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Daphne V. Wiersema
University of Amsterdam
Individual differencesin aesthetic preferences
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Although the existence of bestseller books, blockbuster movies, successful television
series such as “Sex and the City” or “24” and artworks which are worth astronomical
amounts of money all suggest that there is much agreement in our aesthec prefer-
ences, daily experience shows that this is oen not the case. As an example, I once
recommended the movie “Gran Torino,” one of my favorites, to a friend. Much to my
surprise my friend did not like it at all and ever since I have been wondering how this is possible.
Such individual dierences also come into play when we look at painngs, talk about books and lis-
ten to music. Psychologists have long sought to understand such individual dierences in aesthec
preferences. This arcle aims to give an introducon to their ndings and some potenal praccal
applicaons of this knowledge. The main focus will be on liking of painngs, although some research
focussing on other domains of art is discussed. But before going into the link between personality
and aesthec preferences, I will rst briey discuss some predictors of aesthec acvies to answer
the queson of what individual characteriscs predict if people seek out aesthec acvies, such as
going to a museum, or not.
Nature versus nurture
Irrespecve of their preference for specic forms
of art and art styles, people dier in the amount
of art they consume. Some people oen go to
museums and theatres, read lots of books or play
musical instruments while others do not or do so
to a lesser degree. In part, these dierences are
not related to personality, but rely on factors such
as educaon and social class. For instance, par-
ents of art consumers tend be of a higher social
class compared to those who consume less art
[1]. Also, having an educaon in art or music is
associated with more art consumpon while
people with a scienc educaon demonstrate
lower levels of art consumpon. This nding
seems to indicate that having prior experiencewith art and music (in this case through one’s
educaon) inuences the appreciaon of art in
general. But what about personality?
Five categories of personality traits
With respect to personality, the strongest pre-
dictor of art consumpon seems to be openness
to experience. Openness to experience is one of
the “big ve” dimensions that psychologists use
to describe personality [2]. Openness to experi-
ence relates to having a general appreciaon for
1 e.g., McManus & Furnham, 2006
2 Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1989, 1992
art and beauty, to intellectual curiosity, being im-
aginave, having unusual ideas or appreciang
the unconvenonal. Furthermore, people who
score high in openness to experience are more
adventurous than those who score lower on this
trait. Also, people high in openness tend to be
more creave compared to people low in open-
ness [3]. More relevant to present purposes,
individuals high in openness to experiences are
more acve consumers of art compared to low
scoring individuals [4]. Hence, being open to new
and unconvenonal ideas relates to the appre-
ciaon of art. This seems logical, because art is
oen new and unconvenonal itself.
Another big ve dimension of personality,
conscienousness, also relates to art consump-on. Conscienous people are those who are
relavely convenonal, orderly and self-disci-
plined. They also have the tendency to behave
in a planned manner instead of a more impulsive
manner and are oriented towards achievement
[5]. Although conscienous people would do a
perfect job in planning and organising a visit to
the theatre, the chances that one would actu-
ally nd them at the theatre are relavely low.
Indeed, conscienousness shows a negave re-
3 George & Zhou, 2001
4 e.g., McManus & Furnham, 2006
5 Costa & McCrae, 1985, 1989, 1992
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laonship with art consumpon [6]. According
to researchers [7], these lower levels of art con-
sumpon found in conscienous people might
be explained by the link between conscienous-
ness and conservasm. People who are highly
conscienous also tend to have more narrow
and restricted atudes towards art. Yet again,
it appears that the appreciaon and consump-on of art requires an open mind. However, this
might well depend on the specic type of art or
art style. For instance, watching an obscure cult-
movie requires a dierent mind-set compared
to watching a Hollywood blockbuster movie.
Art consumpon is a broad term that refers to
a variety of acvies such as going to modern
art exhibions or an archaeological museum,
watching a science con movie or a roman-
c comedy, reading thrillers or poetry, seeing
a classical ballet performance versus a modern
dance performance et cetera. Therefore, be-
sides knowledge about the amount of art people
consume, it is interesng to know the content of
their aesthec acvies and how this relates to
consumer personality. This relaonship is the fo-
cus of the next part of this arcle.
