Essential Elements of Integrated Coastal Zone Management
C h u a T h i a - E n g
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines
I N T R O D U C T I O N
The coastal zone comprises a narrow strip of coastal lowlands and a vast area of coastal waters. While the coastal zone represents ap- proximately 10% of the earth's surface, its coastal lowlands are inhabited by more than 50% of the world population. The coastal zone has become the major site for extensive and diverse economic activities. Many of the coastal developing countries depend heavily on the scarce coastal resources for their economic growth.
Rapid urbanisation and economic development in many countries of the world spawn a host of complex resource-use conflicts and environ- mental degradation problems in the coastal zone. The issues have become more serious in many coastal developing nations beset with hunger, unemployment , poverty and rapid populat ion growth.
Such adverse impacts, however, are not clearly discernible in coastal nations with a small and sparsely distributed population, abundant natural resources and a rural economy. This situation will gradually change as increasing populat ion and market forces are expected to exert a heavier influence on resource exploitation and use patterns.
Conventional sectoral management is not effective in addressing the complex management issues of the coastal zone. These issues are often cross-sectoral in nature wherein the activity of one sector adversely affects the development of others. 1"2 The coastal management issues have become a major threat to economic sustainability and environ- mental quality; intensifying use conflicts, creating social unrest and destabilising the national economy. The need for an alternative but effective management system is obvious. A growing number of policy- makers and resource managers in both developed and developing nations are pressing for a blueprint for sustainable coastal development.
An integrated management approach to coastal resource utilisation
has been attempted in the United States (US) since the early 1970s with varying degrees of success? Since then, a number of coastal nations have attempted or practised various forms of coastal management. 4 Since the last decade, integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) has been widely considered as a viable alternative to conventional sectoral management. Thus, national and international efforts have been dir- ected towards promoting public awareness and ICZM programs in Southeast Asia, ~ South and East Asia, ~-7 Europe, ~ the Caribbean 9 and Latin American nations.'°'~'
Recognising the socioeconomic importance of the coastal zone, the recently concluded United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) has prominently placed integrated manage- ment of the coastal and marine areas in the now famous Agenda 21. ~2 Many donor agencies and banking institutions have responded by investing enormous funds in coastal management projects. More coastal nations are now focusing greater attention than before on the planning, development and management of their coastal zone.
Despite the above efforts, the problem in the application of ICZM lies in the lack of an appropriate typology and adequate guidelines for adoption in different climatic, political, cultural and socioeconomic environments.
Since 1986, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) had initiated a regional project to address the issues of natural resource depletion and coastal environmental degradation under the sponsorship of United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
The project (1986-1992) successfully adopted a multipronged ap- proach towards the adoption of integrated management in the region by:
• creating a strong national and regional political alliance among policymakers and the public to enhance awareness of the severity of environmental degradation caused by unsustainable develop- ment in the coastal zone;
• involving the concerned planning and line agencies in the pre- paration of the ICZM program;
• undertaking institutional capacity building through training and workshop to establish a core group of nationals in the region with the necessary capability to execute ICZM programs:
° incorporating the ICZM program into the planning requirements of coordinating and line agencies and ensuring national budgetary allocation for program implementation.
The 7-year project focussed on increasing public awareness of the
83
Fig. 1.
coastal and marine environment, promoted the concept of sustainable development and adopted a holistic, integrative approach in addressing coastal development problems. The purpose of the project was to develop the necessary experience and methodologies to effectively manage environmental problems associated with coastal developments. Valuable lessons have been learnt in planning and implementing ICZM programs in the ASEAN region which consists of nations with diverse political, cultural and socioeconomic conditions but with close similarity in biogeographical features. The ASEAN experience in ICZM presents useful insights for future development and implementation of ICZM programs not only in the region but also in other parts of the world.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the essential elements and application of ICZM based largely on the experiences and conclusions drawn from the ASEAN ICZM program.
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
Characteristics o f the coastal zone
An in-depth understanding of the functions of the coastal resource systems and their characteristics is fundamental to a better appreciation and application of ICZM. The coastal zone is the interface between the land and the sea but concern and interest are concentrated on that area in which human activities are interlinked with both the land and the marine environments (Fig. 1). This area has the following characteristics:
Coastat zone
[ ] Coastal resource system
Relationship between coastal zone and coastal resource system (Scura et al.2).
Elements o f integrated coastal zone management
84 ChuaThia-Eng
• Presence of habitats and ecosystems (e.g. estuaries, coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove swamps, lagoons, bays, gulfs), which provide goods (e.g. fish, oil, gas, minerals) and services (e.g. natural defence against storms and tidal waves, recreation, transportation) to the coastal communities. These natural produc- tive and defence systems are maintained in ecological equilibrium through the interaction of a set of physical, chemical and biological processes of the coastal systems.
