African Americans 1865-1992

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCEox7DPRnY

Reconstruction 1865-1877

KEY WORDSGROUPPRESIDENTPEOPLELEGLISLATION

Successes by 1877 Failures by 1877

Slavery is gone forever. Lacked land/capital/employment

Freedom of:move/marry/vote/education/worship

Banned from voting and political opportunities closed as segregation rose

Abraham Lincoln – 1809-1865President – 1860-65

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Born in Kentucky into moderate family.• Joined Republicans in 1856.• Opposed spread of slavery into west, but not

calling for abolition.• President through Civil War, claiming the

cause was secession of states until 1863 Emancipation Proclamation.

2) Situation:• AA’s made up 20% of population.• Slavery united diverse people.• North disputed slaveries morality.• Small number of AA’s lived in north as free

citizens but were intimidated at voting stations, banned from TU’s and northerners owned slaves.

3) Civil War 1861-1865:• Abolition feelings grew in mid-19th century but it would require constitutional change.• President could not achieve this alone as he needed Congressional support – but

southern states resisted.• Republicans formed in 1854 to oppose slavery.• Democrat party was split.• Climax arose over slaveries expansion into the west as Lincoln thought it would wean

if contained in the south but south thought he was out to abolish it.• 1860 – southern states started succeeding from the Union to join the Confederacy

(made up of 11 states who combined military power with own government system).

4) Emancipation Proclamation 1862:• Freed AA’s in Confederacy.• Slightly more slaves left plantations.• It was a political and tactile move; it satisfied

antislavery northerners and took European support from the Confederacy.

5) 13th Amendment 1865:• Formally freed all slaves days

before wars end.• Established de jure freedom

and AA’s right to marry, worship, travel, become educated and travel.

• Freed around 3.5 million AA’s, which created questions about how far this freedom would go.

• Lincoln is assassinated that year and Johnson replaces him.

6) Situation in South:• AA’s had short term gains from Republicans but the

long term gains were because of themselves.• South remained devastated: buildings, roads,

railways, churches and schools were ruined/derelict. • Slaves were vital to south; would need to change.

Andrew Johnson – 1808-1875President – 1865-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Huge questions

surrounding AA’s rights and their implementation.

• 1865-1877 - Reconstruction was enforced on south which they resented and AA rights dwindled.

• Johnson and Congress continued to clash.

2) Changes in law:• 14th Amendment 1868 – all

AA’s got citizenship and equal protection under the law.

• Civil Rights Act 1866 – (excluding NA) gave all races citizenship.

• Military Reconstruction Act 1967 – divided south into military districts ruled by northern Army Generals.

• 15th Amendment 1870 – forbade denial of vote.

3) Reconstruction:• Wanted to readmit south

into the union (was a southerner) with pre-war relations quickly to gain southern supporters.

• Issued 1000’s of pardons to rebels so rich plantation owners could assert their authority.

• Though he begrudgingly supported the 13th, he said nothing of AA’s CRs and allowed the Black Codes.

• Majority of northerners saw political advantage in crushing south and enfranchising AAs (they would obviously vote Republican).

• Could not stop Congress’s Amendments but could veto legislation (which were overridden with 2/3rds majority in Congress).

4) Impeachment 1868:• A trial of an authoritative figure for a serious offence and the only way to remove a

President.• House of Representatives is a prosecutor and the Senate jury.• Came when Johnson dismissed his successful War Secretary.• Was acquitted by one vote but weakened and allowed Republicans to rule for the rest of

the year before not re-running at the election.

5) Land Problems:• After Emancipation

Proclamation, many AA’s had same lives, just with (little) pay because of lacking education.

• Most turned to sharecropping.• Vision of ’40 acres and a mule’

but failed – Johnson's amnesties meant that only 800,000 acres were ever available and that was taken back because of South's poorness (1/3 mules dead and 50% of machinery gone because of the war).

• Land owners rose rent on sharecroppers and the crop-lien system encouraged cotton which weakened race relations.

6) Black Codes 1865:• Varied state by state but all stated that:• A ‘negro’ had more than or 1/8th black blood.• Inter-racial marriages were allowed but mixed

were annulled.• Property could be owned.• Legal rights were limited.• AA’s could testify but not against whites or

serve on juries.• No vote.• Segregated schools.• Pre-emptied formal segregation for the 80/90s.

1) Background:• 1854: formed as an anti-

slavery party and supported Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation Proclamation.

• After the war and Lincoln’s death, they argued over harshness of South's punishments to create the Radical Republicans and Republicans.

Radical Republican – 1854

2) Reconstruction:• Felt the south should be

controlled from the north (different to Johnson’s views that the south should regain their pre-war power).

• Fear that Johnson’s plan would cause the south to remain the same after reconstruction.

• Had help from ‘American Dream’ ideologies; all should have the chance to live it - for which AAs would need full CRs.

3) Impeachment 1868:• Johnson kept vetoing AA CR

bills, but after impeachment, RR now had more control over Reconstructions direction.

4) Waning support:• With the deaths of Stevens in

1868 and Sumners in 1974, two leading RR, support waned.

• This left the south unsupervised and segregation rose.

• Hayes (Republican leader) agreed to the 1877 Compromise which won them the election but removed northern control in the south – ending reconstruction.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Thaddeus Stevens 1792-1868:• Important member.• Elected to House of

Representatives in 1848.• Took a hard line against

southern states as he regarded them as conquered provinces.

Radical Republican – Leaders

2) Blanche K. Bruce 1841-98:• Background - In 1869, 700,000 AAs were enrolled to vote; a major role in

Convention elections (to chose party leaders).• This achieved equal AA CR by 1868.• AAs now had real power with support from scalawags (sympathetic

southerners) and carpetbaggers (northerners in the south).• AAs were benefiting from RR policies but real power was limited with an

unproportional election rate.• 95% still lived in south until 1877 and northern rights remained theoretical.• Politics – 1870 – 22 AAs in Congress, 20 in HoR and 2 in Senate.• Bruce – 1875-81; sat in Senate.• First AA to have prominent political career but lacked mass support so did not

advance AAs in general.• Born into slavery in Virginia, became a landowner and Republican politician.• On many committees and had some support to run for Vice President in 1888.

3) Frederick Douglass 1817-1895:• An escaped slave and Anti-

Slavery Society activist with a newspaper.

• Leading opponent of slavery before the war.

• Refused an offer to run Freedmen's Bureau because of disapproval of Johnson.

• Spoke/took tours arguing for CRs.

• Lacked before war impact.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Freedman’s Bureau – 1865-18721) Background:• Apart from voting/a few politicians,

most AAs had no political role.• Most were technically free but

homeless/unemployed.• Set up by federal government to aid

AAs in finding homes/employment and providing food, education and medicine with Congressional funding.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) General Howard 1830-1909:• Surprising success under Howard

who was noted for his military success in the war with one arm and a genuine interest in AAs welfare.

• Supported universities and created the University of Washington to further advance AAs – it trained future lawyers/scientists/teachers

• Was only the minority: 1890, 95% of AA school age children were illiterate compared to 15% of white.

3) End:• Decline of RR at end of Reconstruction

in Congress in 1872 was a sign that the north were losing interest.

• AAs were left to poverty because of poor education and no de facto CRs.

• Some moved to southern cities but numbers remained small.

• Housing remained primitive and educational support was withdrawn at the Bureau’s end.

• Fear of violence was high.

Ulysses S. Grant – 1822-1885President – 1869-77

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• White southerners couldn’t see

AAs as equals and used ‘state rights’ to ignore federal freedoms.

• 1873 Slaughterhouse Case – ruled that citizens rights were under state control, not federal as the constitutional changes protected AAs individual rights but not CRs.

• Grant broadly accepted early Reconstruction policies from RR and promised to help AAs in his 2nd term but financial scandals decreased his authority.

2) Democrats in the South:• South voted Democrats because

they blamed Republicans for them losing the war.

• This power was set to fall now AAs were enfranchised (they would likely vote Republican) so they began stopping them voting.

3) Grant’s 2nd term:• North hold on south loosened and Freedman's

Bureau ended and federal control withdrew. • Deaths of RRs meant no one cared.• Many states had ‘redemption governments’

instead of northern control and north lost interest now slavery had ended.

• Grants scandals and carpetbaggers reputation encouraged northern ideals of withdrawing that originated from decentralisation policies.

• 1875 Civil Rights Act – CR applied to public places in an attempt to stop segregation but was ruled unconstitutional in 1883.

• 1876 US vs. Cruikshank – Louisiana riot that left 70 AA/2 whites dead and 100 whites arrested caused a Supreme Court ruling that released them on the verdict that Enforcement Act only applied to states, not individuals.

Ku Klux Klan - 1865 CIVILIAN GROUPKKK 1920’s revival

1) Background:• Segregation was de facto, but was becoming

de jure with educational segregation an insight to white mentality (AAs corrupting white children and unable to appreciate such high teaching levels).

