CASE STUDIES InternationalJournal o f Sport Nutrition, 1993, 3, 76-86 O 1993 Human Kinetics Publishers. Inc. Diet and Exercise Strategies of a World-Class Bodybuilder Melinda M. Manore, Janice Thompson, and Marcy Russo This study presents the diet and exercise strategies of a world-class body- builder during an 8-week precompetition period. Weighed food records were kept daily, and body fat, resting metabolic rate (RMR), V02max,blood lipids, and liver enzymes were measured. Two hrs of aerobic exercise and 3 hrs of weight training were done daily 6 daystweek. Mean energy intake was 4,952 kcallday (54 kcallkg) and included 1,278 kcallday from medium- chain triglycerides (MCT). Diet without MCT provided 76% of energy from carbohydrate, 19% from protein (1.9 g proteiag), and 5% from fat. Micro- nutrients were consumed at 2100% of the RDA, except for zinc and calcium, without supplementation. Mean RMR was 2,098 kcallday and represented 43% of energy intake. V02max was 53 ml.kg-'.min-'. Underwater weighing showed that body fat decreased from 9% to 7%. Blood lipids were normal, but two liver enzymes were elevated (alanine and aspartate aminotransferase). This world-class bodybuilder achieved body fat goals by following a nutrient dense, high energy, high carbohydrate diet and an exercise program that emphasized both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Key Words: weight training, dietary intake, body composition, physical activity Bodybuilders have fallen prey to a variety of "nutrition" gimmicks, and in some cases nutritional fraud. They often rely on nutrition information provided by other bodybuilders, supplement endorsers, and/or magazine advertisements. Unfortunately, these sources of information are not always accurate. Furthermore, in the quest to increase muscle tissue and definition, many turn to anabolic steroids. Winning competitions while using steroids only perpetuates this harmful crutch. Current research has examined the dietaq practices and biochemical profiles of both amateur (11, 16, 17) and professional bodybuilders and weight- lifters (8,21,25), many of whom used anabolic steroids. However, little research has documented world-class strength-trained athletes and/or bodybuilders who M. Manore and M. Russo are with the Food and Nutrition Lab, Dept. of Family Resources & Human Development, and J. Thompson is with the Dept. of Exercise Science and P.E., at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287. Request reprints from Dr. Manore.
Transcript
CASE STUDIES International Journal o f Sport Nutrition, 1993, 3, 76-86 O 1993 Human Kinetics Publishers. Inc.
Diet and Exercise Strategies of a World-Class Bodybuilder
Melinda M. Manore, Janice Thompson, and Marcy Russo
This study presents the diet and exercise strategies of a world-class body- builder during an 8-week precompetition period. Weighed food records were kept daily, and body fat, resting metabolic rate (RMR), V02max, blood lipids, and liver enzymes were measured. Two hrs of aerobic exercise and 3 hrs of weight training were done daily 6 daystweek. Mean energy intake was 4,952 kcallday (54 kcallkg) and included 1,278 kcallday from medium- chain triglycerides (MCT). Diet without MCT provided 76% of energy from carbohydrate, 19% from protein (1.9 g proteiag), and 5% from fat. Micro- nutrients were consumed at 2100% of the RDA, except for zinc and calcium, without supplementation. Mean RMR was 2,098 kcallday and represented 43% of energy intake. V02max was 53 ml.kg-'.min-'. Underwater weighing showed that body fat decreased from 9% to 7%. Blood lipids were normal, but two liver enzymes were elevated (alanine and aspartate aminotransferase). This world-class bodybuilder achieved body fat goals by following a nutrient dense, high energy, high carbohydrate diet and an exercise program that emphasized both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism.