• Competi t ion of various stakeholders for land and sea uses, often resulting in severe conflicts and destruction to the functional integrity of the resource systems. Stakeholders are groups in the communities having a special interest or involvement in the use of the resources as common property.
• Backbone of most national economies of coastal states as a substantial proportion of the gross national product depends on the outputs from coastal activities such as the oil and shipping industries, coastal tourism and some primary industries.
• Usually has a high concentration of human settlements and is a preferred site for urbanisation.
Management goals
ICZM is a resource management system which employs an integrative, holistic approach and an interactive planning process in addressing the complex management issues in the coastal area. It could serve as the blueprint for attaining the goals and objectives of sustainable develop- ment by:
• maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal systems;
• reducing resource-use conflicts; • maintaining the health of the environment; • facilitating the progress of multisectoral development.
resource
Integration and coordination
The coastal management system is built on the essential elements of integration and coordination throughout the entire program. The operational component of the ICZM program is a series of specific
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 85
policies and management actions with enormous and broad implications on the livelihood and economic activities of the concerned stakeholders. These policies and management actions need to be adequately coordin- ated to ensure effectiveness of the management system.
Integrat ion Integration is an essential aspect of the management system which ensures not only internal consistency between policies and actions, projects and programs but also linkages between the process of planning and implementation. Integration provides a broader and cohesive perspective of the entire ICZM program to focus efforts on attaining sustainable development goals. Three broad categories of integration have been identified: system, function and policy. 2
System integration t.akes into consideration the spatial and temporal dimensions of the coastal resource systems in terms of physical (including seasonal) changes of the environment, resource-use patterns and the socioeconomic setting. This form of integration ensures that the relevant management issues arising from the physical, social and economic linkages are adequately addressed. A coastal environment profile may provide sufficient information for integrating the various elements of the resource systems of the management area of concern. 13-~5 An example of the types of information that contribute to system integration for Brunei Darussalam is given in Table 1. Detailed descriptions are given in DOF-MIPR. x6 Other examples could be obtained from the various coastal environment profiles and ICZM plans of the five other ASEAN members. ~7-21
Functional integration relates to the linkages among various manage- ment actions such that programs and projects are internally consistent with goals and objectives. Functional integration is also promoted among concerned line agencies to avoid duplication but facilitate complementarity. The establishment of a coastal zonation scheme which allocates natural resources for specific uses is one effective form of functional integration. It determines the types and levels of activities permissible in line with the goals and objectives of the ICZM program; limits the types of projects and programs that could be implemented; and refines the responsibilities of concerned line agencies. Thus, for example, in Malaysia the Trade and Industry Department plays a major role in the development and management of industries within the industrial zone while the Fisheries Department wields more authority in the management of the areas allocated for aquaculture development and fishing. An example of a zonation scheme for Segara Anakan, a lagoon in Central Java, Indonesia is given in Fig. 2.
86 ChuaThia-Eng
TABLE 1 Major Areas under which Spatial and Temporal Information is Collected and Used for the Prepara-
tion of the ICZM Plan for Brunei Darussalam
Biophysical environment Significant coastal features or habitats
mangroves islands estuaries coral reefs offshore oil industry structures
Socioeconomic features population and labor force institutional and legal profile economic performance and development path
Coastal economic activities oil and gas industry fisheries mangrove and coastal fishery aquaculture mining and quarrying tourism and recreation shipping
Projects and programs are developed to address specific or a combination of management issues and therefore must be functionally and structurally integrated. Figure 3 demonstrates the relationship among various management actions (packaged into programs) designed to address the complex management problems of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines.
Policy integration is very essential to ensure internal consistency of the ICZM program in terms of national and local government policies and management actions; to maintain coordination; and to ensure complementarity and rationalism between programs and projects as well as among concerned public agencies. The final aim is to integrate ICZM programs into national or local economic development plans. Therefore, coastal policy and management strategies must respond to the challenges of change in the coastal zone and be consistent with national economic development goals. Some of the projects may conflict with existing policies of either the national or local government. A case in point is the land-use conflict in Segara Anakan involving the rights in the use of accreted land caused by the rapid sedimentation rate. ~7 The conflict is caused by different interpretations of the Local Government Act by the Bupati (local government) and the Perhutani
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 87
/ Protec t ion zone
~ R e s e r v e zone
~ '~ Forest zone
Fig. 2. Zonation scheme for Segara Anakan (ASEAN/US CRMP, DGF 1992).
