Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

Poisoning in most occasions is accidental in farm animals, but it may occasionally be deliberate or

what we call ‘criminal poisoning’. In the veterinary field (farm animals) toxicities are often found as a

result of ingestion of poisonous substances while grazing or through water. Suspicion of poisoning is also

aroused when illness occurs in a number of previously healthy animals, all affected at a same time, sharing

the same signs, necropsy findings, to the same degree of severity. The

necropsy of the animals and the rapid diagnosis is helpful in the treatment

of other affected animals in case of accidental poisoning. In case of

malicious poisoning, which may turn up into medico legal case, the

identification of poison is a must to establish the cause of death. In all

poisonous cases, chemical analysis of the biological specimens is essential

to know the cause of death or illness. Therefore, every veterinarian should

know the salient points in collection and despatch of toxicological specimens to a laboratory.

History of the case is of great importance in the diagnosis of poisoning. This includes the number

of animals in the farm, number of affected, method of feeding, regularity of feeding, recent changes in

the rations or attendants, whether pastures have been sprayed with pesticides or fertilizers, if rodenticides

have been used and remnants of the bait removed and disposed properly, storage of poisonous substances

etc. Inspection of the surroundings for empty pesticides or paint containers that are not really empty,

presence of poisonous plants in the farm environment. Also, the possibility of industrial effluents coming

in contact with grazing/watering sources should be given thought of.

History of the case is of great importance in the diagnosis of poisoning. This includes the number

of animals in the farm, number of affected, method of feeding, regularity of feeding, recent changes in the

rations or attendants, whether pastures have been sprayed with pesticides or fertilizers, if rodenticides have

been used and remnants of the bait removed and disposed properly, storage of poisonous substances etc.

Inspection of the surroundings for empty pesticides or paint containers that are not really empty ,presence

Newsletter Date : 31st October 2014 Volume No: 3 Issue : 10

Veterinary College, Bengaluru Monthly e-Bulletin

Dr. Prakash Nadoor

Professor &Head, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Veterinary College, Shivamogga

(Email: pnadoor@rediffmail.com )

of poisonous plants in the farm environment. Also, the possibility of industrial effluents coming in contact

with grazing/watering sources should be given thought of.

Post-Mortem Proper:

Necropsy by routine procedure is to be performed as soon as possible after the death of animal.

Examine the animal externally and note incisions (for sui poisoning, snake bite etc.,) on the skin or

mucous membranes. Examine the oral cavity for corrosive lesions (acids/alkali) or changes in colour of

mucous membrane (nitrate, co, cyanide poisoning). As most of the toxins gain entry through gut,

examination of gut mucosa, the contents, their smell, colour and pH (acids, alkali, and urea) is a valuable

guide in diagnosing toxicoses.

Poisoning by salts of heavy metals results in significant post mortem lesions but poisoning by

alkaloids like strychnine produces very feeble lesions. The natural orifices, sub-cutaneous fat tissue,

muscles, bones and teeth (in fluorine poisoning), body cavities, and internal organs should be examined.

The stomach should be punctured rather than cut open for or ganoleptic examination to note the

character of smell. Puncture ensures greater accuracy and a longer time smell.

Some of the poisons which emit characteristic smell are: bitter almond -hydrogen cyanide

poisoning, garlic odour - phosphorus poisoning, rotten garlic or horse radish smell - selenium, tobacco

odour –nicotine, acetylene odour - zinc phosphide and ammoniacal odour- urea. Check the pH of the

stomach contents by pH paper. Any variation in the normal pH of the species being examined indicates

abnormality. (in urea poisoning-alkaline pH is observed in rumen liquor due to release of ammonia). The

colour of stomach contents also indicates the cause of poisoning. Copper salts impart a greenish blue

colour whereas picric and nitric acid impart yellow colour to the contents. The contents of the stomach

vary from traces to flakes of paints or lead objects, grains or baits, seeds etc., like wise small and large

intestine should be examined. Blood should be examined for its colour and clotting characters.

Cyanide poisoning imparts cherry red colour, arsenic imparts rose red colour and nitrate poisoning

turns blood brown in colour. In ‘abrus’ and cyanide poisoning-blood remains fluid after death.