Key Words: weight training, dietary intake, body composition, physical activity
Bodybuilders have fallen prey to a variety of "nutrition" gimmicks, and in some cases nutritional fraud. They often rely on nutrition information provided by other bodybuilders, supplement endorsers, and/or magazine advertisements. Unfortunately, these sources of information are not always accurate. Furthermore, in the quest to increase muscle tissue and definition, many turn to anabolic steroids. Winning competitions while using steroids only perpetuates this harmful crutch. Current research has examined the dietaq practices and biochemical profiles of both amateur (11, 16, 17) and professional bodybuilders and weight- lifters (8,21,25), many of whom used anabolic steroids. However, little research has documented world-class strength-trained athletes and/or bodybuilders who
M. Manore and M. Russo are with the Food and Nutrition Lab, Dept. of Family Resources & Human Development, and J. Thompson is with the Dept. of Exercise Science and P.E., at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287. Request reprints from Dr. Manore.
Diet and Exercise Strategies / 77
have successfully used diet and exercise alone to achieve their athletic goals. Therefore the purpose of this case study was to present the diet and exercise regime, along with anthropometric and biochemical data, of a world-class profes- sional bodybuilder who reports never having used anabolic steroids. In addition, our goal was to emphasize that body fat goals can be obtained while maintaining lean tissue, without the use of harmful steroids or nutritional gimmicks.
Methods
Subject Background and Procedures
A 31-year-old black male bodybuilder of Jamaican descent was studied for 8 weeks before his first competition of the season. The subject was 171.5 cm (67.5 in.) tall. He weighed 95 kg (209 lbs) during the off-season; competition weight was usually between 88.5 and 90 kg (195-198 lbs). After winning the 1986 Mr. Universe competition, he ended his successful 9-year amateur career and turned professional, winning many competitions, some of which tested for steroid use. In 1990 he took first place in the International Federation of Body- builder (IFBB) Arnold Schwarzenegger Classic and placed second in both the IFBB Iron Man Classic and IFBB Pittsburgh Pro Invitational Classic. Within the bodybuilding arena he is known as "The Natural Wonder" because of his strong opposition to anabolic steroid use.
Dietary and Exercise Regimes
Diet data were collected daily during this 8-week study via weighed food records. The subject weighed all food consumed on a digital scale and recorded each food to the closest gram. In addition, all foods were weighed raw, before cooking or being incorporated into a recipe. The subject had followed this procedure daily for the past year, thus little dietary instruction was required on how to record food. Since becoming a professional bodybuilder, the subject has tenaciously planned and analyzed his diets to ensure adequate and consistent caloric and macronutrient intakes, both during training and nontraining periods. In addition, vitamin and mineral supplements and food supplements (carbohydrate-rich sport drink, amino acid supplement, and medium-chain triglycerides [MCT]) were used and recorded. Mean energy and nutrient intakes were determined by analyzing the diets using a computerized nutrient analysis program (18). Nutrient data presented are from diet and food supplements only; vitamin and mineral supple- ments were not included.
The dietary goals of this subject were to consume a high carbohydrate diet with moderate amounts of protein, 1 to 2 g/kg, and minimal dietary fat. Dietary carbohydrates are more readily available to meet the energy demands of exercise and are less likely to be stored as body fat versus dietary fat. By design, energy intake was high to help maintain lean body mass (LBM) during training, when exercise demands, both aerobic and anaerobic, are high.
To achieve these dietary goals, the subject consumed the same types of foods daily and never ate out. His diet consisted of large quantities of grains/ cereals (brown rice and oatmeal), vegetables (potatoes, yams, beans, corn, peas, carrots, broccoli, green beans, lettuce), fruit (blueberries), lean meats (chicken
78 / Manore, Thompson, and Russo
or fish), and egg whites. Moderate amounts of low-fat dairy (milk) products were also consumed. In addition, a high carbohydrate glycogen replacement sport beverage (Exceed, Ross Laboratories, Columbus, OH) was consumed two or three times a day (~24-36 ozlday; 1 oz = 7.1 g carbohydrate and 28.4 kcals) to increase both carbohydrate and caloric intake. The sport beverage was a conve- nient way of consuming carbohydrate immediately after a workout and when the subject was away from home. Although not necessary, 12.8 glday of protein were consumed in the form of amino acids, which represented 7% of total protein intake.
Because dietary fat was kept low, with an emphasis on increasing complex carbohydrate intake, the subject's diet (food only) did not provide adequate energy. Often the subject would feel full before energy needs were met. To help maintain energy balance, medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) were added to the diet. This was in addition to the carbohydrate-rich sport drink already being used.