(State Forestry Department). Another example of a policy conflict between a local government and a government agency can be seen in the issuance of fishing licences for commercial trawlers to operate in Lingayen Gulf. While the local government policy is to lessen commer- cial trawlers in the gulf in order to reduce fishing efforts, issuance of trawling licences is the jurisdiction of the Department of Agricultrue which permits trawlers to operate anywhere outside 15 km from the coast. 22 Cases of policy conflicts are many and it is essential that under the ICZM program, these conflicts are carefully studied and resolved.
Coordina t ion One of the key features of ICZM, the coordination mechanism, brings about a better understanding and cooperation among various stakehol- ders in addressing a wide range of coastal development and manage- ment issues. Appropriate institutional coordination must occur at the central and local level during the program planning and implementation
I-L I supply/ Constrained low-yielding z, mquacuiture technology production
I I Management issues
( ~ ) Management actions (programs)
- - Links between problems
- - -- Links between programs; between programs end problems addressed
Linkage between management action and management issues, Lingayen Gulf (NEDA2°).
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 89
stages. The ASEAN ICZM experience shows that such coordination strengthens policy and management integration of the ICZM program. It also facilitates smooth implementation of program activities. Integra- tion can be achieved through an effective coordinating mechanism at both the program planning and implementing levels.
The coordination mechanism as applied in the ASEAN ICZM initiatives in fact contributes to vertical coordination between agencies of the central and the local government to ensure policy complemen- tarity and internal consistency, technical assistance and budget alloca- tion. Equally important is coordination at the horizontal level among various implementing agencies in executing management actions of the program. However, interagency conflicts at various levels of the government often pose serious constraints to interagency coordination. Thus it is necessary to involve strong political will and commitment right at the beginning of any ICZM programs.
An interagency coordinating body is usually preferred to implement an ICZM program. Most projects of the program will be implemented by the respective local line agencies as part of their normal functions. The coordinating body, on the other hand, oversees the implementation of the projects; monitors and evaluates progress and impacts; and undertakes cross-agency activities, particularly implementation of zona- tion schemes, community mobilisation, legislative proceedings, public hearings, etc.
Most countries do not have a special department or ministry for coastal zone development and management. Thus, the interagency body has to be a new establishment with the appropriate legislative authority. It can be in the form of an interagency council (e.g. in Brunei, Darussalam), an authority (e.g. proposed for Lingayen Gulf, Philip- pines), a task force (e.g. in Segara Anakan, Indonesia) or a committee (e.g. in South Johore, Malaysia) as long as the functions are clearly outlined. In some cases, the existing administrative structure oversees the ICZM programs. For example, the Sri Lanka Coastal Area Management Plan is coordinated through the Coastal Conservation Department of the Ministry of Fisheries. In Thailand, coastal zone management programs are organised through the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, while the People's Republic of China has the State Oceanic Administration. 6 Figure 4 presents a schematic illustration of the coordinating structure and flow of administration and management functions between the coordinating body and the coope- rating agencies for the ICZM program of Brunei Darussalam. The Interagency Committee is responsible to the newly established inter- ministerial Council on Environment.
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Elements of integrated coastal zone management 91
This Brunei model has least disruption to the existing institutional structure but provides a close institutional linkage for the coordination of policies and management actions undertaken by various agencies belonging to different ministries. The establishment of the Environ- mental Council is an initial step in the government's commitment. Already interagency coordination has helped to preserve the valuable mangrove wetlands in the country and the avoidance of sewage outfall into the Serasa Bay which has been designated for mariculture development.
ICZM: THE COASTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Ideally, an ICZM program should operate within a closely integrated, coherent management framework within a defined geographical limit. The coastal zone is viewed in its entirety as a special geographical area wherein its productive and natural defence functions are intimately linked with the physical and socioeconomic conditions far beyond its physical boundary. Hence, any policy and management action designed to address coastal development conflicts must be founded on a sound understanding of the productive capacity of the natural systems, the assimilative capacity of the environment, the political, sociocultural and economic conditions, present and future demands as well as social costs involved. 2
Government policies, strategies and actions for coastal management are formulated and implemented systematically through a series of planning and implementation processes; collectively forming the coastal management system. This system is made up of three mutually supporting dimensions, viz. processes, issues and actions.
The three dimensions are closely intertwined and should be con- sidered in their entirety. To ignore one may lead to the collapse of the whole management system or render it ineffective. ICZM should not be mistaken as a development program although its ultimate objective is to allow multisectoral development with the least intended setbacks. It provides a planning and management framework which permits the rational utilisation of natural resources and their sustainable development.