• AAs relied on places of worship to escape and that became the place for most campaigners and self-help groups.

2) Nathan Forrest:• Created the KKK to use terror not

encouragement to enforce segregation in 1965, Tennessee.

• Opposed enfranchised AAs voting Republican to guarantee white supremacy as their domination was ‘God given’.

• Violence to AAs/supporters was unprecedented and although this wave dwindled quickly, the terror remained.

• Example:• Memphis 1866; 3 days of violence after

AA/white carriage crash. Ended with 46 dead and 5 raped.

• New Orleans 1867: attack on AA voters. Ended with 34 dead and 100 injured.

Post-compromise 1877-1915

KEY WORDSGROUPPRESIDENTPEOPLELEGLISLATION

Successes by 1915 Failures by 1915

Changes in education did increase for AA Equal opportunities in education/courts never existed

AAs still free to leave and did so more Segregation was become more formal

TI improved economic prospects for AAs Violence/lynching as common

CR movement had began by end - NAACP Vote was still non-existence

1) Background:• Reconstruction ended in 1877 and for AAs; poverty

was the norm, south was decreasing their CR and increasing segregation.

• Sharecropping was common and masters preferred labour intensive crops so AAs did not benefit from the diversification of southern farming and suffered from boll weevils in 1892 that killed crops.

• Slow movement towards AAs owning land; by 1910, 25% owned land but it was not helpful to CR as they had to concentrate on surviving.

• 90% still lived in the south in 1900, decreasing by 1% since 1870.

• Segregation created self-help groups and parallel businesses (hairdressers) which created an AA middle class.

• Ghetto’s developed in the north which had no legal segregation but strong discrimination and poor quality of life but strong black culture was developing.

Jim CrowFEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Jim Crow:• Character in 19th century act.• Term became offensive as it was the stereotypical

view of AAs.• Became a description of southern discriminative

laws.

3) Development:• Crow laws rapidly developed between 1887 and

1891 when 8 states introduced segregation in trains, waiting rooms, school and (by 1891) all public places (parks, cinemas, baseball teams).

• Lower class whites feared that AAs would take jobs and Social Darwinism reinforced hierarchical ideals.

Southern StatesFEDERAL GOVERNMENT

States in 1920’s

1) Background:• Enfranchised AAs were voting Republican in the

segregated south in the 1880’s.• Their psychological inability to see AAs as

equal/traitors rose tensions further.• The 1870 15th Amendment forbade discrimination

of voters because of race, not gender/wealth.

3) Additional voting requirements:• Poll Tax – had to make payment well before voting.• Property qualifications – had to own property to

vote.• 1880 Literacy tests – recite/interpret sections of

Constitution. Harder tests for AAs.• Grandfather clause – only vote if grandfathers had.• By 1910, AA voting had ended in south.• Encouraged by the 1898 Mississippi vs. Williams

which ruled the changes constitutional.

4) Lynching:• Southern states did nothing/encouraged mobs of

white men attacking, beating and then killing southern AAs, mainly on calls of rape of white girls.

• Cases were rarely brought to court and if they were, all-white juries did not convict.

• Heightened fear for the whole AA community.

2) 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson:• Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation on railway carriages

was constitutional as facilities were SEPARATE BUT EQUAL.• Acted as legal precedent to extend segregation to all areas of

public life.• Allowed 1899 Cummings vs. Education to rule that segregated

schools were constitutional, even though more money was spent on white schools.

Grover Cleveland – 1837-1908President – 1885-89

and 1893-97FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT1) Background:• Affirmed CR of all citizens in his

inaugural address but allowed south to continue – boasted having never shared a table with an AA.

• Even Republicans/Congress did not interfere in honouring the 1877 Compromise.

• Views reinforced by Supreme Court Rulings; 1898 Mississippi vs. Williams made denials of votes constitutional.

Progressive Movement:CIVILIAN GROUP

1) Background:• Believed aspects of American

society (e.g. corruption of rich) needed reformation.

• However, did little for AAs struggle.

• Showed the North's disinterest in AAs now they were ‘free’.

• Supported by President Roosevelt.

Theodore Roosevelt 1858-1919

President – 1901-09FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Showed a passing interest in AAs.• Discussed problem with BTW.• Vice President in 1900 after President

McKinley’s assassination.• Supported the Progressive

Movement.• Did not really address the AAs

problems.• Criticised by supremacists for

approving of BTW.

William Howard Taft1857-1930

President – 1909-12FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Largely followed on with Roosevelt's

policies.• Style seemed dull and lacking of

Roosevelt's political skills.• Took little interest in AA rights and he

saw it is state jurisdiction.

Woodrow Wilson - 1856-1924President – 1912-21

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Held typically racist views as he was

Southern born.• He dismissed all AAs and stopped

association with their leaders.• He appointed segregationist

southerners who segregated employees by race in government agencies.

2) End:• By final years, he was broken and

sick and so replaced by Warren Harding

Ida B. Wells – 1862-1931CIVILIAN

CAMPAIGNER

1) Background:• 1880-1910 was the height of the lynching campaign after

the war and Reconstruction, mainly on AA men.• Usually accused of a crime (rape of white women) that

had to ‘dealt’ with there and then wit no time for courts.• Regarded as a public event with women and children

attending.• States and police did not interfere.• Never reached court as white juries would not convict.

2) Wells’ opposition:• Challenged two lynching myths;1. That lynching was because of rape. 2. White female innocence.• Had to move from Memphis to New York to escape

violence where she expressed her views in New York Age (newspaper) and the newly formed 1896 National Association of Colored Women.

• Because of the reform atmosphere in the north, she received some sympathy but failed to gain Congressional/Presidential support for anti-lynching laws so cases could reach federal courts and bypass more bias south state courts.

• The southern defence that it would interfere with state rights always prevailed.

3) Southern fear:• Obsession with white/black rape was revealing white

fear of a mulatto nation, destroying segregation.• With segregation/voting, miscegenation laws also arose.• Leasing of prisoners by bankrupt governments was a

hold on slavery.

Booker T. Washington 1856-19151) Background:

• Recognised that CR would have to wait until they had developed a community.

• Born into slavery and of mixed race, benefited from education after EP.

• So honoured, he set out to spread this to his people – taught at Tuskegee Institute from 1881.

• Good at administration, leadership and had vision

• Personal morality heighted and encouraged at TI.

• Coincided with segregation – felt options were:1. Go back to Africa (quickly rejected)2. Assimilate (even less plausible; South’s

hostility)3. Move to North (rapidly industrialising but not

the answer – whites preferred Europeans)4. AAs should become skilled before demanding.• Therefore, TI focused on

literacy/maths/practical skills rather than intellectual with good teachers to get basic jobs that would lead to change.

CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) 1895 Atlanta Speech:• Argued that if whites viewed AAs as economic

partners and not political opponents, tensions would diffuse but segregation would continue for now so they must focus on education/economic opportunities and not campaigning for equality.

• Instant impact; ideas became known as Atlanta Compromise (AAs reach an accommodation (would compromised) with whites)

• 6 months after Douglass’s death (who had toned down in waning years and not led any prominent protests) and with no other AA leader, it shot BTW into AA leadership.

• Long term impact: gained interest of TR, who consulted him on AA questions and invited him for tea at the White House.

• 1900 – organised the Negro Business League to be national AA chamber of commerce.

• Autobiography; ‘Up from slavery’ furthered fame

3) Criticisms:• Seemed to accept white supremacy and did not challenge inequality,

lynching and played down importance of vote.• Despite his effort, educational gap widened further after 1900 with funding

differences.• William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963), the 1st AA to gain a PhD

from Harvard in 1895 was an early sociologist who helped fund the 1905 Niagara Movement and the 1909 NAACP, but moved away from this and was arrested as a communist in the McCarthy era, turned communist and moved to Ghana (61).

• Claimed that BTW limited/endangered the future of AAs as his ideas were necessary but were wrong as a basis for AA CRs as it did not mention segregation or defanchisation.

• Hurt, BTW resorted to petty rebuttals but his followers remained numerous. • In later years, he realised his campaign was not working.• Gave money to individual segregation challengers and encouraged others to

publish articles on AA CR progression.

4) Successes:• Career from slave to Collage Principle was inspiring.• Set strict behavioural standards that helped students.• From 1895 he was the main leader/spokesman for

AAs.• Created valuable political links for future AAs.• Long term aim was to show whites that AAs could be

equal if they learnt practical skills.

5) Failures:• Seemed to accept low AA position.• Tried to work in the system, not change it.• Did not focus on the vote.• After 1905, leadership was questioned by

AAs.• Not effective as he didn’t change law and

paranoia over critics.