Examination of other visceral organs should be done in relation to their size, colour etc. eg: - spleen size is

decreased and colour is changed to dark brown or black in copper poisoning and spleen size is increased in

T-2 mycotoxicoses. Lymph nodes are swollen, haemorrhagic, oedematous and dark upon exposure to

radiation. Bone marrow becomes pale and gelatinous with yellowish tint. The description of

morphological changes should be noted clearly and absence of changes should be notified. The most

important lesions found should be underlined. In case of small animals (poultry, small dogs, lab animals)

the cadavers are sent as it is, in case of large animals the stomach contents are collected from the vicinity

of pathological or anatomical changes in the gastric mucosa. If there are no changes, a representative

sample is collected, but in medium sized animals the stomach should be tied at oesophageal and duodenal

end, intestine tied at both ends and bladder with tied ends is sent separately.

Specimens for Toxicology

A successful toxicological investigation requires appropriate specimens, history and clinical signs,

necropsy lesions and circumstantial evidences. Sample for analysis should include a suspected source

material; often gut contents, so that ingestion of suspected material can be proved. Secondly ,a sample of

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tissue (depending on tissue affinity of the suspected poison) must be included, to prove that absorption of

the poison has occurred. It is always advisable to include a sample of liver

to confirm absorption of orally ingested poison.

In survival cases the following materials may be sent for analysis:

stomach wash, ruminal contents, vomitus, blood, urine, saliva, dung, water

and feed, suspected forage/ poisonous plant/s is the ideal samples for

laboratory analysis. Most xenobiotics are ingested. Therefore, one of the

unique advantages of analyzing gastrointestinal contents is that qualitative

tests can be easily carried out in order to determine the animal has oral

access or not. Guidelines for submitting specimen for toxicological

examination is listed in Table 1.

It is always preferable to send the specimens through a special messenger. In medicolegal cases,

the specimens should be sealed in the presence of a witness.

Table 1: Toxicological specimens for laboratory examination

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Samples Quantity

Whole blood 10-20 ml

Serum 10-20 ml

Milk 50-100 ml

Urine 50-100 ml

Water 200 ml

Faeces 50 g

Feed 0.5- 1kg.

Sl.

No.

Suspected poison Specimen required Remarks

1. HCN/Cyanide Forage / ingesta, whole

blood

Liver

Rush samples frozen in air tight

bottle to laboratory

GIT/ Stomach contents in 1%

mercuric chloride is ideal

2. Organochlorine pesticides/

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

Cerebrum, fat, liver, kidney,

ingesta

Use only glass containers, Avoid

aluminum foil for wrapping

specimens

3. Organophosphates &

Carbamate pesticides

Feed, ingesta, liver, urine -

4. Znic phosphide Liver, kidney, gastric

contents

-

5. Nitrate/nitrite Forage, ingesta, body fluids,

Serum samples. Occular

fluid

Suspected water samples

Ingesta in chloroform or formalin

filled air tight container

6. Oxalates Fresh forage, kidneys Fix in formalin

7. Ammonia/Urea Whole blood or serum, urine

Rumen contents

Frozen or add 1-2 drops of

saturated solution of mercuric

chloride

8. Heavy metals

(Lead, Mercury)

Kidney, whole blood, liver

and urine

Heparinized, do not use EDTA

9. Mycotoxins Forages, feed sample, liver,

kidney, brain

Use airtight containers or plastic

bags. Cloth bags for dry feeds

Note: Always send a sample of preservative if used in separate container with proper label Forensic/

diagnostic laboratory

Mode of Preservation:

1. Ice up to 72 hours. 2. Alcohol (95% ethyl alcohol) 1 ml/g of tissue is the ideal preservative for

toxiclogical specimens. Formaline should never be used as it hardens the tissue without giving scope for

scraping and interferes in the analysis. Blood and serum should be refrigerated and never frozen. A

sample of the preservative used should be sent. It is always better to have a duplicate sample stored

properly in a refrigerator for future reference. Sample for analysis should include a suspected source

material; often gut contents, so that ingestion of suspected material can be proved. Secondly, a sample of

tissue (depending on tissue affinity of the suspected poison) must be included, to prove that absorption of

the poison has occurred. It is always advisable to include a sample of liver to confirm absorption of orally

ingested poison.

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the world’s favourite animal. Tiger is a symbol of royalty, courage,

anger and wrath in several Asian nations. Hence the reason, it is also being called the “king of the beasts”.