For a better understanding of the concept and operation of ICZM, Scura e t a l . 2 describe the coastal management system as a cube consisting of three basic dimensions--processes, issues and actions (Fig. 5). The management processes identify and analyse management issues
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Elements of integrated coastal zone management 93
and develop the necessary policy and management options. The management processes consist of three essential sequential components: planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). The planning component constitutes the basic layer of the cube. The management issues relate to conflicts arising from resource allocation, exploitation and utilisation as well as other adverse effects of sectoral development. Management issues could be categorised prima- rily into those related to resource use, environmental quality and institutional concerns. Management actions form the third dimension. All three dimensions are of equal importance and mutually dependent. Unlike sectoral management which is represented by one sector of the cube (e.g. overfishing), the spillover effects of one form of development will be addressed under the present form of integrated management system.
The management system is analogous to a Rubick's cube. It is in a perfect form when each segment of all the three dimensions are closely coordinated and orderly in place such that coastal management issues are adequately addressed, economic development could be sustained without compromising the coastal or the marine environment. This ideal situation is seldom if not ever achievable as it is never easy to get the same colour on each side of the Rubick's cube. It is therefore logical to assume that sustainable development is not easily attainable, but there is a way to get there. A perfect ICZM management system is indeed the blueprint for sustainable development of the coastal zone. In the real world, coastal planning and management is a continuous process improving with time and experience.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES
Integrated planning
Integrated planning is an essential component of the coastal manage- ment system because of the complexity and magnitude of management issues. ICZM planning consists of the following fundamental steps: inception, research/analysis, program formulation, adoption, execution/ implementation and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). While the level and detail in planning may vary according to the conditions of the site and experience and knowledge of the planning team, the fundamental steps are essentially the same. The critical steps in ICZM modified from
94 Chua Thia-Eng
those prepared at a CAMPNET w o r k s h o p 23 and those from C h u a 24 a re
shown in Fig. 6. A review of the past planning process for ICZM programs in the
Southeast Asian region provides a number of lessons discussed below.
Composition o f planning team A multidisciplinary team should be established at the initial phase of program development to provide the framework for the management program, establish the planning process and identify the key participat- ing agencies. It is important to avoid concentrating the jurisdiction of resources on a single agency. The ASEAN/US Coastal Resources Management Project s experienced considerable initial difficulties in maintaining a broad approach for the coastal issues, particularly in countries where a single line agency had been appointed. This approach will have far-reaching effects on the outputs. For example, the ICZM programs for Lingayen Gulf and Segara Anakan put more emphasis on fisheries since the key coordinating and implementing agency is the Fisheries Department. Scura et al. 2 suggest that the planning team should be made up of a core staff of six members comprising a coastal management expert, a regional planner, a resource economist, an ecologist, a sociologist and an environmental engineer. Specialists could be invited to join the planning team depending on the resources and their use patterns. Some of the pertinent disciplines include fisheries, aquaculture, coastal erosion, pollution, marine park management and environmental legislation.
Planning process The planning process adopted at the ASEAN ICZM ranged from 2 to 5 years. The unduly long process is partly due to the time-consuming technical research and other information gathering activities. This resulted in a loss of interest and momentum among policymakers and the communities in the initial phase of program development. Even the enthusiasm of the national coordinating and implementing agencies waned considerably. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to reduce the planning process to 1 and not more than 2 years. In fact, the lessons learned from past ICZM efforts in the US and ASEAN showed that existing secondary information is sufficient to prepare a strategic management plan and specific research needs could be integrated into the plan and be undertaken as part of the management program.
A fast-track management planning process has been developed that modifies the techniques used for rapid rural appraisalY Known as
Inception/ Plan for planning
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95
1. Triggers of process by one or combination of factors: a. resource depletion; b. pollution; c. environment incident, d. concern for sustainable development, e. other factors.
2. Preliminary action: awareness of coastal issues and initiation of formal process.
3. Feasibility study: preliminary assessment of coastal issues, management needs.
4. Setting up the project framework: project formulation, determining coordinating institution, project document; work plan.
5. Setting up the analysis framework: coastal profile, goals/objectives, targets, time frame, boundaries, approaches/scenarios, criteria for evaluation/monitoring, legal/institutional framework.