The goals of the exercise training regime were to maintain LBM and reduce body fat. LBM was maintained through weight training, and body fat was reduced through increased aerobic exercise versus reduced caloric intake. This is contrary to the exercise and diet routine used by many bodybuilders who participate in limited aerobic activity and consume low-calorie diets to reduce body fat. There- fore the exercise training program consisted of 2 hours of aerobic activitylday (1 hrlday of StairMaster; 1 hrlday of stationary cycling) at an intensity equal to ~ 6 0 % ~ 0 , m a x ( ~ 7 8 % of maximal heart rate), and 3 hours of strength training1 day. Table 1 outlines the strength training workout used.
Exercise bouts were divided into two or three workoutslday. To maximize the burning of body fat, however, aerobic workouts were unintenupted, that is, 1 hour of cycling or StairMaster. In addition, the subject followed a pattern of 4 consecutive workout days and 1 rest day; thus each week consisted of 6 exercise days and 1 rest day. The off-season exercise training routine was similar except that the time devoted to training was reduced, for example 112 hour of StairMasterIday, 112 hour of cyclinglday, and 1 to 2 hours of strength training1 day.
Analytical Procedures
At Weeks 1 and 7, the subject was underwater weighed to determine body composition (2,28). The subject had been underwater weighed many times, thus he was familiar with the procedures and the technician. In addition, skinfold measurements (triceps, pectoral, abdominal, suprailiac, subscapular, anterior thigh) were taken at Week 2 and Weeks 4-8 by the same trained exercise physiologist. Body fat was determined from skinfold measurements using the Yuhasz (29) six-site method. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) was measured at Weeks 2 and 8. When RMR was measured, the subject was required to report to the laboratory in the morning, at least 12 hours after the last meal and exercise bout. After body weight was recorded, the subject rested quietly for 30 min in a temperature controlled room. Following this rest period, a metabolic hood was placed over the subject's head, and gases were analyzed using a SensorMedics Metabolic Cart (Anaheim, CA). The instrument was calibrated before each test with gases of known oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations. The RMR values
Diet and Exercise Strategies / 79
Table 1
Three-Day Rotating Weight Training Routine Using a Light, Medium, and Heavy Weight Regimen
No. of sets (repslset)
Muscle group worked Light weights Med. weights Heavy weights
Morning workout Chest
No. of ex.' Calves
No. of ex. Shoulders
No. of ex. Legs
No. of ex. Back
No. of ex.
Evening workout Triceps
No. of ex. Hamstrings
No. of ex. Biceps
No. of ex. Abdomen
No. of ex.
'No. of exercises done for each muscle group.
reported here are an average of a 30-min steady-state collection period and were calculated using the Weir (27) equation.
Maximum oxygen consumption ( ~ 0 ~ m a x ) was determined at Week 5 using a progressive exercise test to volitional exhaustion on a Corival400 electronically braked cycle ergometer (Quinton Corp., Seattle). Pedal rate was set at 80 rpm and initial power output was set at 100 W. The power output was increased 50 W every 2 min until the subject reached volitional exhaustion. Following a 6-min active recovery period, the irO,max was verified by having the subject ride an additional 2 min at the next highest power output than that previously achieved during the initial test. This maximal vo2 value matched the previously determined ~ 0 , m a x value within 3 ml-kg-'emin-'. The highest VO, attained during this test was taken to represent ~ 0 ~ m a x .
Fasting blood samples (8 hrs after last meal and exercise bout) were drawn at Weeks 3 and 8 and were analyzed for hematological and standard biochemical parameters including blood lipids and liver enzymes (National Health Labora- tories, Phoenix).
80 / Manore, Thompson, and Russo
Results
Diet
The 8-week diet records were analyzed both with and without MCT. This was done to emphasize the high-carbohydrate diet the bodybuilder was consuming, and to avoid misinterpretation of the total fat intake once MCTs were added to the diet data.