Art and familiarityThe bulk of research on aesthec preferences
and personality has focussed on preferences
for specic styles of painng, such as abstract
versus representaonal painngs or represen-
taonal versus surrealisc painngs. Remark-
ably, representaonal or gurave painngs,
i.e. painngs that portray objects that are easily
recognisable, are generally liked best [8]. Most
likely, this is caused by the greater familiarity in-
dividuals experience with respect to represen-
taonal painngs [9]. This “greater familiarity-
enhanced liking” eect is a well-known eect in
psychology [10].
The liking of representaonal painngs is
largely unaected by individual dierences.[11].
6 McManus & Furnham, 2006; Chamorro-Premuzic,
Reimers, Hsu, & Ahmegotlu, 2009
7 McManus & Furnham, 2006
8 e.g., Feist & Brady, 2004; Furnham & Walker, 20019 Furnham & Walker, 2001
10 see for instance the literature on the mere exposure
effect, e.g., Zajonc, 1968, 198011 e.g., Mastandrea, Bartoli, & Bove, 2009; Rawlings,
Vidal, & Furnham, 2000; Wiersema, Van der Schalk, &
Conservave individuals seem to be an excep-
on to this, because they expressed enhanced
liking for representaonal painngs relave to
abstract painngs, Japanese painngs and pop-
art painngs [12]. The category of representa-
onal painngs is oen used in research as a de-
fault against which liking for another category of
painng such as abstract painng is contrasted[13].
When we take a look at other styles of painngs,
openness to experience is again an important
predictor of aesthec preferences. For instance,
openness to experience is associated with li-
ing for representave, abstract and pop-art
painngs,[14] but also with liking for Japanese
art, Renaissance art and cubism [15]. Besides
openness to experience, another important pre-
dictor of aesthec preferences can be found in
the personality dimension of sensaon seeking
Van Kleef, 2010
12 Furnham & Walker, 2001
13 e.g., Wiersema, Van der Schalk, & Van Kleef, 2010
14 Furnham & Walker, 2001
15 Chamorro-Premuzic, Reimers, Hsu, & Ahmetoglu,
2009
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[16]. Sensaon seekers are individuals who seek
out novel, complex and intense experiences. Fur-
thermore, sensaon seekers tend to rely more
on their feelings than on their thoughts. Just like
individuals scoring high on openness to experi-
ence, sensaon seekers like abstract painngs
beer than more tradional, representaonal
painngs [17]. Furthermore sensaon seekersexpressed relavely more liking for surreal paint-
ings, while expressing somewhat less liking for
representaonal painngs [18].
Personality traits are also linked to dier-
ent moves for vising specic museums and to
dierent experiences during their visit. Mastan-
drea, Bartoli and Bove (2009) provided evidence
for these relaons by having visitors of two dif -
ferent museums in Rome ll out a personality
quesonnaire and list their reasons for vising
this parcular museum. One museum, The Na-
onal Gallery of Modern and Contemporary Ar,t
16 Zuckerman, 1979
17 Furnham & Bunyan, 1988; Rawlings, Barrantes-
Vidal, & Furnham, 200018 Furnham & Avison, 1997
was concerned with modern and contemporary
art and the other, The Braschi Museum, exhib-
ited painngs connected with the ancient history
and Middle Ages in Rome. As expected, the two
groups of visitors diered in a number of ways.
First of all, not surprisingly, visitors of the mod-
ern art museum had more of a liking for modern
and contemporary art compared to the visitorsof the ancient art museum, although both groups
equally liked representaonal art. When we look
at their moves for vising the museums, it be-
comes more interesng. Visitors of the modern
art museum listed as their two most important
moves the desire to see the original artwork and
the pleasure felt during their visit. Visitors of the
ancient art museum listed their interest for the
arst(s) and their desire for cultural enrichmentas their most important reasons. Although both
groups expressed an interest in the artwork and
arsts, visitors of the modern art museum also
sought the posive experience of pleasure re-
lated to feeling and sensing. This move ts with
the personality of the sensaon seeker. In fact,
modern art visitors scored higher on the sensa-
on seeking quesonnaire compared to the an-
cient art visitors. Thus, preference for dierent
styles of art is also associated with the seeking ofdierent experiences during the aesthec acv-
ity.