Niagara Movement 1905CIVILIAN GROUP

1) Background:• BTW was criticised by writers like W.E.B.

and William M. Trotter 1872-1934 (born into middle class AA family, an academic at Harvard that planned a career in international banking but abandoned it because of prejudice. A newspaper writer, he was arrested for heckling a BTW speech as he wanted more vigorous protests).

• They helped create the Niagara Movement in Canada which aimed to radically change the welfare policies of AAs.

• Wanted a campaign to restore voting rights/abolish discrimination/CRs.

2) Impact:• Would never be a mass movement as

they did not relate to normal AAs with their academic approach.

• BTW would likely become too confrontational.

• Lacked money/effective organisation/achieve little.

• Superseded by development of NAACP but did underline key beliefs about AA legal/employment/educational equality.

• Supported AA women/backed suffrages.• Demanded end to racist convict leasing.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP in 40s

NAACP SC cases by 41NAACP IN 1945-55

1) 1908 Springfield Riot:• Serious race riot in Illinois which began

over rape allegations.• Police refused to hand over AA – white

residents rioted/attacked/burned AA homes/businesses.

• Most AAs fled the city.• 84 year old AA Donnegan was lynched

over the crime of being married to a white women for 32 years.

• Not the violence that caused change, but location – Lincoln lived/died there and Donnegan was rumoured to be his shoe maker.

2) Impact:• As a direct response, Du Bois teamed up with

other prominent AA leaders at the New York National Conference of the Negro to form first proper, national AA CR organisation.

• They issued a passionate enunciation of this treatment.

• Du Bois was eager (unlike Trotter) for white members as he was convinced that the scientific community were realising racial superiority was stupid and the group gained many supporters of both races.

• It remained a peaceful and Constitutional organisation.

• Successes were not spectacular but important in the long-term.

3) NAACP operation:• Aim was to investigate then publicise racism, then make

legal solutions to enforce the law/Constitution to ensure CRs.

• Adopted a constitutional approach to lawsuits as though persecution was against constitutional amendments.

• BACK BY SUPREME COURT: Guinn vs. US stated that the Grandfather clause was unconstitutional.

4) 1911 Nation Urban League:• Early NAACP successes inspired

development of the NUL to focus on AA welfare in north.

• Although not a CR campaign group/no southern power, the NUL did campaign against housing/job discrimination.

5) Du Bois:• Despite Du Bois, most early NAACP leaders were

white which lead to race-cooperation questions which continued into the 1960s.

• Played crucial role by editing magazine for 20+ years to increase awareness.

War eras 1915-1941

KEY WORDSGROUPPRESIDENTPEOPLELEGLISLATION

Successes by 1941

Failures by 1941

North were rejecting

racist views

Despite White/NAACP, success was limited

No charismatic leader had emerged to replace Garvey.

Congress, SC and Presidents showed little interest.

Though slow, NAACP was having an

impact

Education still poor with funding low

Still largely excluded from voting in south, allowing all-white juries to avoid AA justice

Lynching had declined, but fear remained

AAs had role in sports/TV/middle-class

Housing remained primitive/segregated

Poverty was endemic in AA communities and employment was discriminative

De jure segregation was enforced in south by white Democrats who played the race card

Whites seemed determined to keep supremacy

‘state rights’ were still used to enforce segregation

World War I1) Pull of north/Push of south:• Number of AAs heading north during and

after WWI rose significantly.• Even before joining in 1917, war had

impact because of decreasing number of European immigrants workers and weapons industry exploded. After the war, numbers continued to grow because of demands of US economy for workers in 1920s.

• South encouraged move with segregation, inequality, disfranchise and violence. Sharecroppers remained poor/attacked by boll weevil.

• Heard stories of northern AAs with better lives but refused to go into the melting pot.

2) AA WWI soldiers:• 350,000 served, with 40,000 in active

service and 1,300 officers.• Half drafted to France in segregated

regiments and did awesomely (none ever convicted of disloyalty during war).

• The experience broadened horizons on inequality which stimulated campaigns

3) WWI end:• White soldiers returned to find no jobs (taken

by AAs).• Produced brief but intense tension causing

race riots in Chicago (teenager accidently drifted onto white only beach; stoned and drowned to death. 13 days of violence insured when Irish/Polish attacked AA ghetto’s; 23 AA/15 white dead and 1000s homeless.

• Ghetto’s rapidly developed as laws forbade AAs from moving from where they originally settled because of fears over riots – ended freedom of movement.

4) Northern AAs:• Though different from south, CRs were

blocked. • Ghettos caused de facto school segregation

because of population patterns which were under funded/staffed.

• Discrimination in work, mainly clerical/skilled jobs.

• BUT – no lynching. If AAs on voting register, they could be jurors. Trials were fairer.

• Institutional racism was weaker but still segregation/discrimination/poverty.

5) 1920s Jazz era:• De facto segregation encouraged developing culture.• Outpouring of writers/poets/musicians/painters.• Many talented AAs were discovered in the poverty of

Harlem and so the era became the Harlem Renaissance – AAs expressing their equality desires in songs and writing.

• Even this showed de facto inequality – whites owned the jazz clubs and the only AAs allowed in were performers, prostitutes and cooks.

• AA middle-class developed – more AA businesses/professional than ever.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Marcus Garvey 1887-1940CIVILIAN

CAMPAIGNER

1) Garvey state-side (1916):• He exploited WWI social changes briefly and

efficiently after arriving from Jamaica • Rapidly gained dynamic followers within a year

but downfall was just as fast. • Main AA leader for those years and although his

policies did not have immediate affects, they shaped next generation of campaigners by creating ‘Black Power’.

2) Ideals:• Inspired by BTW’s TI, he created the 1914

Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica to go further than BTW and improve economic prospect/white acceptance/AAs taking control of problems.

• Saw the only solution to move back to Africa but was vague on details. Short term, believe AAs should focus on building education/businesses/pride in being AAs.

3) UNIA:• Aim; to campaign for equal rights and the

independence of AAs rather than absorption into melting pot.

• Did not ask for government help, but told AAs to develop their own means of salvation through self-help groups/own industries/factories.

4) Why successful:• In tense atmosphere, his movement made

progress.• His 1917 Harlem speech was cheered and he

moved his base to NY.• Made use of growing interest in AA newspapers to

laugh ‘The Negro World’, funded by northern AA middle-class.

• Talented speaker.• Aided by BTWs death and post-war tensions.• Idea that AAs had to be proud of heritage appealed

to ghetto AAs as they could relate.• Disagreed with Du Bois that integration would work

which also appealed to poor AAs who felt true equality would never happen.

• Black Eagle Star Steamship line (4 ships) to raise capital was popular but then became broke.

5) Why failure:• Lacked political strategy/more bothered with

fancy ventures than immediate social and economic problems.

• Ran out of money.• As immediate post-war tensions calmed, so did

support.• Suspicion increased when he talked to the KKK

in 1922 and colleague (Easton) was murdered soon after.

• ‘Garvey Must Go’ – attack in popular magazines. AA TU/NAACP opponents created Friends of Negro Freedom to highlight his failures.

• Arrested in 1925 and deported in 1929 on release back to Jamaica – leaving AA CR behind.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP beginning

NAACP SC cases by 41NAACP IN 1945-55

1) Background:• Southern AAs were to busy surviving to

become campaigners and didn’t have the skills because of poor education.

• Whites were worried that northern campaigners would pass federal anti-lynching laws which they would have to obey.

• Growing AA middle-class got opportunity for AA lead mass movement and Oscar de Priest was the 1st AA to be elected into Congress since 1900 in 1928, but he was alone.

2) Post-war impact:• NAACP embodied AA campaigning after

Garvey’s arrest. Led by both races, was a more vigorous legal campaign that BTW’s.

• National, it focused on CR not social conditions

• 1920s Secretary (James Johnson) targeted changes in desegregation, voting and education; continued by 1930s leader Walter White.

3) Policies:• Races should live/work/be educated

together. Would take federal/Supreme Court rulings to make changes.

• Non-violent, raising money to defend accused AA rioters.

• Lobbying, not mass action. Campaigned unsuccessfully for anti-lynching laws but it did raise awareness nationwide and decreased lynching.

• Growth rose rapidly after 1915 – by 1920, it has 90,000 members but that decreased to 50,000 in 1930.

• Developed reputation of caution and bureaucratic outlook.

• Run by middle-class and so failed to relate to working class

4) North situation:• Opposition was normally peaceful in north, but whole

southern population was violent towards it, discouraging leaders from speaking out.

• Its only successes were winning court cases; in the tragedy of Arkansas 1919, after 2 white men where shot in discussions, mobs of whites attacked the AA community and all AAs were arrested/killed (death toll from 20-250). NAACP appealed to SC to overrule convictions.

CommunistsFEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• After WSC 1929 and decline of UNIA, CR

action was low.• Communists showed new militant approach

rapidly for a short period to take advantage of labour unrest between 1919-21.