The analysis of 8 weeks of weighed food records showed that the subject consumed ~ 5 , 0 0 0 kcal/day to maintain body weight (54 kcalkg). Energy intake from food, a carbohydrate-rich sport beverage, and an amino acid supplement provided 3,674 kcallday, with an additional 1,278 kcallday provided by supple- mental MCT (see Table 2). When considering diet without MCT, 76% of the energy came from carbohydrate, 19% from protein, and 5% from fat. Total protein intake was 175 glday and provided 1.9 g proteinkg body weight. Protein intake from food only was 162 glday and provided 1.75 g proteinkg body weight. Therefore, supplemental protein provided only 7% of the total protein intake.
Table 3 shows that adequate micronutrient intakes (266% RDA) were achieved through diet; although vitamin and mineral supplements were taken, they were probably not necessary. However, the supplements did reassure the subject that adequate calcium and zinc were ingested even though dairy products were limited and no red meats were consumed. Examination of mean weekly micronutrient intakes indicated that for 2 of the 8 weeks, mean zinc intakes were <2/3 RDA and for 1 week the mean calcium intake was <2/3 RDA. Supplements were monitored to assure that the levels consumed were not excessive.
Table 2
Mean Nutrient Intakes From Diets With and Without MCT of a Male Bodybuilder Over an 8-wk Precompetition Training Period
Nutrient Diet W/O MCT* Diet w/MCT'*
Energy (kcaltd) Protein (g/d)*
% of kcal glkg body W d
Carbohydrate (g/d) % of kcal g/kg body W d
Fat (g/d) % of kcal
Cholesterol (mg/d)
*Includes carbohydrate-containing sport beverage; subject consumed 24-36 ozlday. An additional 12.8 g of protein were consumed each day in amino acid supplements. **MCT (medium-chain triglyceride) provides 8.3 kcallg, 1 tbsp weighs 14 g. Mean MCT consumedlday was 154 g, which was 26% of the energy consumed.
Diet and Exercise Strategies / 81
Table 3
Mean Micronutrient Intakes of a Male Bodybuilder Over an 8-wk Precompetition Training Period
Note. Diet analysis includes nutrients (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, chloride) in the carbohydrate-containing sport beverage. In addition, all the above nutrients were also consumed in supplemental form except for sodium.
Body Composition, i ~ m a x , and RMR
Body composition was measured using underwater weighing and skinfold mea- surements. Body fat decreased over the training period from 9 to 6.9%, according to underwater weighing, but showed little change when skinfold measurements were used (see Table 4). The decrease in body fat observed with underwater weighing may reflect a decrease in internal body fat and/or subcutaneous fat in sites not measured by skinfolds in this study. V0,max was 53 ml.kg-'.mid at Week 5 and verified that the subject had excellent aerobic power and participated regularly in aerobic exercise. RMR was measured at Weeks 2 and 6 and was determined to be 2,018 and 2,177 kcallday, respectively. Mean RMR (2,098 kcall day) represented ~ 4 2 % of total energy intake and 23 kcal/kg body weight.
Biochemical Measurements
Blood profiles were determined at Weeks 3 and 8 and are presented in Table 5. As indicated, blood lipids were well within the normal ranges and showed little change over time. All other biochemical measurements were within normal ranges except for serum glutarnic-pyruvic transarninase (SGPT; also called alanine ami-
82 / Manore, Thompson, and Russo
Table 4
Body Composition Measurements of a Male Bodybuilder Over an 8-wk Precompetition Training Period
LDL-chol = low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-chol = high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ChollHDL ratio of 4.97 = average cardiovascular heart disease risk factor.
Diet and Exercise Strategies / 83
notransferase) and serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT; also called aspartate aminotransferase). The levels of these liver enzymes were elevated while other liver enzymes were normal.