Closure and structure
The research discussed so far has found evidence
that parcularly openness to experience and sen-
saon seeking are related to aesthec preferenc-
es for certain styles of painngs. Other big ve
traits such as extraversion and neurocism (i.e.,
emoonal stability) appear mostly unrelated to
aesthec preferences. However, besides the big
ve personality traits other personality traits
have also been explored. Two traits that play an
important role in more recent research on aes-
thec preferences are need for closure and need
for structure. The construct of need for closure
was developed by Kruglanski, Webster and Klem
(1993) and refers to an individual’s need for an
environment that is clear, dened, structuredand unambiguous compared to an environment
that lacks these properes. The need for closure
scale consists of ve subscales: Preference for
order, preference for predictability, decisiveness,
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discomfort with ambiguity, and closed-minded-
ness [19]. The construct of need for closure is
strongly related to need for structure [20] : Both
high need for closure and high need for structure
individuals desire quick answers and are averse
to ambiguies.These properes of need for closure and
19 Webster & Kruglanski, 1994
20 hompson, Naccarato, & Parker, 1989; Neuberg &
Newsom, 1993
need for structure also inuence liking for styles
of painng. More specically, individuals with
a high need for situaons and environments
that provide clarity
and lack ambiguies
causes them to dis-
like abstract paint-
ings i.e., painngsthat avoid a clear
correspondence be-
tween reality for
which it is more dif-
cult to extract their
meaning [21]. For
instance, the famous
work “Victory Boo-
gie Woogie” by PietMondriaan (1872-
1942) consists of a
series of blue, yellow,
red, black and white
squares and upon
viewing this paint-
ing, its meaning is
not instantly clear. In
this respect abstract
art is the opposite ofrepresentaonal or
gurave art which
depicts maers that
are easily recognis-
able to the observer.
For instance, a sll-
life painng contains
objects that are eas-
ily idenable such
as food or owers.
Interesngly, these
kinds of eects of
need for closure
and need for struc-
ture also translate to
other aesthec do-
mains. For instance, visitors of the Amsterdam
marionee theatre expressed less liking for the
open ending of a play if they were high in needfor closure [22]. Also, when they had to judge dif -
21 e.g., Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszcynski, &
Martens, 2006
22 Wiersema, Van der Schalk, & Van Kleef, 2010
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11
ferent types of gardens, individuals high
in need for structure rated wild gardens
as less beauful, and manicured gardens
as more beauful compared to low need
for structure individuals and were more
likely to possess a garden that was either
manicured or romanc instead of wild
[23]. Future research is needed to inves-gate if these needs also aect prefer-
ences for music, dance, and literature.
But what is evident so far, is that works
of art that lack meaning or structure are
disliked by individuals that have a strong
need for meaning and answers. This con-
necon between art and meaning has
proven to be an important step for un-
derstanding our evaluaon of art. In thenext part, this connecon is discussed
more thoroughly.
A need for meaning
Two dierent psychological theories
have claimed that people have an innate
need for meaning. In one of these theo-
ries, Terror Management Theory, mean-
ing is conveyed by our cultural world-
view that consists of norms and values,tradions and rituals that we deem important.
Furthermore, investments in this cultural world-
view are seen as means to cope with our fear of
dying since adherence to the cultural worldview
means that we are a part of a larger whole that
will live on aer our death and hence ensures us
of a symbolic immortality. Furthermore, we can
also contribute to this cultural worldview by the
producon of works that will literally outlive us,
such as books, painngs, movies et cetera. In-
vesng in art can thus also serve the funcon of
coping with the fear of dying.