The present day tigers have evolved from its ancestor Panthera palaeosinensis over last 2 million years. It

is native to east and south Asia. Its popularity became its weakness. Though very popular, its current

population is less than 3500 in the wild. It is a highly endangered species. Due to their solitary nature and

isolated existence, tiger behavior studies have been very limited. Captive tiger behaviour, though docu-

mented extensively, does not correlate with wild tiger behavior.

This article outlines the basics of territorial, hunting, social and mating behaviour in wild tigers.

Territorial behavior

Tigers live most of their life alone.

Their territory can range upto several thousand square kilometers.

This reduces the chances of encounter with another tiger.

Many factors play role in tiger density. Most important is prey

abundance, other factors being sex, tiger subspecies and climate.

With change in these factors, tiger densities will automatically realign.

Prey abundance can be used to indirectly estimate the tiger density.

The male and female have areas of overlapping territory, which facilitates mating.

A young tigress separates gradually from mother with initial overlapping territories that diminishes

gradually to become separate territories.

Males start looking for their own territory earlier than females and make a territory much farther than

birthplace.

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

Dr. Madhukar* and Prof. H. A. Upendra#

*Assistant Professor, # Director, Institute of Wildlife Veterinary Research, KVAFSU, Doddaluvara,

Kodagu(E-mail: madhukar262@gmail.com, uppisri2003@yahoo.com )

A male may not get his territory easily. He may have to challenge and win over a resident male. Till

such opportunity arises, he will live as a subordinate.

Male tigers tolerate females in their territory but not other males.

If two male exists in an area, one will be subordinate.

Subordinate tigers roll over and show their belly as a sign of surrender.

Presence of a receptive tigress in territory can increase the aggression of males.

A male marks his territory by spraying urine, defecation, tree scratching and anal gland secretions.

The males mark more frequently when the female tigers are in oestrus, with higher frequency during

early stages of estrous.

Scent glands around the tail and between the toes help in recognition of individuals by others.

Females have a much stable territory and show mild territorial behaviors.

A tiger maintains one to many lairs within territory.

The lair is preferably located in a shaded area, such as a cave or a cavity below a fallen tree.

Not all tigers may have a lair.

Mating behaviour

Mating can occur any time of the year.

Mating could be often noisy involving vocalization, growling, hissing,

paw swiping, roars, groans and rolling.

Purring and low growling sounds are often made to indicate interest and

to withdraw the mating partner.

The copulation lasts for only 15-20 seconds, however the mating may

occur several times a day. The male and the female stays together for up to a week performing these

sexual activities before they then separate and search for a new partner.

Hunting behavior

Tigers hunt mainly medium to large sized ungulates, mostly alone in the night.

Tiger moves around the territory and locates prey through hearing and

sight rather than vision.

The hunting technique used usually includes an ambush attack which

surprises the prey, knocking it off balance.

Tigers kill their victims by powerful bites through the nape or throat,

pressuring the prey down toward the ground. This disarms the preys

even if it is very large with horns.

This method also necessitates the tiger to come very close to its prey before it could attack.

Tiger can run at a speed of 50-69 kilometers per hour, but its stamina is low.

After the kill, the prey is drawn to a quite place for immediate consumption.

They will eat the meal for an hour, and then rest for several hours and then again eat. Each time eating

about not more than an hour continuously.

The success rate of hunts is only about 5%.

Adults hunt alone, but siblings separated from mother may hunt in pairs.

It is the mothers task to teach the cubs hunting before she lets them go.

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The father plays almost no role in teaching hunting skills to its cubs.

Tigers may be willing to share other tigers they know. This could be other females with cubs, related

tigers, or tigers with familiar scent.

Unlike lions, male tigers allow female and cubs to eat the meal before it could take a bite. Lions do the

exact opposite.

Social interaction

Despite their solitary lifestyle, several types of social interactions happen between wild tigers.

Most frequent interactions occur between siblings and mother.

Visual communication

Tigers communicate through numerous gestures and movements.

While arching back and display of claws is a warning to “back-off “, erect ears and straight tail is a sign

of curiosity.

Tail is an important tool for communication with different meanings for twitching, sideward

movements or hanging.

Tigers have in addition several facial expressions. For instance, dilated pupils with flattened ears and

exposed canines is the so-called “defense threat”. This display is also used during an attack.

