wiljanen, Clavin E. Willoughby, Sylvan Harold Wittwer, PhD, Daniel J.Wonders, Morris T. Worley, Richard V. Wyman, PhD, Peter F. Young, Ken Zaike,Danny Zampirro, Robert L. Zerga

Page 16: Observed climate change in Nevada

16

References

Energy Information Administration, 2007a. International Energy Annual, 2005. U.S.Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/contents.html

Energy Information Administration, 2007b. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in theUnited States, 2006. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.,http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/pdf/0573(2006).pdf

Heyerdahl, E.K., et al., Multi-season climate synchronized widespread forest fires overfour centuries (1630-2003), Northern Rocky Mountains USA.(http://www.firescience.gov/documents/Missoula_Posters/climate_syncronized_wildfire.pdf)

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Summary for Policymakers,(http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf)

Kitzberger, T., et al., 2007. Contingent Pacific-Atlantic Ocean influence on multicenturywildfire synchrony over western North America. Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences, 104, 543-548.

National Climatic Data Center, U.S. National/State/Divisional Data,(www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/climatedata.html)

Reiter, P., 1996. Global warming and mosquito-borne disease in the USA. The Lancet,348, 662.

Wigley, T.M.L., 1998. The Kyoto Protocol: CO2, CH4 and climate implications.Geophysical Research Letters, 25, 2285-2288.


Recommended