Work on Terror Management Theory [24]
has shown that when people are reminded of
their own mortality, they react with enhanced
defensiveness of their cultural worldview. For in-
stance, Chrisan parcipants reacted more posi-
vely to an in-group member (Chrisan) while
reacng more negavely to an out-group mem-ber (Jew) aer their mortality was made salient
23 Van den Berg & Van Winsum-Westra, 2010
24 Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986
[25]. Based upon this, one would also expect in-dividuals whose mortality was made salient, to
be more appreciave to works of art since, or as
long as, they are part of their cultural worldview.
In fact, parcipants that were reminded of their
mortality expressed less liking for modern, ab-
stract art [26].
In this experiment half of the parcipants
(the experimental group) were asked to briey de-
scribe the emoons they felt when they thoughtof their own death and were asked to write down
what they thought will happened to them when
they were physically dead. The other half of the
parcipants (the control group) answered the
same open-ended quesons but then pertain-
ing to an upcoming exam. Aer a brief ller task,
both groups rated abstract, modern painngs.
Parcipants in the experimental group showed
less liking for abstract painngs compared to par-
cipants in the control group. But why was thisthe case? According to the researchers, this ef -
25 Greenberg et al., 1990, Study 1
26 Landau, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszcynski, & Martens,
2006
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fect is brought about because the mortality
reminder triggered a need for meaning in
parcipants which in turn caused them to
dislike objects that apparently lack mean-
ing i.e., the abstract painngs. As a further
corroboraon of this idea, they went on to
show that this eect is restricted to those
individuals who have an intrinsic need forstructure [27]. Furthermore, when the ab-
stract painngs were accompanied with -
tles that imbued them with meaning, death
reminders did not lead to lower liking for
abstract painngs [28]. To conclude, the lack
of immediate meaning of abstract painngs
poses a challenge to those individuals who
have an intrinsic need for meaning and clar-
ity resulng in less liking for these kinds ofpainngs, especially when need for mean-
ing is temporarily enhanced by a mortality
salience inducon.
Proulx and colleagues (2010) showed
that it also works the other way around.
When individuals are confronted with paint-
ings or stories that lack immediate meaning
or that challenge their sense of meaning,
this leads to an enhanced need for meaning
and eorts to restore a sense of meaning. Inone example they had parcipants read ei-
ther a story that violated their expectaons
or a story that did not violate expectaons.
The story that violated their expectaons
and hence challenged their sense of mean-
ing, was a parable wrien by Kaa. Usually,
parables are stories that contain a lesson
via an analogy. Many folktales are parables.
However, the parable parcipants read did
not contain a lesson at all, although the au-
thor is playing with their belief that it will.
Aer parcipants read this story, they lled
in a short quesonnaire that allowed them to re-
arm their sense of meaning in a dierent do-
main. In this quesonnaire they rated the impor-
tance of their birth country, naonality, and rst
language to their identy. Parcipants, who read
the absurd parable, gave higher rangs to these
quesons compared to the group of parcipantswhose sense of meaning was not violated which
can be seen as an eort to restore their sense of
27 Study 2
28 Landau et al., 2006, Study 3
meaning.
This research is based upon the Meaning
Maintenance Model [29]. This model states that
people have an inherent need for meaning. Vio-
laons of our sense of meaning are expected to
lead to compensatory eorts to restore meaning
triggered by a temporarily heightened need for
meaning. Indeed, in a dierent experiment theresearchers showed that meaning threats lead to
a heightened need for meaning. In this experi-
ment, parcipants saw either surreal, abstract or
29 Heine, Prouxl, & Vohs, 2006
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13
representaonal painngs. The surreal painngs
were included because - like abstract painngs -
surreal painngs show less convergence with re-
ality compared to representaonal painngs. But
surreal painngs also contain unusual and strange
imagery and elements that violate expectaons
and challenge our sense of meaning. An example
is the famous painng “The persistence of mem-ory” (1931) by Salvador Dali (1904-1989) which
portrays a clock (familiar element) that is melng
(unfamiliar). According to the theory, parcular-
ly surreal painngs should lead to a heightened
need for mean-
ing. Accordingly,
parcipants who
looked at surreal
painngs reported
higher levels of
need for structure
compared to indi-viduals who saw
abstract or repre-
sentaonal paint-
ings. Not only do
personality and
intrinsic needs and
moves aect aes-
thec preferenc-
es, the properesof the artworks
themselves can
also temporarily
aect our personal
needs and desires.