6. Carrying out analysis: issues, caused impacts, constraints.
7. Estimating demands for products/services: types of products and services generated; demand level.
8. Analyzing production possibilities: output estimate, strategies, attainments.
9. Quantification and valuation of impacts: present and future economic activities, ecological risks, sensitive areas.
11. Policy formulation: general and specific policies based on management options selected.
12. Action plans: finalizing specific activity with budget, man- power, institution involved; implementation strategies.
13. Evaluation and decisionmaking: management strategies by decision making bodies, acceptance or rejection of proposal.
14. Pilot testing: pilot site selection, plan implementation, refinement.
15. Implementation: implementing institution to carry out action.
16. Monitoring/evaluation: assessing attainment of objectives and impacts. Feedbacks and refinement: setting up feedback meahcnism, refinement needed.
17. Integration: Integrating CAM into national/local government development plans.
Fig. 6. The integrated coastal zone management planning process.
96
Fig. 7.
Chua Thia-Eng
Secondary data ~ ~ Topical RACE
J ~ . W, o n ~ RACE
[ _ ~ ~ Formal research/survey
Framework for the application of Rapid Appraisal of Coastal Environments (RACE) techniques in coastal zone management.
Rapid Appraisal of Coastal Environments (RACE), its techniques and procedures complement but not replace the conventional planning process. The RACE framework (Fig. 7) includes secondary data analysis in relation to the planning or research objectives identified. It also espouses a participatory approach for the three RACE types.
--Exploratory RACE explores key problems and opportunities in the coastal zone as a way to plan research and development projects.
--Topical RACE investigates specific issues identified under the exploratory phase.
--Monitoring RACE assesses and predicts the impacts (success or otherwise) of a proposed management or development interven- tion. By integrating RACE into the conventional planning stage, the process of generating the necessary outputs is shortened and a rapid monitoring procedure to track the project's performance is made possible.
Relevant research Information gathering is an important component of the planning process. Unfortunately, a large amount of the data gathered may not be relevant to the planning requirements. On the other hand, essential data for estimating the assimilative capacity of the management area as well as for resource valuation and legislation are usually left out. This is partly because they are difficult to gather but basically due to the lack of a multidisciplinary team to undertake adequate program planning. Leaving the scientists to tackle the initial stage of data gathering and program formulation and planning thereafter is a major mistake. The types of data needed for planning and program formulation should be clearly spelt out in the initial phase. Research should only be conducted to provide specific answers to the technical and management questions identified during the RACE process as well as in the implementation of the strategic plans.
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 97
Program revision and refinement The projects and programs formulated during the planning process must undergo a series of consultations and evaluations before they can be implemented. Sometimes technical recommendations are substan- tially revised to accommodate special political or sociocultural con- siderations. A successful ICZM program does not necessarily have the best technical content but is one that receives public approval and meets the needs of a large number of stakeholders. Adequate consulta- tion should be undertaken with the concerned resource management agencies of national and local governments, the coastal communities and other involved stakeholders.
Implementation
Implementation of projects and programs is a critical stage of ICZM. In the past, many ICZM initiatives (e.g. Philippines, Tonga) were not able to proceed beyond the planning phase. There are many reasons for this. ICZM programs developed outside the government planning or con- cerned line agencies have the tendency of being ignored by these organisations and often end up shelved, irrespective of the comprehen- siveness of the programs. On the other hand, if the planning and line agencies were involved right at the initial stage of ICZM program development, there is a greater likelihood of the program being integrated totally or partly into the respective development plans of the relevant agencies.
Establishing a new agency to implement the program usually takes time. The ICZM initiatives in the six ASEAN members give credence to the above situation. The ICZM program for Lingayen Gul f ° had the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) as the lead agency that prepared the plan with inputs from other line agencies and experts from research organisations and universities. The program sailed through the Regional Development Council and received budget allocation for its implementation. On the other hand, the strategic management plan for Singapore, 18 essentially prepared by a university professor with inputs from government line agencies and experts, was received as a major reference document; only some of its recommenda- tions (e.g. the southern island management plan) were considered by the national planning agency.
Funds and human resources are the most important ingredients needed for program implementation. Government funds could be used only if the policymakers are convinced of the program's potential economic and social benefits. The success of project implementation
98 Chua Thia-Eng
primarily depends on the project design and capability of the im- plementing agencies. The coordinating body should ensure sufficient technical backstopping for program implementation.
Not all projects and programs of ICZM developed must be imple- mented at any one time. In fact, they are best implemented in stages over the proposed time frame. In the ICZM program of Segara Anakan (Indonesia), the local government formed the interagency Task Force first and then implemented the aquaculture project before other activities were undertaken. In Brunei Darussalam, the various activities identified in the ICZM program were being taken up by concerned line agencies and implemented with their own annual financial allocations.