• Recruited 7,000 homeless/unemployed northern or poor sharecropping southern AAs.

• Organised legal defence for Scottsboro Boys trial.

• Membership rose in 1934 when ordered by Soviet Union to fight against Fascism.

2) Successes:• CR leaders distanced themselves from fear

of prejudice by association (particular during post-WWII McCarthyism).

• Many saw their rejection of democracy and Soviet alliance as un-American.

• In 1939 when the Soviets approved of the Hitler-Stalin pact, their limited power ended.

National Negro Congress 1935-1947

CIVILIAN GROUP

1) Background:• Influenced by Communist from start.• Boycotts of discriminating shops failed to

gain mass support.• Pressure group to ensure AAs got their side

of the New Deal

2) Successes:• After a well-supported start, it lost support

because of its close Communist ties and became limited to Communist support.

• Disbanded in 1947.

KKK revivalCIVILIAN GROUPKKK beginning

1) Background:• Showed southern attitudes to

AAs.• Revival in 1915 in Atlanta,

Georgia by William Simmons 1880-1945 (followed old Klan ideas but did introduce new features like burning crosses as a sign of KKK activity).

• Communist growth aided revival.

• 1915 film The Birth of a Nation glorified old Klan and presented a brutal stereotype of AAs.

• 1922 – Hiram Evans 1881-1966 (widened target of hatred to other races/religions that were not White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) took over.

• Created view of AAs as pitiable creatures, who’s threat level was less that Catholics/Jews/Communists.

• Split Democrat Party in south.

2) Support:• North: group remained shady and had

limited support.• South: its views on capitalism, religion and

‘traditional’ American virtues increased its membership to over 5 million by 1924 from 100,000 in 1921.

• Hooded members openly paraded, burned crosses, intimidated, beat, mutilated and murdered victims.

• 1930 – 30,000 members remained as segregation/white way of life went unthreatened.

Southern StatesFEDERAL

GOVERNMENTStates in 1800s

1) Background:• Majority of white southern politicians neither

supported AAs or the KKK.• Democrat states intended to maintain the status quo

(hohohoooooo stick to the stuff you knowwww):1. Segregation2. Cheap AA labour3. White electorate suspicion of federal intervention4. White supremacy.

4) Support:• No doubting that Bilbo and Talmadge had

support because of their re-election successes, but apart from Governor of Louisiana (Harry Long) all had to play race card to undereducated, racist whites to gain support.

2) Theodore Bilbo 1877-1947 • was born into poor family, became Mississippi

Governor 1916-1920 and 1928-1932 and a Senator afterwards until death.

• Violently opposed any AA voters, hinting to what should be ‘done’ to them

• Dubbed ‘America’s most notorious merchant of hatred’.

• Suggested all AAs go back to Africa.

3) Eugene Talmadge 1884-1946:• Came from farming family and wrote agricultural

journals.• Governor of Georgia from 1940-1942 and 1946-1946

(dies) • Similar to Bilbo and attacked integrated education.

5) Situation by 30s Depression:• Just before, educated opinion dismissing

supremacy was rising, but depression stalled CR ideas.

• P vs. F 1896 still very much in place and facilities were still not equal – for every $7 spent on white schools in 1930, only $2 went to AA schools.

Warren Harding – 1865-1923President – 1921-23

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Thought that southern states must have

‘superior understanding’ to the problem, a clear sign he would not intervene.

Calvin Coolidge – 1871-1933President – 1923-29

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Early on, he declared that the CR of AA were

as ‘sacred’ as whites.• But took a passive view and let Congress

take the initiative.

Herbert Hoover – 1874-1964President – 1929-32

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Was his attempt to appoint a racist Supreme

Court Judge that the NAACP managed to appose in 1930.

• Resorted to the race card to convince Democrats of his Republican strategies – obviously failed.

• Last Republican to receive wide AA support for presidency because he was a knob.

Franklin D. Roosevelt – 1882-1945

President – 1932-44 (re-elected 3 times)

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Previous presidents were indifferent,

incompetent, preoccupied and powerless to the Democratic Congress men who would oppose pro-AA legislation.

• However, he was preoccupied with ‘saving America’ – in which he could not include AAs because of Democrat opposition.

2) Support for AAs:• Frankly told NAACP leader White in 1933

that he could not involve AAs in his New Deal (initiative to increase America’s economy after 1929 WSC) if it was to be passed though Congress.

• If insisted on the AA problems, he would lose Democratic support.

• AAs plight received more support from Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 (cousin and wife to FDR) who became aware of problems after touring the nation as First Lady. She publicly supported the NAACP’s Anti-Lynching Bill 1930s to FDR’s embarrassment.

3) New Deal:• Encouraged a wage rise and cutting of working

hours.• By 1935, 30% of AA families were on benefits

compared to 10% of whites – illustrating their poverty and the fair split of federal funding.

• However, urban AA unemployment rates remained high and sharecroppers were hit hard by Depression (not covered by the Social Security Act or the National Labour Relations Act that helped whites because of Democrats refusal to vote for pro-AA legislation)

4) Individual Help:• Supported the 1941 Philip Randolph demand

for fair employment opportunities by issuing his Executive Order to ban discrimination in workplaces.

• Set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission to implement this.

1) Background:• Limited progress was being made for acceptance of AAs in

sports.• Owens won 4 gold medals in the 1936 Olympics and

challenged the ideas of white supremacy.• After success, he received advertising endorsements like

white athletes.• Awarded American Medal of Freedom by President Ford

in 1976.

Jesse Owens – 1913-1980CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) Hattie McDaniel:• First AA to win an Oscar for Gone with the Wind in 1940.• Encouraged racial marches; E. Roosevelt withdrew her

support from Daughter of the Revolution after they banned AA Marian Anderson (who was also banned from singing in Constitution Hall) and multi-racial crowds began attending Anderson’s concert at Lincoln Memorial.

Supreme Court form 1915-1939

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

NAACP 1 + 2

1) Positives:• With federal, executive

and legislative routes for AA CR blocked, NAACP turned to SC.

• Lengthy, but it worked.• Since Reconstruction, SC

ruling had not helped CRs apart from some early successes (1917 Buchanan vs. Warley – Kentucky residential segregation was unconstitutional but the judgment was on property rights which would not allow precedent for overturning segregation in public places).

• Another positive ruling was the 1923 Moore vs. Dempsey, which failed to uphold the death sentences for 12 AAs because of unfair trials.

2) Support:• 1933 Trudeau vs. Barnes ruled that all other

options must be ruled out before a case was brought to the SC – showing NAACP’s slowness.

• Old judges were dying off and FRD was appointing more liberal ones – between 1937-1941, 7/9 died. Verdicts showed this change:

• 1938 Gaines vs. Canada ruled that separate facilities must really be EQUAL (subsequently rose AA teachers salaries to 80% that of whites)

• However, 15th (voting) was continually not enforced – showing the importance of SC rulings.

Explosion 1941-1965

KEY WORDSGROUPPRESIDENTPEOPLELEGLISLATION

Successes by 1965 Failures by 1965

MLK’s and others (Shuttlesworth/Baker) leadership rose AA confidence to protest

Cold War fear of Communism was hard on supporters who were prosecuted

Success of NAACPs legal tactic lead to favourable SC rulings

Most presidents were still fearful of southern power

Increasing federal support (especially LBJ)

Public sympathy from white northerners because of medias increase rose mass support

Poor tactics of southerners (violence) played into campaigners hands.

World War II1) Impact:• AA immigration increased

dramatically, with the number of AAs in San Fran increasing from 4,800 in 1940 to 32,000 in 1945.

• This caused tensions and violence to rise – resulting in the 1943 Detroit riot (after an AA ‘raped and murdered’ a white women. 25/34 of the dead and most of the 1,600 arrested were AAs)

• Also work tensions – if AAs were promoted, whites would walk out (as it Mobile, Alabama 1943)

2) AA WWII soldiers:• Brought its own

tension/reinforced segregation.

• Red Cross forced to segregate AA/white blood.

• Long term positives; 100,000 AAs were sent to England – experienced more equality.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Irony:• Irony of fighting Nazi fascism while

oppressing own people.• CR campaigners emphasised difference and

fought for fully AA CRs.• Fought by groups such as Congress of

Racial Equality, set up by James Farmer in 1942 to protest against formal Northern segregation (split in 1966 over BP and after Farmer’s resignation, it became more moderate) [CORE in 60].

Cold War1) Background:• Period after 1945 with high

capitalist/communist tensions.• Although no formal war was ever

declared, the threat of nuclear retaliation was very real until 1980s.

• Meant that any radical party/attempt to change system was questioned – affecting CRs as they showed sympathy towards communism and criticised the establishment.

• Campaigners such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Adam Powell (first AA House of Representatives elective who challenged de facto Northern segregation but had no mass support) and groups such as the NAACP were communist suspects (despite White being very anti-communist).