Vocal communication

Tigers have typical vocal communications. Though we may never understand the full spectrum of these,

some are well known.

Well documented are pooking ( “sambar-call”), grunting meowing,

woofing, moaning, roaring, growling, snarling, hissing and coughing roars.

A mother moans frequently to pursue its young to follow her instructions

and try new things.

Males moan to make the females comfortable during courtship.

A threatened tiger, especially females snarl when threatened and helps it to

keep the intruders at bay.

Tigers are famous for their massive roar, which is emitted three-four times, and can be heard upto three

kilometers far. Tigers roar after a kill or during courtship. During attacks, a tigers emits a variation of

roar called a coughing roar.

Vocalization is inherent and does not require learning.

Scent communication

Scenting is used most frequently for territorial marking by both the sexes.

Tigers display Flehmen expression during scent sniffing, with the tongue

hanging on incisors, exposing upper canines and wrinkling the nose.

Flehmens reaction is non-specific and occurs on sniffing urine or scent of

self or non-self origin. It may also be displayed after sniffing an oestrus tigress or a cub’s urine.

Other behavior

Tigers usually do not climb trees, whereas tigress can easily climb a tree or jump over barriers.

Tigers have also been found to understand human behavior. For instance, a tiger may differentiate a

helpless victim from an armed man.

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In contrast to other felines, tigers love swimming and can move several

kilometres and spend hours in water.

Summary

Tigers are territorial animals, perform several rituals to mark their

territory with scratching, defecation, anal gland secretion and urination. Males

are more territorial than the females; requiring relatively larger habitats than

the females. The tigers are meat eaters, and hunt mainly medium to large sized ungulates. They are very

successful hunters and hunt usually alone during the night. The combination of a powerful bite, high body

strength and remarkable swiftness makes them capable of killing relatively large animals. They are found

on top of the food chain having no predators (excluding the humans), however some records have been

made of tigers being killed by crocodiles and black bears. Mating occurs all year long and is performed

with a partner up to a week, several times a day. It is generally noisy and includes several mating rituals.

Social interaction among tigers includes both visual, vocal and scent communication. Several facial

expressions, vocalizations and movements play important roles in the communication. The tiger behavior

is still not fully understood and needs to be investigated further. However due to its endangered status it is

worth spending time and resources to understand them better. That is the only way to bring back these

majestic animals from the threat of extinction.

The Dalmatian with its regal carriage and unique spots, is probably one of the most attractive

breeds on the planet. Many people are attracted to this breed’s dashing good looks, but they are definitely

not for everyone and their high energy level can be exhausting to live with.

The Dalmatian is a breed of dog whose roots trace back to Croatia and its historical region

of Dalmatia.The first documented descriptions of the Dalmatian trace back to the

early 18th century and the archives of the Archdiocese of Dakovo, where the dog

was mentioned and described as Canis Dalmaticus in the church chronicles from

1719 by Bishop Petar Bakic and then again by church chronicles of Andreas

Keczkeméty in 1739. In 1771, Thomas Pennant described the breed in his

book Synopsis of Quadrupeds, stating that the origin of the breed is Dalmatia and

hence he referred to it as Dalmatian. The book by Thomas Bewick ‘ A General History of

Quadrupeds’ published in 1790 refers to the breed as Dalmatian or Coach Dog. This breed was then

developed chiefly in England. The first unofficial standard for the breed was said to have been

introduced by an Englishman Vero Shaw in 1882. In 1890 with the formation of the first Dalmatian Club

in England the standard became official. When this dog with distinctive markings was first shown in

England in 1862, it was said to have been used as a guard dog and companion to the nomads of Dalmatia.

The breed's unique coat became popular and the breed became widely distributed over the continent of

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

M.A.Kshama and A.Muralidhara

Dept of TVCC, Veterinary College, Bangalore, KVAFSU

(E-mail id:kshamabopanna@rediffmail.com)

Europe beginning in 1920.

Description

The Dalmatian is a strong muscular medium sized well defined breed with excellent endurance and

stamina. When full grown, its weight normally ranges between 35 and 70

pounds (16 and 32 kg) and it stands from 19 to 24 inches (48 to 61 cm) tall,

with males usually slightly larger than females. The body is as long from fore

chest to buttocks as it is tall at the withers, and the shoulders are laid back. The

Dalmatian's feet are round with well-arched toes, and the nails are usually

white or the same colour as the dog's spots. The thin ears taper towards the tip

and are set fairly high and close to the head. Eye color varies between brown,

amber, or blue, with some dogs having one blue eye and one brown eye, or

other combinations.