Monitoring and evaluation
This important component of the management processes should be incorporated into the ICZM program at the planning and implementa- tion stage. Monitoring of progress and evaluation of impacts should be undertaken annually by the respective implementing and coordinating agencies. The purposes are to see how the projects and programs are doing; determine what could be done for better performance; find out opportunities that could be explored and developed; and assess the impacts and lessons learned. The ultimate objective of this exercise is to ensure timely intervention to assist projects and programs in meeting set objectives. M&E provides opportunities for refinement or for increase or decrease in financial and logistic support.
External reviews of the progress and impacts of the program should be encouraged in the middle of program implementation and at the termination of the program phase.
Standard M&E protocol is available and could be adopted, such as the use of a logical framework. 26 M&E measures the changes that have occurred in relation to the set objectives within the time frame given and also assesses the impacts of outputs against the values of inputs. M&E also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of program im- plementation with respect to efficiency and effectiveness. An example of an M&E adopted by the ICZM plan for Brunei Darussalem is shown in Fig. 8.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE M A N A G E M E N T ISSUES
A wide range of management issues and problems is related to coastal development. Some of the issues are caused directly by sectoral
Elements of integrated coastal zone managemerLI 99
Fig. 8.
>= ¢..
o.
e
E
o 0.
o
Transmit result to CE
Prepare modified Iogframe for the whole plan;
undertake monitoring and ongoing evaluation at
the plan level
Uodedake monitoring and ongoing evaluation
at the project/program level
Assist line agencies in preparing Iogframe forms
Conflict resolution at the plan/policy
. leve ,,.t Transmit result to '"e I depadment/ministry level
Co(lflicl resolution at the ~ project/program Undertake monitoring and leve ~ ongoing evalualion at the
pro~ect/program level; furnish IAC with filled-up torms
.]gp.l Prepare Ioglrame forms for l individual projects/programs
IAC Lead/coordinating agencies
C E - Council on Environment IAC - Interagency Committee
Simplified chart of the M&E system framework for the ICZM plan of Brunei Darussalam (DOF-MIpW6).
activities, others may be indirectly related to the spillover effects of sectoral development. The management issues could be grouped under the following broad categories: resource utilisation, environmental quality, institutional concerns and natural hazards (Table 2). Manage- ment issues associated with resource utilisation and environmental quality vary with the types of resources available and their use patterns. These categories also include archaeological/cultural or historical resources that require specific legal protection. Institutional concerns are related to institutional capacity to enforce legislation and implement programs. Finally, there are coastal management issues caused by natural hazards such as typhoons, storms and tidal waves. Moreover, the potential direct or indirect impacts of sea temperature and sea level rise may pose a series of new management problems that require careful consideration under the ICZM program.
Some management issues are very obvious and can be easily identified by site inspection, while many others may require appropriate survey instruments or field research. In most cases, coastal zone
100 Chua Thia-Eng
TABLE 2 Summary of Management Issues Identified in the Six Pilot Sites in ASEAN (B, Brunei Darussalam; I, Indonesia; M, Malaysia; P, the
Philippines; S, Singapore; T, Thailand)
Resource utilisation Sustainable fisheries development (B, I, M, P, T) Sustainable aquaculture development (B, M, P, S, T) Sustainable coastal forestry (B, I, M, P, T) Land and water use conflicts (I, M, P, S, T) Overfishing (B, M, P, S, T) Open access (P) Destructive fishing (P, T) Decreased tourism potential (P) Destruction of habitats (B, I, M, P, T) Undervaluation of resources and resource systems (B, I, M, P, S, T) Cultural/historical resources (M, S) Endangered wildlife (B, 1, T)
Environmental quality Water quality (B, I, M, P, S, T) Siltation/sedimentation (B, I, M, P, T) Solid/domestic waste (B, I, M, P, T) Critical habitats (B, I, M, P, S, T) Oil spill (B, M) Coastal erosion (B, 1, P, T) Pollution (B, I, M, P, S, T) Aesthetics (S, T) Floods (M, P, S) Marine transportation (M, S) Dredging and filling (I, S) Coastal reclamation (S) Waterfront development (S) Agricultural waste (I, M, P, T)
Institutional concerns Conflicts in legislation (B, I, M, P, T) Multisectoral integration/coordination (B, I, M, P, T) Transnational cooperation (B, M, S) Institutional capabilities (B, I, M, P, T) Public awarness/involvement (B, I, M, P, T) Legal framework (B, I, M, P, S, T) Ineffective law enforcement (I, M, P, T) Landownership (I) Inadequate interdisciplinary planning capability (B, I, M, P, T) Intersectoral conflicts (B, I, M, P, S, T) Lack of alternative livelihood (I, P) Equity (I, P, T)
Natural hazards Red tide (P) Flooding (M) Typhoon/earthquake (P)
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 101
management issues could be identified through appropriate consultative meetings with the local communities, local government officials and members of the nongovernment organisations working in the field. For example, the vast experience and knowledge of the fisherfolk would easily provide the needed information on biodiversity, endangered species, overfishing, destructive fishing methods, law enforcement, as well as the changes in the environmental quality or weather conditions.