• Meetings were made illegal and then they were forced to fight expensive legal battles which lost campaigning money.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Impact:• Wartime Soviet propaganda and irony of fighting Nazi

fascism had rose profile/support for AAs CR• How could they fight for freedom while oppressing own

people?• McCarthyism (post-war communist fear. J. R. McCarthy’s

ruthless assault on communism lead to 200 charges in 1950 on members of the D.C. State Department. Discredited by 1954 as accusations became wild.) discredited CORE because of their direct style. AA oppression played down in favour of legal and political ones that appealed to American values/constitution

• Explains why the movement failed when fighting for better housing/employment; seemed to question Constitutional rights of property/factory owners.

Harry S. Truman – 1884-1972President – 1944-53

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Served as a Democratic Senator 1935-1944,

then became Roosevelt’s Vice.• Authorised atomic bomb on Japan in 1945.• ‘Fair Deal’.

2) AA help:• Used his authority as Commander-in-Chief of

Army to end military segregation in 1948.• Commissioned a President’s Committee in

CRs in 1946 - committee that reported directly to him on AA welfare/how to gain their equality in a peaceful way. Included TU leaders, churches and teachers but not CR activists. Issued a report in 1947 after interviewing 250 people; ‘To Secure These Rights’.

• Identified major CR problems.

3) Impact:• Created opinion that changed climate so as

future changes were welcomed but did not create any legislation as was always blocked by Congress.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP beginning

NAACP SC cases by 41

1) Background:• Accusations of Communism in 1945

meant they were less directly involved in protests than before the war.

• Continued to challenge systems of segregation/discrimination in employment/voting/education.

2) Successes:• Employment: by 1953, 20 states implemented

Roosevelt’s fair employment regulations.• Votes: 1944 Smith vs. Allright outlawed all white

primary in Texas, meaning that AAs registered to vote rose from 2% in 1940 to 12% in 1947. Few AAs were elected for state legislatures but none in Deep South. Powell was elected to HoR. NAACP launched voter registration drives to encourage AA voters but these were opposed in DS. Especially difficult for AA women to vote.

• Education: attempted to challenge P vs. F separate but equal ruling in education. 1949 – South Carolina, $179 was spent on white students and $43 on AAs. Pupil-to-teacher ratio was 20% better in white schools. NAACP sued on behalf of children. Thurgood Marshall 1908-93 (AA lawyer who fought SC rulings for NAACP and won almost all of them – including Brown vs. Board. Appointed first AA SC judge by Johnson in 1967) argued that the legal system should acknowledge/tackle inequality in education.

• Slow but effective.

3) Roy Wilkins 1910-1981:• Leader from 1955 until death.• Continued White’s moderate policies –

uneasy with confrontational policies by other 60s CR groups.

• Around at same time as MLK and continued his cautious and legal approach.

Dwight D. ‘Ike’ Eisenhower1890-1969

President – 1953-61FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in

WWII.• 2 terms as Republican President – popular

because of military past.• Conception of Presidency; passive not active

(only active as last resort)• Appointed Earl Warren as Chief SC judge.• Failed to enforce B vs. B.• Failed to act in 1956 when Governor Daniel

of Texas sent in Rangers to stop integration enforcements so as to avoid opposition.

• However, did take action in Little Rock in 1957.

Linda Brown vs. Board of Education COURT CASE

1) 1954 SC verdict:• Unanimously ruled that

Brown should be allowed to go to the much closer white-school and that to bar her would be unconstitutional.

2) Earl Warren (1891-1974):• Lawyer and Republican

politician.• As Attorney-General of Cal.,

made over 100,000 Japanese-American arrests in 1943 because of WWII.

• Appointed Chief Justice of SC in 1943 by Eisenhower (helped him win election).

• Surprised Eisenhower with liberal AA judgments.

• Later headed investigation on JFK’s assassination.

• In B VS. B, accepted all the arguments of Marshall (schools should have equal funding and integrated – used psychologist to show segregations effect on AA children's self-esteem).

3) Immediate impact:• Created legal precedent and expected to

make changes.• Effected non-DS states; Washington DC,

Baltimore, St. Louis etc.. started integrating schools.

• Process was slow – by 1957, only 12% of southern schools were integrated.

• Southern states used state rights to argue against ruling. Federal government was seen as dictating its values onto states and southern states would simply close public schools so there was no AA education and fund white children to attend private schools

4) Long-term impact:• TURNING POINT: showed SC would no longer

block AAs CR – which Presidents and Congress were still doing.

• ENDED P VS F!!!! Which had dominated race relations since then.

• Went further than attacking inequality by insisting segregation was psychologically harming AAs.

• Allowed more liberal verdicts to follow.• Gave southern AAs confidence in legal

system which was then exploited by MLK• Signalled new era of fair judgments for more

campaigns.

5) Southern attitude before:• Although economic, political and educational AA advances were small, still met

southern opposition.• All Confederate states remained segregated – politicians increased racism near

elections to gain votes.• Sharecroppers/labourers were easily fired if they attempted to vote.• Few AAs took legal action and fewer hoped for favourable verdicts.• KKK still present in DS/lynching less but occurring - Emmet Till 1955• Still used state rights to dismiss ruling. Strom Thurmond disliked Truman’s army

desegregation/CR Commission so deserted Democrats in the 1948 election to run as a 3rd Party Candidate (gained 1 million votes compared to Truman's 24 million and Dewey’s 22 million).

• 1948 election – reminded to DS that no one else believed in segregation/state rights anymore. Since Roosevelt’s New Deal, presidents had more power and used it. States were depended on federal grants and could therefore not refuse demands. Resistance after B vs. B was last phase of opposition.

6) South attitude after :• DS now had new measures to resist change; developed White Citizen’s

Councils (1st in 1955 because of B vs. B to maintain segregation through economically smiting supporters) and passing segregationist measures (Miss. and Loui. amended constitutions to retain segregation) – the whites were now on the defensive.

• Became apparent that the ruling would have to be enforced in south because of their resistance (north accepted decision; respected fed. gov.).

• Problem needed Eisenhower to enforce ruling but he did not act – not because of racism (outlawed any segregation in Columbia) but out of fear of opposition – did nothing when Texas brought in Texas Rangers in 1956 to prevent forced integration.

1) 1955:• 14 year old AA from Chicago visiting Mississippi.• Whistled at a white women and was (rightly) shot in the

head and dumped in a river.• Received great public interest and mother invited

reporters to open-casket funeral to see injustice.• Showed events were becoming rarer and attitudes were

changing.• However, also showed lack of southern justice – despite

clear evidence on 2 white murderers, all-white jury did not convict.

Emmet TillCIVILIAN CAMPAIGNERNot for Emmet

Little Rock, Arkansas 19571) Background:• Eisenhower did act after blatant southern resistance to integration in

Central High School, Little Rock.• Governor Orval Faubus used Nation Guard to ban 9 AA students from

the school after federal ruling that the school must be desegregated. • Annoyed with Faubus’ dereliction of duty (thought Faubus had agreed

to obey ruling), Eisenhower used his authority as Commander-in-Chief to send in paratroopers (federal troops) to put the NG under federal control.

• The soldiers who had banned entry now had to hold back protesters and escort the children to school.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Impact:• Only time Eisenhower used authority to enforce B vs. B ruling.• Showed limitations of SC power in terms of acceptance, enforcement

and presidents caution when implementing their rulings.• 1957 CRA – proposed bi-partisan CR Commission and division in

Justice Department to look at CR problem. Thurmond spoke for 24 hours in Congress against it. Senator Lyndon Johnson only scrapped bill though the Senate by watering down its provisions.

• 1960 CRA – renewed CRC to allow judges to make special appointments of pro-AA whites who would help them get onto voting register and introduced federal criminal penalties for bombing and mob action.

• Both CRAs very weak and had no impact.

http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http://dbszabo1.deviantart.com/art/fire-ball-2-png-304283920&ei=6iETVbWXNpSP7Aash4HwCQ&bvm=bv.89217033,d.d24&psig=AFQjCNFHKHQmyqIrR-nwoYtnLLOVS607bg&ust=1427403619057998

1) Background:• Southern public transport segregation was

always most hated by AAs – made to stand, poorer seats, thrown off buses for no reason and spoken down to/humiliated by white drivers but majority of AAs lived out of towns and so relied on them.

• 1955, NAACP activist Parks was thrown off a bus for refusing to give up her seat, giving birth to new era of CR campaign.

Rosa Parks – 1914-2005CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) Parks:• Methodist Christian and member of

NAACP who was highly regarded in local community.

• Others arrested for similar offences, but campaign needed person of impeccable character/morals of whom breaking the law would normally be unthinkable.

• After boycott, harassment drove Parks/family out to Detroit in 1957.