Discussion
The athlete in this study has been a world-class professional bodybuilder for 5 years, preceded by 9 years of amateur lifting. At no time has he reported using anabolic steroids. During the 8-week training period, the subject consumed a high carbohydrate diet that was supplemented with MCT. This type of training diet is unusual for most bodybuilders, who often consume high-protein, low- carbohydrate diets. In 1980 Spitler et al. (24) reported male bodybuilders consum- ing 85% of kcals from protein. These high-protein diets are still popular with bodybuilders (12, 16, 17). Kleiner et al. (17) and Hickson and Wolinsky (12) reported bodybuilders consuming 324 and 653 g proteinlday, respectively. Only Steen (25) reports a bodybuilder consuming a high-carbohydrate diet (72% of kcals), but this was only in the off-season. During the precompetition period this athlete consumed 310 g proteinlday (64% of energy intake).
The addition of MCT (fatty acids with 6 to 12 carbons) to the diets of athletes is a new phenomenon. MCTs are metabolized differently than regular fats and oils in that, (a) they are quickly absorbed from the gut directly into the portal system and transported to the liver, rather than through the lymphatic system in chylomicrons, (b) they do not require carnitine for transport into the mitochondria of heart, liver, or kidney, and (c) they are quickly oxidized and used for energy with little opportunity for storage as fat in adipose tissue (1, 14, 26). MCTs therefore are more like carbohydrates in the way they are absorbed from the gut and used for energy.
MCTs are becoming more popular with athletes, especially bodybuilders and runners, because they are energy dense (8.3 kcal/g)-providing twice the energy of carbohydrate/g-and are an easily absorbed, rapidly used energy source. In addition, if MCTs are consumed as part of a high-carbohydrate isocaloric diet, ketone production is minimal (1). Research indicates that a single 25-30 g dose does not provoke gastrointestinal distress (4, 23). Swift et al. (26) fed diets containing 40% of kcals from MCT for 6 days without adverse effects. However, MCTs are expensive, stimulate ketone production if not consumed with adequate carbohydrate (I), and increase thermogenesis (10, 23). Scalfi et al. (23) found that the increased energy expenditure due to MCT thermogenesis is equivalent to =11-14% of the energy content of the MCT supplement. Therefore MCTs increase thermogenesis regardless of whether they are consumed alone or with a meal
V0,max was high (53 ml.kg-'+min-I) in this bodybuilder as compared with the ~ 0 ~ m a x values reported for other bodybuilders and/or power lifters (mean = 4 2 4 9 ml-kg-'-mh-') (13, 20, 24). However, our subject was not as aerobically trained as most male endurance athletes (V0,max usually >60 ml-kg-'.mid).
Body fat, determined by underwater weighing, was low (9%) and decreased to 6.9% after 8 weeks of training. This subject stayed in shape and ate a low- fat, high-carbohydrate diet even during the off-season. This is contrary to some bodybuilders who gain weight, especially fat, during the off-season and then go on crash diets to reduce body fat quickly (12,25). At no time during this 8-week
84 1 Manore, Thompson, and Russo
period did the subject reduce energy intake to reduce body fat. The moderate fat loss ( ~ 2 % ) that occurred was due to increased exercise energy expenditure, not to caloric reduction. Our subject's body fat (6.9%) was lower than mean body fat values (7.2-10.8%) reported for elite bodybuilders and/or weightlifters (5, 6, 15, 20, 22, 24).
Mean RMR was 6 to 12% higher than that estimated from either the Harris and Benedict (9) or the Mifflin et al. (19) equations. This higher RMR may be due to either higher LBM or increased thermogenesis caused by MCT use. RMR was measured in the morning after an overnight fast, thus we assumed the higher RMR was due to a larger LBM; however, the effect of chronic MCT use on thermogenesis has not been studied. RMR represented less than half (43%) of total energy intake. To date, no RMR data are reported for professional body- builders and/or weight trained athletes.
Blood lipids were within normal ranges for this bodybuilder; total choles- terol (chol) levels and the cholhigh-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio was lower, while the HDL-chol level was higher as compared with other steroid-free body- builders (5). Bodybuilders using anabolic steroids are reported to have higher total chol and LDL-chol levels, and lower HDL-chol levels and chol/LDL-chol ratios as compared with non-steroid-using bodybuilders (3, 8, 13). The low-fat, low-chol diet consumed by this athlete probably contributed to his low serum levels of total chol and LDL-chol. Only small amounts of MCTs are incorporated into lipids, thus they have little effect on blood lipids (1). Therefore, even though 26% of total energy intake was from MCTs, they did not negatively influence blood lipid values.