Not all issues and problems can be resolved all at once; many may require a longer time frame. The ICZM system helps to characterise and prioritise management issues that should be addressed to enable the development of a long-term management strategy.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE MANAGEMENT ACTIONS
While the first two dimensions of the management system provide the instrument and contents for planning, analysis and program formula- tion, the third and most important dimension is the application of actions/measures geared towards realising the desired changes. Such changes are expected in relation to maintaining the functional integrity or productive capacity of the resource systems, improving environmen- tal quality; and changing human behaviour towards the desirable ICZM goals.
Institutional and organisational arrangements
Institutional and organisational arrangements are imperative in carrying out the projects and programs. Since ICZM is a government program, it must have the necessary legitimacy in implementation. An ICZM program developed outside the government framework will often encounter great difficulties. Even under the concept of co-management or community management, the government must first devolve man- agement authority to the concerned communities or local authorities. The government is still required to provide the necessary supervision, technical assistance and in most cases, financial support.
The enactment of coastal laws is an important step towards providing the necessary legal framework. For example, the USA enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 primarily to protect natural resources, reduce coastal development conflicts and improve seafronts. Under this federal legislation, a large number of coastal states developed their coastal zone management programs. As another example, the French enacted in 1986 the national Law on Planning,
102 Chua Thia-Eng
Protection and Development of the Coastal Space which provides the necessary measures to regulate coastal development and protect the environment.
Policy considerations are among the top of the list of management actions for an ICZM program. Government policies and legislation need to be formulated or clarified with respect to the promotion of sustainable development in inland, coastal and marine areas, and the protection of territorial use rights, biodiversity, coastal habitats and environmental quality. Management actions are also required to address organisational deficiency, particularly with respect to law enforcement and clarification of duties and responsibilities. In short, the most common management actions under this category include the following:
(a) clarifying and defining legal rights and obligations; (b) determining organisational jurisdication and responsibilities; (c) strengthening enforcement capability; and (d) undertaking monitoring and evaluation.
Command and control
A large number of management measures fall under this category. Both incentives and regulatory measures are necessary for effecting human behavioural changes in line with ICZM goals. Incentives such as tax exemption or reduction, government subsidy and technical assistance or disincentives such as heavy or new taxes, licence fees, closed season, limiting access to specific resources are some of the measures to promote environmental protection or discourage pollutive or destruc- tive practices.
The most common management actions pertaining to command and control to mitigate adverse environmental effects could be grouped under the following types:
(a) imposing new regulatory measures; (b) strengthening existing regulatory measures; (c) establishing and implementing standards, e.g. water quality,
emission/discharge; and (d) providing incentives.
Direct public investment
This category of management actions involves a direct investment by government to bring about public awareness or provide basic in- frastructure, conduct research, build capabilities or offer opportunities
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 103
which will lead to the solution of issues and problems related to coastal development. For example, considerable investment in research is necessary for a better understanding of the factors that maintain the functional integrity of the resource systems; the assimilative capacity of the marine environment; the social costs of a poorly managed environ- ment, the technologies for waste management, etc.
The most common management actions under this category are as follows;
(a) research and development; (b) training and education; (c) public awareness and information dissemination; (d) public infrastructure, e.g. roads, embankments, waste collection
and disposal systems/facilities; and (e) technical assistance.
Examples of management actions developed for ICZM programs for Segara Anakan and Lingayen Gulf are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
DISCUSSION
The application of ICZM requires a full understanding of the manage- ment system so that the various essential elements are effectively used to accurately diagnose the causes and effects of the identified manage- ment problems and to prescribe the appropriate solutions. Like physicians, the coastal planners must be skillful in applying the appropriate management tools and methods in designing the ICZM program. As ICZM is relatively new in most parts of the world, resource managers will need to acquire the necessary skills and experience before the system can be effectively adopted.
The ASEAN experience demonstrates that it is possible to bring various government line agencies to work together and genuine political and public support exists for the application of the management system.
Although it is ideal to develop a national ICZM program such as that of Brunei Darussalam, it is more realistic to develop a site-specific ICZM program manageable by the local authorities. With experience and a firmer grasp of its concept, a systematic application of ICZM could gradually cover the rest of the entire coastal zone. A national coastal policy could be established first with the provision to incorpor- ate integrated planning and management into the development plans of national and local governments.