Dalmatian puppies are born with plain white coats and their first spots usually appear within three

weeks after birth. After about a month, they have most of their spots, although

they continue to develop throughout life at a much slower rate. Spots usually

range in size from 30 to 60 mm, and are most commonly black or brown

(liver) on a white background. Other, more rare colors, include blue, brindle,

mosaic, tricolored and orange or lemon (dark to pale yellow). Patches of color

appear anywhere on the body, mostly on the head or ears, and usually consist

of a solid color. The coat is usually short, fine, and dense, although

smooth-coated Dalmatians occasionally produce long-coated offspring, which shed less often. They shed

considerably year-round. Due to the minimal amount of oil in their coats, Dalmatians lack the typical dog

smell and stay fairly clean.

Temperament

The Dalmatians were earlier used to run along side or under the carriages and hence have a lot of

energy. They do not like to sit around doing nothing. They are playful, active, easy going, happy and

dedicated .They need leadership and human company to be happy. They require a lot of physical and

mental exercise and become highly strung otherwise. They get along well with other pets but without

proper human guidance and instructions they become excitable and aggressive. They are quite intelligent

and if they sense that their owners are slightest bit meet they take advantage and become willful. They

generally do well firm, consistent training and can be trained to a high degree of obedience. If you are

planning to buy a Dalmatian puppy, make sure that you have the time, authority and most importantly

energy to keep them. Otherwise they become highly strung, hard, destructive and difficult to manage.

They are not suited for apartment dwellers and also for cold climates.

Issues regarding Health

The Dalmatians are by and large a healthy breed and have an average lifespan of 11-13 years.

Deafness

This breed is prone to deafness and 10-12 % of pups are said to be born deaf .Only 70% of dogs

are believed to have normal hearing. Blue eyed Dalmatians are thought to have a greater incidence of

deafness than brown-eyed Dalmatians, although a mechanism of association between the two

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characteristics has yet to be conclusively established. Some kennel clubs discourage the use of blue-eyed

dogs in breeding programs

Kidney and bladder stones , gout

Dalmatians, like humans, can suffer from hyperuricemia. Dalmatians' livers have trouble breaking

down uric acid, which can build up in the blood serum (hyperuricemia) causing gout. Uric acid can also be

excreted in high concentration into the urine, causing kidney stones and bladder stones. These conditions

are most likely to occur in middle-aged males. Males over 10 are prone to kidney stones and should have

their calcium intake reduced or be given preventive medication. To reduce the risk of gout and stones,

owners should carefully limit the intake of purines by avoiding giving their dog’s food containing organ

meats, animal byproducts, or other high-purine ingredients. They may be also prone to hip dysplasia, skin

allergies and Iris sphincter dysplasia

Although dogs don't walk upright, they do lot of side bending, jumping and twisting. So they do

suffer from back problems. Besides the occasional pulled muscle, they also suffer from more serious back

problems such as intervertebral disk disease (herniated disk), vertebral dislocations, bone fractures,

vertebral malformations and even cancer of the vertebrae. Long-bodied dogs with short legs (e.g. Basset

hounds, Dachshunds, Beagle, Shih Tze, and Pekingese) are prone to disk extrusion. It is a genetic

predisposition due to the animal's stretched-out shapes with relatively little support for the spine. Dogs that

are obese are also more prone to develop back problems because of the extra pressure on the spine. It is

therefore important to keep the dog's weight in check - this will help relieve or even eliminate some back

problems in dogs.

Dogs have high pain thresholds and an instinct not to reveal when they're in pain. After all, in the

wild, the obviously injured animal is the one that gets picked off by the

predators. But if you pay attention, you can tell whether your dog is in

pain from a spinal injury.