• Set up the Rosa and Raymond Parks institute for self-development which gave young AAs career training.

• Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996 and Congressional Gold Award in 1999.

3) Why is succeeded:• Not 1st example of direct action protest but 1st that had

success.• Gained near-unanimous support from ORDINARY AAs –

giving them chance to participate in behaviour without fear/danger.

• Impressive display of unity/stamina for;1. Waling to work.2. Persisting with boycott for almost a year.• Showed they could organise protests and co-operate with

each other with minimal white participation.• Put financial pressure on local authorities who initially

refused the slightest concession.• November 1956 after NAACP initiative in another

favourable SC ruling on Browder vs. Gayle – ruling that bus segregation was unconstitutional with similar reasoning to B vs. B ruling

1) Background:• Born in Atlanta was brought up in well off

family but suffered from inequality.• Forced to move north to Boston to gain his

PhD.• Became a Baptist Minister in 1954 to 1960

after which he returned to Atlanta and ran his fathers church and became fully involved in the CR campaign.

• Assassinated in 1968.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER60s

2) Turing point?:• Chosen for his cautious reputation, was an

effective organiser, brilliant speaker and great motivator.

• Organised night-time church rallies that recharged AA commitment and determination.

• By articulating all AAs frustrations in persuasive way, made vital link between CR campaigners and less educated general public (NAACP/Du Bois failed at).

• Non-violence argued throughout life which set next 10 years of campaigning agenda.

• Set up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 – widened CR field to react to events, not individuals (NAACP)

1) Background:• 1960 – 4 AA students staged

sit-in in Woolworth’s in North Carolina (who were proud of race relations)

• State hesitated which allowed numbers to grow rapidly.

• Started concept of sit-ins which spread to neighbouring states.

Sit-ins CAMPAIGNER LEGLISLATION

2) Ella Baker 1903-1986:• Ran AA voters campaign in

30s.• Joined NAACP in 40s.• Moved to Atlanta to assist

MLK/SCLC in 57 and convinced him to visit protesting students.

• Disliked his style and so encouraged students to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in 60s (which organised swim-ins, read-ins, watch-ins and shoe-ins. Spilt by BP in 70s)

3) Impact:• Protests were not violent but more

confrontational than boycotts as it forced authorities to respond.

• If response was violence, press showed it on TVs (1949 – 1 million houses had TVs which rose to 45 million by 1960. King/Baker deliberately used this attention).

• This increased public support.• If state did not act, then it ended

desegregation.• Meant that by 1961, 810 southern towns

had desegregated facilities.

1) Background:• Reinforced sit-ins success in

1961.• Took advantage of white

support (TV/media creating liberal opinions in north to such extent that white CR campaigners were emerging, despite fact that they were more brutally attacked for betraying their race).

Freedom Rides CAMPAIGNER LEGLISLATION

2) Freedom rides:• Whites and AAs would board

inter-state buses in north where they could sit together, and then remain in their places when it became illegal after crossing southern boarders.

• Confrontational strategy was employed effectively because of raised publicity and negative response of states.

• In Alabama – police ignored a white mob attacking AA riders.

• CORE revitalised to co-ordinate events.

3) Federal Government response:• SC liberal verdicts continued to aid CR

campaign – particularly inspired by 1960 Boynton vs. Virginia which outlawed all inter-state travel segregation.

• Kennedy viewed it as states defying law.• Helped in 1962 after 2 deaths to get James

Meredith through the gates of Mississippi University to be the first AA student.

• This paved way for 2 AA students to attend the University of Tuscaloosa with no response from the militantly racist Governor of Alabama, George Wallace.

John F. Kennedy – 1917-1963President – 1961-63

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Elected as Congressman in 1945 and Senator in

1952.• Became President in 1961 (youngest ever)• ‘New Frontier’.• Slow to take up CR cause, but determined to take

up CR Bill in 1963 after troubles with FR and Birmingham riots.

• Prevented from seeing its success after assassination in November.

2) Response to FR:• Saw it as southern state refusal to obey federal

law/maintain order.• Response had previously been lukewarm –

worried about loosing southern support• Determined to keep up with Eisenhower’s

intervention at LR – that failure to keep order would not be tolerated.

3) Robert Kennedy 1925-1968:• Attorney General from 1961-64.• Forcibly implemented favourable SC rulings

(including desegregation of inter-state travel).• Leading role in passing CR legislation.• Feel out with Johnson, especially over Vietnam.• Could of won the Democratic nomination for

Presidency but was assassinated.

1) Background:• MLK/SCLC planned to take

advantage of favourable climate.

• Birmingham, Alabama was large and rigidly segregated but MLK felt that if they succeeded here, everywhere else would follow.

1963 Birmingham Protest CAMPAIGNER EVENT

2) Fred Shuttlesworth 1922-2011:• Baptist Minister who formed

the 1956 Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights.

• Invited SCLC to Birmingham for major campaign.

• Strong non-violence believer, he was one of the most courageous CR leaders.

• 1963 – confronted police dogs/fire hoses head on – sent him to hospital.

• Since the 80s his housing foundation helped many poor families.

• Retired in 2006.

3) Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor 1897-1973:• Birmingham Commissioner of Public Safety in 1937-

53 and 1957-63 (re-elected 5 times)• Known for his determination to keep segregation at

all costs/over-reacting/encouraging violence against FRs in 1961.

4) 3/4/63• SCLC arrived, demanding desegregation and end to

employment racism.• Limited progress to start and MLK was arrested.• Arranged march in May which included AA high

schoolers.• Conner over-reacted and sent in police dogs and

water canons.• Whole world/Kennedy saw violence unfold on TV and

the over-reaction (which was what MLK needed) created the publicity the campaign needed.

5) Conclusions:1. White business owners realised that a few

concessions (such as desegregated shops) was less damaging that the continuing chaos/losing profit from boycotts.

2. Kennedy decided that law/order had been broken and would continue to fail if he did not take federal action.

1) Background:• MLK argued that waiting was not an option (spent

20 periods in jail for violating segregation laws – in Birmingham jail he wrote to clergymen who argued that AA had to wait – ‘perhaps it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to sat ‘wait’.’)

• To maintain pressure, CR campaigners organised the Washington march to take their cause to the capital, directly at the heart of government.

• Took place 100 years after the EP – highly emotive.

1963 Washington March CAMPAIGNER EVENT

2) I Have a Dream:• During the march, MLK’s powerful speech in front

of the Lincoln memorial.• Stated that the march was for ‘jobs and freedom’,

indicating concerns for AAs economically and segregationally.

3) Impact:• Over 250,000 people marched (1/3 white, with

members of the NAACP who normally were wary of marches – display of strength/unity)

• Peaceful/disciplined protesters contrasted with opponents; 3 weeks after the march, 4 AA children at Sunday school were killed in a bombing attack on an AA Baptist church in Birmingham.

Lyndon B. Johnson – 1908-1973President – 1963-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• President after JFK’s assassination and won

landslide victory in 1964 election.• Though not always consistent, he was one of the

few southern Senators who gave support to CR in 50s.

2) 1963 CRA:• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully

used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

1) Background:• The assassination of JFK while he was preparing the

Bill seemed to be a setback.• However, MLK/SCLC kept pressure on with strong

campaign in Florida.• Also, LBJ needed little persuasion to act and

skilfully used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

1964 Civil Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATION

3) Impact:• Made universal what was already happing out of

DS and was a major achievement as it largely defeated southern resistance.

2) Content:• Ban on exclusion from public places.• Attorney-General could file law suits to speed up

desegregation, mixed schools and voting rights.• Fair Employment Practices Commission set up on

permanent legal basis.• No racial, sexual or religious discrimination was

lawful.• No discrimination in any federally aided

programmes.• Community Relations Service was set up to deal

with disputes.

1) Background:• Movement now focused on gaining legislation for

voting rights after 64 CRA.• Slow but steady progress made before with 50s

voters drives but voting was still low.• SCLC pursued similar tactic to Birmingham March

by targeting Selma, Alabama which also had rigid segregation.

• Selma had a 50% AA population but only a 1% AA voting rate and a violent police chief, Jim Clark.

1965 Voting Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATIONImpact

2) Protest:• As in Birmingham, TV showed violence of police

towards peaceful protesters lead by MLK.• This generated public support for CRs and federal

protection for a march to Montgomery.• Also lead to Johnson passing the 65 VRA in the

summer.• As the march reached the place of the successful

Montgomery Boycott 10 years earlier, LBJ prepared to sign the Act.

3) Act:• Following conditions for voter registration were

made illegal:1. Demonstration of educational achievement.2. Knowledge of any subject.3. Ability to interpret material.4. Proof of moral character.• Meaning that AAs could register to vote on equal

terms to whites.