E v i d e n c e
for these exible
properes of per-
sonality is also
found in the workof Wiersema et
al (2010). Parci-
pants who rated
abstract painngs
under a me con-
straint – known to
enhance need for
closure [30] - ex-
pressed less liking
for these paint-
ings compared to
those who rated
the painngs at their own pace. Need for closure
is also heightened by environmental noise [31],
mental fague [32] and experiencing high (so-
cial) power [33].
30 e.g., De Grada, Kruglanski, Mannetti, & Pierro, 1999;
Van Kleef et al., 2004
31 Kruglanski & Webster, 1991
32 Webster, Richter, & Kruglanski, 1996
33 Fiske, 1993; Van Kleef, De Dreu, Pietroni, &
Manstead, 2006
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Conclusion
To summarize, our personality not only pre-
dicts the amount of art we consume, but also
the types of art we prefer. Both
openness to experience and sen-
saon seeking are important for
understanding these preferenc-
es, but more recent research hasdemonstrated that the need for
closure and need for structure
also predict our preferences. The
gist is that in order to appreciate
works of art that lack clear struc-
ture, are novel, perhaps highly
ambiguous or even absurd, one
needs to have an open mind.
The degree to which our mind
is open or closed, could also de-
pend on the situaon. When we
are red, in a hurry, or when we
are in a noisy environment, our
mind closes up and we will pre-
fer more “simple”, clear-cut and
predictable artwork. The research presented in
this arcle focused mainly on liking for dierent
styles of painngs and it is not clear if these nd-
ings are applicable to other domains of art. Someof the research discussed that did focus on other
domains of art seems to suggests that it can, but
future research is needed to conrm this.
Taken together, the ndings discussed in
this arcle point to several interesng praccal
applicaons. For instance, people that struggle
with artwork that does not immediately sasfy
their need for meaning and clarity, can be aided
by having easy access to background informaon
about the arst and the artworks that help them
understand the artworks. Many museums al-
ready use this strategy by providing audio guides
or by themacally arranging the artworks. Fur-
thermore, to enhance liking for plays and dance
performances whose story lines and plots are
not easily understood, visitors could be provided
with booklets containing an explanaon. Anoth-
er opon is to give visitors the possibility to at-
tend a short introducon.The ndings discussed in this arcle could
also suggest that people can be aided in choos-
ing things likebooks to read, music to listen to,
or movies to see based upon their scores on a
personality test. Several web stores such as the
I Tunes music store or the Dutch bol.com book-
store, already use a strategy that resembles this.
For instance, when you select a specic book,
you get to see what the other buyer’s of this
bookalso bought. However, the strategy could be
more rened when the personality of these oth-er buyers matches with the target person. Fur-
thermore, people’s preferences for specic types
of books and movies could dier depending on
the situaon. A person that is red is expected
to be relavely more appreciave of a book or
movie that is unambiguous and predictable.
This is probably not the best moment to read a
book such as “Kaa on the shore” (original tle:
Umibe no Kafuka) by Haruki Murakami (January
12th, 1949) containing talking cats and other
weird elements.
Note that the ideas suggested above are at this
point mainly speculave and need to be con-
rmed by future research. However, it is clear
that research on personality and the needs and
moves triggered by our environment could pro-
vide interesng suggesons and ideas to those
who are concerned with areas such as the mar-
keng of artworks or the programming of exhibi-ons in museums.
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15
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Daphne V. Wiersema received her PhD in psychology from the University of
Amsterdam in 2009 with the thesis ‘Self-esteem and the protecon of self-
related atudes’. She worked as an assistant professor at the UvA on a project
which explored the inuence of self image in people’s choices and how these
choices are aected by external factors like adversements. She is currentlyself employed as a pilates instructor and founder of ‘Self Service Coaching’.
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