Look for the following warning signs of spinal injury:

Shivering combined with unusual inactivity

Refusal to get up and play, even for food

Haul or Cry when you pat your dog or try to pick him up

A pulled-in head, arched back, or any other strange position

A refusal to bend down to the food or water dish to eat or drink

Limping of any kind A "drunken" rear end (wobbling gait), which moves but looks as if it isn't

completely under control

Dragging of the back legs / paralysis

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Dr A. S. Patil, Dr B. N. Nagaraj, Dr Ramesh Rathod, Dr L. Ranganath and Dr M. S. Vasanth

Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bengaluru

(Email: anilpatiluasd@yahoo.co.in)

If your Dog shows any of these warning signs, first thing to do is box / cage confinement and rest

with minimal physical activity. In the case of dragging the back legs

or showing any other signs of paralysis or severe pain, call your vet

immediately.

Don’t give medications (Pain killers / Non steroidal anti

inflammatory drugs) to reduce pain and inflammation without an

accurate diagnosis. The dog may feel better once its symptoms are

treated, but the injury still exists and mobility and behavior may

result in re-injury rather than recovery. As the pain killers mask the

pain, animal with spinal fracture and or dislocation tries to make movements because of which it may

lead to severance of spinal cord by the sharp fractured ends of bones. Once spinal cord is cut, no treatment

is effective and the animal may have to euthanized.

Always suspect a broken back or spinal cord injuries in all

dogs that are unconscious or are unable to stand after a fall from a

height or being struck by a motor vehicle. Dogs with these kinds of

injuries should be moved as gently as possible onto a flat surface

(such as a door or a piece of plywood) causing as little twisting to the

head, neck and spine as possible. Place a blanket over flat surface

and also the animal so that the dog doesn’t slip. Using whatever

means available (duct tape or rope) secure the dog to the flat

surface so that movement will be minimized during transportation.

Next, drive immediately to the vet's office or nearest pet emergency facility. Don't wait. because,

you have just hours to act. Immediate surgery on a Dog with a spinal injury has a much better success

rate than a similar surgery at a later stage. For Dogs still feeling pain (a good sign that the spinal cord is

still functioning), the success rate for restoring function is 95 percent. The success rate is 50 percent for

Dogs experiencing total paralysis, as long as the dog was feeling pain within the last 24 hours. But if you

wait longer than 24 hours after a spinal injury, the success rate plummets to a meager 5 percent. If that

isn't reason enough to rush your injured Doggie to treatment, nothing is.

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

Dr. Kantha raju M.K1, Dr. V. Jagadeeswary**,Dr. K. Satyanarayan*, Dr. Mohankumar. S2,

Dr. Sakshi. S3

Professor and Head*, Assistant professor**, Senior M.V.Sc.1,2,3

Dept. of VAHEE, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bengaluru-024.

(drkantharajuvet@gmail.com)

Water is vital, but poorly studied component of livestock production. It is estimated that livestock

industries consume 8% of the global water supply, with most of that water being used for intensive,

feed-based production (7%). Overall, water used for product processing, drinking and servicing livestock

is insignificant at global levels (less than 1% of global water), but it may be important in dry areas, in

terms of the proportion of water used (e.g. livestock drinking water represents 23% of the total amount of

water).

Livestock spend between 10 and 15 minutes per day drinking water. The water content of feed is

highly variable and may range from as low as 5% in some dried grains or seeds to about 90% in

early-growth pastures and succulent species.

Catabolism of fat, carbohydrate and protein produces 1,190 g, 560 g and 450 g of water/kg,

respectively, and these metabolic waters are important sources for all animals.

Animals lose water principally through: – milk-when lactating, urine, faeces, evaporation from the

body surface, the respiratory tract. Under severe stress, cattle and other species may also lose significant

amounts of water through drooling.

When protein production is adjusted for biological value in the human diet, no plant protein is

significantly more efficient at using water than protein produced from eggs, and only soybean is more

water efficient than milk and goat and chicken meat.

The livestock sector is the fastest-growing agricultural sector, which has led to increasing

industrialisation and, in some cases, reduced environmental constraints.

In emerging economies, increasing involvement in livestock is related to improving rural wealth

and increasing consumption of animal protein. Water usage for livestock production should be considered

an integral part of agricultural water resource management, taking into account the type of production

system (e.g. grain-fed or mixed crop–livestock) and scale (intensive or extensive), the species and breeds

of livestock, and the social and cultural aspects of livestock farming in various countries.

The water demands of livestock may also compete with those of the human population and water

required for crop production. Crops can make direct use of rainfall or stored water through irrigation,

whereas animals consume crops or pastures, leading to potential reductions in water efficiencies for food

production. This water must be added to the water directly consumed by the animals to maintain life as

well as to the water used during product processing. This apparent ‘inefficiency’ of water use has been

highlighted in recent accounting models of global water use.