Post-explosion 1965-1992

KEY WORDSGROUPPRESIDENTPEOPLELEGLISLATION

Successes by 1992 Failures by 1992

Public-place segregation had disappeared 23% of AA men in prison – King Affair.

Equal basis for voting that whites. Elected into public offices

AA economic gap widened – 1/7 of AA households had income of over $50,000 by 1990 but female-

lead poorer families had $6,000 average.

Opposition/KKK had largely disappeared. Still white-AA split in housing

All politicians accepted equality/condemned discrimination

High unemployment’ 1992 – 14.2% (2x national average) for whole and 50% for teens

Middle-class AA numbers had increased/important to economy

1992 – 76% of AAs graduated from HS (6% lower than whites) but schools were re-segregating

1) Unemployment and Poverty:• With southern AAs moving north to escape

segregation, unskilled jobs were rare and because of poor education, these were the only ones they could do.

• 50s – machines took over and over 1 million jobs were lost.

• 60s – average wage for 1/10 of whole US was $5000 per year but for AAs was only 1/3.

• 70s – ½ of AAs lived in north (1/3 in 50s)• With no employment, job discrimination rose

especially in youth.

60s Economic/Social Problems FEDERAL PROBLEMS

2) Housing:• Segregated housing still prominent; 90% lived in

segregated areas in Detroit in 70s – 85% in segregated schools in Chicago in 1964 and this was increasing.

• Areas had indifferent schooling, high crime rates and no money and therefore no escape.

• Blockbusting (agents encouraging white owners in AA neighbourhoods to sell cheaply and selling them to AAs at higher prices) further encouraged segregation.

3) Education:• Still de facto segregation because of segregated

housing.• Caught in poverty cycle – no qualifications – no

good job – stay in same conditions.• 64 CRA had little impact; not focused on social

problems• Southern schools were now more desegregated

than north.

1) Background:• Born into poor AA family in

Nebraska.• Garvey supported farther murdered

in 1931 and in 37 his mother when insane.

• No educational opportunities – went to drugs/crime in NY.

• When in jail in 1946-52, converted to the Nation of Islam (aka Black Muslims – founded/led in 30s by Wallace Fard until his disappearance in 34, when Elijah took over until his death in 75)

• Changed his life – dropped Little (slave name) to become Malcolm X.

• Minister in NOI temples in 50s and spokesman for organisation in 60s.

Malcolm Little – 1925-1965 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) Support:• Northern AAs did not support MLK

as southerners did as he focused on desegregation/voting and not social issues. Also – non-violent Christian part didn’t strike northern cultural cords (complained Washington March ignored half of its aim; ‘for JOBS and freedom’.)

3) Importance:• Northern and critical of non-violent

approach, X was a prominent member of NOI until 1963. Here he heard of AA supremacy (all humans first made black until unpure white race emerged).

• Proud to be an AA and critical of white society, thinking that they should not ‘beg’ whites for favours as he felt NAACP and MLK were doing.

• Views spread quickly among poor northern AAs in way MLK failed.

• Quick-witted debater and power over supporters.

• Restricted from speaking in direct political terms by leader of NOI, Elijah Muhammad, which meant he lacked platform for campaigning.

• However, did used NOI’s magazine/TV/campus talks/radios to get message across.

• Dismissed from NOI in 1963 for criticising Elijah/talking out.

• Changed to mainstream Sunni Muslim faith – got greater opportunities to speak

4) Elijah Muhammad 1897-1975:• Born Elijah Poole.• Converted to Muslim as a young man

and became NOI leader in 34.• Jailed for avoiding draft in 1942-46.• Called for separate homeland for AAs

but avoided political announcements.• Revered by X until discovered that he

was immoral (affairs with secretaries)

5) Emphasis:• Disliked focus of CR and preferred

focus on appalling economic and social conditions of inner-cities AAs

• Rejected white-AA integration as thought whites were inherently racist and never apply their values to AAs (saw them as Africans, not American but dismissed moves to Africa for practicality)

• Rejected non-violent emphasis but did not encourage violence – only self-defence.

• MLK avoided commenting/FBI ran surveillance from 60s onwards but X was focused on NOI threats and cared little of white opinions on him, even praise.

6) View Change:• X dismissive of CR but

re-thought after 63 successes.

• Could not do a public change of views.

• After NOI dismissal, travelled Africa/Asia and realised that many Muslims were white.

• Came around on other campaigns just as MLK moved towards X’s.

• Needed time to make an impact but was assassinated by NOI – ideas remained influential.

Lyndon B. Johnson – 1908-1973President – 1963-69

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• President after JFK’s assassination and won

landslide victory in 1964 election.• Though not always consistent, he was one of the

few southern Senators who gave support to CR in 50s.

2) 1963 CRA:• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully

used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience with Congress/southern background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous presidents.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ

and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –

violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing

Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

1) Background:• Disillusioned by lacking white

support for campaigns.• Realising that CR movement

must address social/economic problems to achieve northern equality.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNERBeginning

2) 1966 Chicago Campaign:• Confirmed MLK’s pessimism. • Invited to Chicago and tried

to address their de facto segregation in education, housing and employment.

• Found less cooperation from AAs and resistance from racist whites.

• Mayor Daley more weasely than Connor so no direct violence towards SCLC but also no co-operation/evasive.

• Highlighted the housing problem but did not solve it as Daley broke promise to improve housing and end housing segregation.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support

from LBJ and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside

Church – violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair

Housing Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

4) View change:• Never changed non-violent views but

was disillusioned in 60s to lack of de facto change

• Realised that unless problems stopped, rioting (big in 65-8) would continue – undermining non-violent strategy.

• Moved towards socialism bordering on Communism and planned a Poor Man’s March from Mississippi to D.C. to protest poverty.

• 4/4/68 – assassinated in Memphis while supporting AA dustmen’s fight.

5) Impact of death:• After, non-violent

wishes were ignored and there was a swathe of rioting nationwide.

• The movement was now leaderless, directionless, divided and confused.

VietnamFEDERAL GOVERNMENT

2) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ

and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –

violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing

Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

1) Background:• North (communist) and South (capitalist) parts of

Vietnam from 50s to 75.• US supported South and became increasingly

involved in the anti-communists crusade.• By 1968, ½ million US troops (including AAs) were

sent.• CR campaigners pointed out that $½ million were

being spent on killing communists but only $35 sent to poor citizens.

Black PowerCIVILIAN GROUP

1) Development:• X’s views had more power after his death

even in previously non-violent groups.• Violent groups saw MLK as a ‘tool of the

white man’ and thought AAs should have complete self-control over lives.

• SNCC and CORE increasingly questioned non-violence which had made no de facto change.

• Demanded more effective and fairer following of the law and radical social change (especially in housing/education).

• Many rejected help from whites/dismissed AAs working with them.

2) Stokely Carmichael 1941-1998:• Born in Trinidad but moved to US at 11.• Organiser for the SNCC from 64-66, then

chair.• Co-author of Black Power in 1967 which

outlined vision for AAs in US.• Extreme speeches; ‘smashing everything

that white civilisation has created’.• Left to join Black Panthers in 67• Left US for Guinea in 69 and changed his

name to Kwame Ture.

Black Panthers - 1966CIVILIAN GROUP

1) Development:• A Black Power group starting in California.• Received national attention quickly

because of armed parades for ‘self-defence’ against police brutality in distinctive uniform of berets/dark glasses.

• 3 years – focus of CR attention and had 1000s of members but declined after shot-outs with police in 1969.

2) Newton and Seale:• Huey Newton (1942-89) had little formal

education/self-taught. Bobby Seale (1936) from air force.

• Met in San Fran. School of Law and formed BPs.

• 1967 - Newton was shot, arrested and convicted of violent offences.

• 1971 – Seale dropped a murder charge.• 70s – both moved from violence• 1974-7 – Newton fled to Cuba.• 1989 – Newton shot dead in California.• 1973 – Seale ran for Mayor and came 2nd • 1981 – wrote history of BP and then

worked to improve economic/social conditions in AA neighbourhoods.

3) Aims:• Both wanted to end

white capitalism and police brutality.

• Emphasised economic improvements for AAs and were clearly influenced by X and Black Power.

• Developed a 10 point programme with similar demands to mainstream CR activists and some more distinctive (request for AA-white juries was common but Black Panthers demand for all-AA juries indicated emphasis on self determination/racist views towards whites.)

• Long way from SCLC/NAACP and the fact that it gained SNCC support showed just how broken CR movement was.

4) 10 Point Programme:1. Freedom – power to

determine own destiny 2. Full employment3. End to discrimination4. Fit housing5. Truthful education6. Conscription exemption7. End to police brutality8. Freedom for jailed AAs9. AA juries10. Land entitlement

5) Help or hindrance:• Plan of gaining powerful

white support was working in 65/6 but militant BPs were ruining it.

• BUT- redefined CR question so as AAs were proud of heritage and didn’t want to integrate and ever received MLK’s support.