104 Chua Thia-Eng
TABLE 3 Preventive, Control and Management Measures Developed for the
Management of Segara Anakan-Cilacap in Indonesia
Institutional and organisational arrangements • set up Segara Anakan Task Force • utilise existing institutions for implementation • enact legislation to reduce fishing efforts • establish subcommittee on water quality management • use village management committee to regulate domestic waste
and improve drinking water supply • clarify jurisdiction over land and management roles in Segara
Anakan • mark management boundary and establish zonation map • draft policy on land and water uses
Incentives and control • implement zonation scheme • increase forest production output • reduce fishing efforts in lagoon • transfer fishers to offshore fishing • set up aquaculture projects • protect nursery functions of lagoon • promote self-regulation by large industries • expand and support the existing socio-economic programs of the
Bupati relating to offshore livelihood, aquaculture, agriculture and marketing
• improve marketing arrangements • encourage family planning
Direct public investment • provide aquaculture extension training • mobilise Kamping Laut residents to participate as field workers • improve public awareness of new regulations to reduce fishing
efforts • establish permanent monitoring stations for water quality
evaluation • implement pilot projects for agitation dredging proposals • monitor impact of dredging on lagoon fishery system and water
quality • establish long-term costs/benefits in addressing sedimentation
problem in the lagoon • construct mooring area in Karang Anyar • provide agricultural extension services • improve basic education • test feasibility of tourism and handicraft industries • provide training for local and government personnel • provide information and technical assistance to line agencies • conduct seminars and nonformal education on resource
management
Source: ASEAN/US CRMP, DGF. ~7
Elements of integrated coastal zone management 105
TABLE 4 Examples of Management Actions Developed to Address Overfishing Problems in Lingayen Gulf under the Overall Framework of the
Coastal Area Management Plan
Institutional and organisational arrangements • estabhsh the Lingayen Gulf Coordination Committee • organise municipal fishers into associations to undertake common
property management • devolve power from central to local government • codify environmental laws and regulations for coastal area
management • regulate and control destructive fishing in the Gulf
Incentives and control • develop alternative livelihood • reduce fishing efforts by 50% • limit commercial trawlers to 15 km from the coast • stop issuing new licences to commercial trawlers • promote community-based management
Direct public investment • make annual maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and maximum
economic yield (MEY) estimates • improve research capability • improve the capability of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources (Region 1) • involve academic institutions in data collection and analysis for
fisheries management • rehabilitate the mangrove areas of Lingayen Gulf • establish the Santiago Island Marine Reserve • rehabilitate the upper Agno river system • develop local institutional capability in water quality monitoring • conduct an information, education and communication campaign
on water pollution • establish pilot waste disposal systems for urban and urbanising
centres • develop livelihood for fishing families
Source: NEDA. 2°
T h e I C Z M p r o g r a m p r o v i d e s a s t r ong legal a n d ins t i tu t iona l f r a m e - w o r k wi th in wh ich c o n t r o l o f po l lu t ion , p r o t e c t i o n o f b iod ive r s i t y a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f s ec to ra l d e v e l o p m e n t cou ld b e e f fec t ive ly u n d e r t a k e n . T h e i n e p t n e s s o f m a n y sec to ra l (e.g. f i sher ies , co ra l r e e f s a n d m a n - g r o v e s ) o r spec ia l a r e a ( m a r i n e p a r k s / r e s e r v e s ) m a n a g e m e n t p r o g r a m s ou t s i de the I C Z M f r a m e w o r k spr ings f r o m the inabi l i ty to r e so lve leg is la t ive , i n t e r a g e n c y a n d o t h e r c ro s s - sec to ra l confl icts .
106 Chua Thia-Eng
The positive results of integrated management cannot be discerned immediately as it takes time for the desired changes to occur. These require a shift in perception and stronger support on the part of the policymakers and sectors affected by the implementation of the ICZM programs.
Although ICZM provides a general management framework, this can vary in emphasis in response to the major issues of the management area. For example, the management plans for Lingayen Gulff ° and Segara Anakan ~7 focus on fisheries while those of the Upper South, Thailand 2~ and South Johore, Malaysia 19 lean more towards general area management. The Brunei management plan ~6 is comprehensive while the coastal zone management plan for Sri Lanka, 7 the coral reef management program for Phuket, Thailand 27 and the coastal resource management of the Salt Pond region of Rhode Island in the USA 28 emphasise resource conservation. The management plan for Turkey, 29 on the other hand, centers on land management, particularly with respect to tourism development. Regardless of the emphasis, the basic elements contributing to the development of a viable coastal manage- ment system remain the same.
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