It is necessary to recognise that there is no single water requirement for a species or an individual.

The amount of water consumed depends on a number of factors, such as body weight, physiological state

(stage of pregnancy, lactation, etc.), diet, temperature, frequency of water provision, type of housing,

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species to species but, in all cases, the predictions developed should be used as an approximate guide to

the amount of water consumption, not an absolute predictor of water intake.

Livestock need water of similar quality to that required by humans. However, like water intake

requirements for livestock, water quality requirements are poorly researched and usually defined by

acceptability and their effects on livestock performance.

Water quality is defined by the presence or absence of certain substances, by taste, smell, turbidity

and electrical conductivity.

Water usage included not only water consumed directly by various classes of animals but also

water used to irrigate crops consumed by animals, water applied to irrigated pastures, and water used to

process animals for marketing.

A significant proportion of the world crop production is dependent on animal draught power,

without which crop productivity would decline significantly. Livestock also provide fertiliser and fuel, and

make use of fibrous plants and crop by-products that are effectively not considered by the current water

accounting models.

The productivity of water in livestock production is dependent on factors such as the type and scale

of livestock production systems, the type of livestock farming (species and breeds) and environmental

conditions (e.g. soil type and amount of rainfall). Understanding the relative importance of these factors to

livestock water productivity under diverse production systems and in specific locations will help us to

develop appropriate strategies to improve water use efficiency and conserve land and water resources for

sustainable livestock farming.

Since poor water quality can potentially affect livestock performance and thus sustainable livestock

production systems, it is important to develop integrated, soil-animal management practices that avoid

degradation of land and water resources.

Livestock farming is likely to compete with other farming sectors for water because of increasing

pressures from global climate change and the variability of water availability and distribution. The

challenge for the future is to optimise livestock water productivity by improving animal productivity

within the framework of integrated soil-water-animal management, under both rain-fed and irrigated

conditions.

The challenge for the future is to optimise livestock water productivity by improving animal productivity

within the framework of integrated soil-water-animal management, under both rain-fed and irrigated

conditions.

Current Water Usage

( Source: Government of India, 2009.)

The per capita water use in India will increase from the current level of 99 litres per day to 167 litres

per day in 2050.

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Usage (%) World Europe Africa India

Agriculture 69 33 88 83

Industry 23 54 5 12

Domestic 8 13 7 5

The consumption of water in India will increase by over 50%, the supply will increase only by

5-10% during the next 12-15 years. This will lead to water scarcity situation and most of the people;

particularly those who are dependent on agriculture, animal husbandry and living in poverty will suffer the

most. Water scarcity will affect the food production, biodiversity and the environment. Environmental

degradation will accelerate global warming, which in turn will accelerate water crisis.

Pollution of water resources is another major concern which is affecting the water supply as well as

human health conditions.

A number of water accounting systems are used to determine water usage by industries. The

‘virtual water’ concept has recently gained wide acceptance. The concept of ‘virtual water’ has been

introduced by Tony Allan.

Virtual water is the water ‘embodied’ in a product, not in real sense, but in virtual sense. It refers to

the water needed for the production of the product. Virtual water has also been called ‘embedded water’ or

‘exogenous water’, the latter referring to the fact that import of virtual water into a country means using

water that is exogenous to the importing country.

Producing goods and services generally requires water. The water used in the production process of

an agricultural or industrial product is called the 'virtual water' contained in the product. For producing

1 kg of grain we need for instance 1000-2000 kg of water, equivalent to 1-2 m3. Producing livestock

products generally requires even more water per kilogram of product. For producing 1 kg of cheese we

need for instance 5000- 5500 kg of water and for 1 kg of beef we need in average 16000 kg of water

(Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2003).

The practical use of the virtual water concept lies in the fact that the virtual water content of a

product tells something about the environmental impact of consuming this product. Knowing the virtual

water content of products creates awareness of the water volumes needed to produce the various goods,

thus providing an idea of which goods impact most on the water system and where water savings could be

achieved. Hoekstra and Hung (2002) have introduced the concept of the water footprint, being the

cumulative virtual water content of all goods and services consumed by one individual or by the

individuals of one country. In analogy of the water footprint can be a strong tool to show people their

impact on the natural resources.