Richard Nixon – 1913-1994President – 1969-74

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Growing BP support meant many more

whites were voting Republican.• Nixon took a hard line against militants

and wanted a pause in the drama.• Eisenhower’s running mate in 52, took a

hard line against Communism.• In 50s in Senate, took moderate line for

AA CRs.• Ran for Presidency in 60 but Kennedy

won• Though he opposed militant CR,

affirmative action and bussing were helpful.

• Watergate scandal ruined reputation in second term and withdrew rather than be impeached.

2) Actions:• Took strong line on law and order but

after early initiative, no CR actions were taken as he was dominated by WS.

• Meant overcrowding continued and AAs remained poor (especially in recession)

• However, pervious CR gains provided momentum for changes in employment and education.

3) Employment:• Encouraged affirmative action – meant that

AAs were hired over whites to work against discrimination over past 100 years.

• Controversial; could positive discrimination be justified by giving AAs employment quotas in large companies? Could they overlook lacking education?

• Some, including SCLC members, thought it was unwise as the American society was known for its emphasis on meritocracy.

• Resulting in AA workers in Philadelphia contracts to rise from 1% to 12% from 1969

• For first time, all three American Constitutional powers worked together; Congress passed 1972 Equal Opportunities Act, giving more power to Equal Opportunities Employment Commission/enforcement of federal guidelines in Courts. SC passed 1971 Griggs vs. Duke Power Company (expectation of employers for AAs to pass exam was unreasonable because of past educational discrimination).

• Didn’t do it for AAs – thought it would split TUs and was clear that voting equality was de facto and Nixon was buying votes.

4) Education:• Desegregation of schools was still implemented

because of liberalism of SC.• Bussing – mandatory transportation of children to

even out race ratios in schools. An extreme way to de facto enforce desegregation. Those who liked closer schools/racist opposed it.

• Effect – by 1972, southern schools were more integrated than most other US states.

Supreme CourtFEDERAL

GOVERNMENTNAACP 1 + 2

1) Background:• NAACP stayed focused and undertook

more legal battles to desegregate schools on state and SC levels.

• 1971 Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education – ruled that since buses were already used, bussing was constitutional.

• However, later verdicts (1974 Milliken vs. Bradley - stopped bussing unless there was deliberate segregation) were less enthusiastic and bussing declined.

• If enforced, whites moved to suburbs where it wasn’t and if it wasn’t, re-segregation stated.

2) Higher Education:• Another case where south tried to keep

colour-bar.• 1970 Green vs. Connelly made clear

that segregated HE institutes would not have federal funding.

• Progress was slow – remaining AA or white only collages de facto

• 1971 – 1/3 of AAs nationally were in traditional AA collages but in south it was 90%.

General Ford – 1913-2006President – 1974-77

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Selected by Nixon to replace previous

Vice.• Voted for main CR Bills in 60s but was

sceptical of too much federal help.• Only limited change of CR policies.• Enjoyed better race relations than Nixon

and appointed first AA Transport Secretary (William T. Coleman)

• However, continued with anti-bussing legislation.

• 90% of AAs voted against him in 1976 election, meaning that AA voting had done a 360 in the past 100 years.

Jimmy Carter – 1924President – 1977-81

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Inactive on CRs as young Democrat, but

more positive while Governor.• 1976 defeated Ford and became strong

AA presidential supporter.• However, inexperience of federal politics

was a major handicap but positive towards AAs.

• Appointed 37 AA federal judges.• But lacked popular support/economic

conditions Johnson had and liberalism of SC to further CRs.

• 1978 Regents of the University of California vs. Baake – ruled white student was discriminated against. Showed result of too much affirmative action.

Ronald Reagan – 1911 - 2004President – 1981-89

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Hollywood actor, losing his

liberal views after becoming president of the Screen Actors’ Guild.

• Governor of California in 1966/70 where he dealt forcible with student rioting.

• Opposed 1965 Voting Rights Act as ‘humiliating’ south.

• As president, tended to oppose welfare and employment programmes focusing on AAs.

• Following conservative economic/social policies was popular.

• Anti-communist but improved Soviet ties.

• After opposing positive legislation while it passed, he now accepted it and claimed his administration was ‘colour-blind’ but this was a way of resisting affirmative action.

• Appointed fewer AAs to his administration since Eisenhower.

2) Effect:• Presidency coincided with

economic slowdown.• Reductions in welfare payments

hit AAs hard; in 1980, AAs made up 11.7% of the population but made up 43% of Aid to Families with dependent children claims, 34% of housing subsidiary claims and 35% of food stamp claims.

• Reagans shit policies impacted most severely poor AA families worst.

• After 1983, economy recovered but many AAs did not benefit (caught in poverty trap).

3) Judicial Appointments:• Felt judicial merit should not be

sacrificed for equality.• Appointment of conservative SC

judge William Rehnquist caused more cautions interpretations of CR legislation.

• Though no negative precedents made, they gave other rulings that modified previous CR changes.

4) Congress:• Forced to accept Congress

ruling which he could delay but not stop.

• 1982 – renewal of VRA, Congress strengthened it with stricter laws concerning discrimination against groups of voters.

• 1983 – insisted on MLK’s birthday becoming a national holiday to which Reagan reluctantly agreed.

• 1988 – strengthen the 1968 Fair Housing Act and passed another CR Restoration Act over Reagan’s veto (the 1984 Grove City vs. Bell ruling that organisations receiving federal funding only had to abide by the CR legislation for the area they were focusing on was overruled so that all aspects of CR legislation must be met before funding was allowed).

George H. W. Bush – 1924President – 1989-92

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

1) Background:• Born into political family, was decorated

for bravery in WWII.• Represented Texas in House of

Representatives 1966-70 • US Ambassador for UN 1971-74.• Reagans running mate in 79.• Claimed liberal CR voter – voted for FHA

68• Less keen on ‘artificial’ CR (affirmative

action/bussing)• Vetoed CRB 1990 – saw as ‘quota bill’

only to statistically increase AA employment opportunities by affirmative action.

• Only 6.9% of his judicial appointments were from racial minorities and those that were were for political gains.

1) Background:• NAACP tried to encourage AAs in southern

states to register – voters in Mississippi rose from 6.7% in 1964 to 67.5% in 1968.

• However, after initial rise numbers levelled out so that by the 1976 election only 50% of AAs voted

1965 Voting Rights Act FEDERAL LEGLISLATIONImplication

2) AA representation:• AAs were being elected into public offices,

even in the DS.• Supported by Democrats (turned tables) as

VRA meant that AAs had control in politics.

3) North:• Smaller numbers and so harder to become

elected.• Reflected economic upturn; 100,000 AA

voters convinced to vote by AA businessmen.

• More in public offices; 1964, only 100 AAs were in but rose to 8000 by 1992.

• 36 HoR by 1992, meaning that they occupied 8% of the representatives (for a 11% population)

4) Make difference:• Political involvement only benefited rich

AAs and not rest.• AA mayors had to avoid alienating white

supporters.• Overall mood was not money-giving and

support of wealthy AAs was uncertain.• Advantage of public office places ended

with financial/political troubles and lack of AAs voting.

3) Significance:• Highlighted importance of AA vote as they

tended to vote for AAs.• Some saw him as old-fashioned minister

dictating to flocks – unnecessary now they have the vote.

• Promoted aim to move from individuals to proportional representation of AAs in political life as a whole.

• Accepted by whites – 1992 Bill Clinton wanted his administration to ‘look like America’.

Jesse Jackson – 1941 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) 1980s:• In position to be strong leader of AAs and

MLKesque style was popular and persuaded AAs to have faith in political system.

1) Background:• Emerged as prominent SCLC official in youth.• MLK used Jacksons knowledge of poor

northern AAs to win support.• Founded 1971 People United to Serve

Humanity which got 1000s jobs using affirmative action.

• Campaigned twice for democrat presidency with the Rainbow Coalition (all minority races – came second in 88).

Bifurcation FEDERAL LEGLISLATION

1) Background:• Splitting of AA communities in two as

wealthier AAs got more money/power as bankers/civil servants/lawyers and poor AAs became poorer – developed different social/political attitudes.

• Some well off were detached from fellow AAs.• By 1980s – 40% were middle class but 30%

were deeper in poverty (who were changed more by drug market/decreasing benefits)

• ENDED SHARED SUFFERING.• Middle-class moved out of ghettos – leaving

AA underclass (poorly educated with no help) – away from crime, unemployment and urban chaos.

• Left no leaders/stable presences.

Rodney King – 1965-2012 CIVILIAN

1) 1991:• Stopped, resisted arrest and then severely beaten

repeatedly by police.• Caught on camera but an all-white jury acquitted

police in 1992.• Race riots – 50 killed and 2000 injured as jury was

in denial of police’s racism/protesters clearly rejected MLK