Net import of virtual water in a water-scarce nation can relieve the pressure on the nation’s own

water resources.

Virtual water is a broad-scale, global water-use concept, developed to place all industries and

countries on an equal basis when describing their use of water as part of global trading and environmental

accounting systems. Virtual water content has been devised as a tool to estimate the amount of water used

to produce different products and services, and to help plan the best use of scarce water supplies.

If one country exports a water-intensive product to another country, it exports water in virtual

form. In this way some countries support other countries in their water needs. Trade of real water between

water-rich and water- poor regions is generally impossible due to the large distances and associated costs,

but trade in water-intensive products (virtual water trade) is realistic. For water-scarce countries it could

therefore be attractive to achieve water security by importing water-intensive products instead of

producing all water-demanding products domestically. Reversibly, water-rich countries could profit from

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

their abundance of water resources by producing water-intensive products for export.

The requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m3 in 2000 to 2.8 billion m3 in

2025 and 3.2 billion m3 in 2050.

Water Use Efficiency in Agriculture (Water foot print (Lit/kg)

Source :Dr. Narayan G. Hegde, Sharad Krishi. Water Scarcity and Security in India. Centre for International Trade in

Agriculture & Agro-based Industries, Pune : 18-20.

India is not a water deficit country, but due to severe neglect and lack of monitoring of water

resources development projects, several regions in the country experience water stress from time to time.

Further neglect in this sector will lead to water scarcity during the next 1-2 decades. The consumption of

water in India will increase by over 50%, the supply will increase only by 5-10% during the next 12-15

years.

Immediate attention is needed to shift from flood irrigation to micro irrigation (eg: Drip irrigation)

and to increase the water use efficiency, which can ease the water scarcity to a great extent.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE LIVESTOCK WATER PRODUCTIVITY

Drinking water

Provide optimal quality water.

Combine with zero-grazing strategies .

Integrate livestock watering infrastructure into water development for domestic and irrigation needs.

Develop drinking water sources to allow utilization of previously unused rangelands.

Constrain herd sizes and animal movements.

Separate livestock watering from water source used by people for domestic consumption.

Keep livestock out of water reservoirs to prevent erosion, sedimentation, and spread of water-borne

diseases involving livestock.

Feeding sourcing

Integration within cropping systems, utilization of residues for feed, manure inputs.

Utilization of food feed crops instead of sole purpose forage crops.

Import feed if water (virtual water) is scarce or highly valued.

Soil and ground water conservation.

The greater the water content of feed, the less drinking water they require.

Increasing the proportion of fresh grass or silage in the diet thus decreases drinking water intake.

Some breeds adapted to drought, such as goats and camels, consume less water because of better water

recycling.

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Crops India World

Wheat 1654 1334

Rice 2850 2291

Sugarcane 159 175

Cotton 18694 8242

Milk 1369 990

Eggs 7531 3340

Chicken 7736 3918

Use drip irrigation.

Mulching.

Composting.

Limited use of chemical fertilizers.

Grow drought resistant fodder/Tree based farming.

Raise awareness.

Drought forecast.

Public education.

Conservation campaign.

There is not enough water left for everyone…..

So we must try to conserve water and harvest rain……….. whenever we can.

Motivating all the stakeholders for judicious usage of water in animal husbandry activities, fodder

production, processing technology of animal products, we the veterinarians can contribute to

overcome the water scarcity, to enhance the animal husbandry sector contribution to the national GDP

and poverty alleviation.

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

Drip irrigation

Mulching Sesbania fodder tree

Water conservation campaign.

Contact :

Dept of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education

Veterinary College, Hebbal Bangalore

email: pashubandhavch@gmail.com

Blog: pashubandhavch.blogspot.in

monthly e-Bulletin

Published and circulated by Veterinary College, Hebbal Bengaluru

Editor: Associate Editior:

Dean, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru Head, Dept of Vety & Animal Husbandry Extension Education

Dr.S.Yathiraj (Ex-Officio) Dr.K.Satyanarayana (Ex-Officio)

PELVIC

Predicted per capita water availability in India

(Source: Government of India, 2009.)

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 10

Year

Population (Million)

Per capita water

availability (m3/year)

1951

361

5177

1955

395

4732

1991

846

2209

2001

1027

1820

2025

1394

1341

2050

1640

1140