Two liver enzymes, SGPT and SGOT (alanine and aspartate aminotransfer- ase) were elevated at both Weeks 3 and 8. High levels of SGPT are found in the liver, while relatively lower concentrations are found in the heart, muscle, and kidney. In contrast, high levels of SGOT are found in tissues of high metabolic activity, such as the skeletal muscle, heart, and liver (7). Both enzymes are released into circulation when cells from these tissues are damaged. SGOT levels are especially elevated if muscle cells are damaged due to high activity and use. Because this athlete exercised 5 to 6 hrslday at high levels of intensity, these elevated enzyme levels may reflect continued muscular trauma. No other liver enzymes were elevated.
Summary
The present case study gives the dietary and exercise strategies of a world-class bodybuilder who reports never having used anabolic steroids. This bodybuilder follows a high-carbohydrate, nutrient-dense diet during the off-season and during training and competition periods. To assure energy balance, the diet is supple- mented with both carbohydrate polymers and MCT. The protein intake-although well above the RDA-is lower than that consumed by most bodybuilders and is within the guidelines recommended for athletes (1 to 2 g proteintkg body weight). Although vitamin and mineral supplements were used, the amounts were moni- tored to assure that excessive quantities were not consumed. The body composi- tion goals of this bodybuilder were achieved by following a healthy lifestyle that included a nutrient-dense, high-carbohydrate diet, and an exercise program that emphasizes both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism.
Diet and Exercise Strategies / 85
References 1. Bach, A.C., and V.K. Babayan. Medium-chain triglycerides: An update. Am. J. Clin.
Nutr. 36:950-962, 1982. 2. Brozek, J., F. Grande, J.T. Anderson, and A. Keys. Densitometric analysis of body
composition: Revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 110:113-140, 1963.
3. Cohen, J.C., W.M. Faber, A.J. Spinnler Benade, and T.D. Noakes. Altered serum lipoprotein profiles in male and female power lifters ingesting anabolic steroids. Phys. Sportsmed. 14(6): 13 1-136, 1986.
4. Decombaz, J., M.J. Arnaud, H. Milon, H. Moesch, G. Philippossian, A.L. Thelin, and H. Howard. Energy metabolism of medium-chain triglycerides versus carbohydrates during exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 52:9-14, 1983.
5. Elliot, D.L., L. Goldberg, K.S. Kuehl, and D.H. Catlin. Characteristics of anabolic- androgenic steroid-free competitive male and female bodybuilders. Phys. Sportmed. 15(6):169-179, 1987.
6. Fahey, T.D., L. Akka, and R. Rolph. Body composition and b0,max of exceptional weight-trained athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 39559-561, 1975.
7. Fishchbach, F. A manual of laboratory diagnostic tests (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippin- cott, 1988.
8. Frohlich, J., T. Kullmer, A. Urhausen, R. Bergmann, and W. Kindemann. Lipid profile of body builders with and without self-administration of anabolic steroids. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 59:98-103, 1989.
9. Harris, J.A., and F.G. Benedict. A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism in Man. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1919. (Publication 279)
10. Hashim, S.A., and P. Tantibhedyangkul. Medium-chain triglycerides in early life: Effects on growth of adipose tissue. Lipids 22:429-434, 1987.
11. Hickson, J.F., T.E. Johnson, W. Lee, and R.J. Sidor. Nutrition and the precontest preparations of a male bodybuilder. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 90:264-267, 1990.
12. Hickson, J.F., and I. Wolinsky. Human protein intake and metabolism in exercise and sport. In Nutrition in Exercise and Sport, J.F. Hickson and I. Wolinsky (Eds.), Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1989, pp. 24-35.
13. Hurley, B.F., D.R. Seals, J.M. Hagberg, A.C. Goldberg, S.M. Ostrove, J.O. Holloszy, W.G. Weist, and A.P. Goldberg. High-density-lipoprotein cholesterol in bodybuilders v powerlifters. Negative effects of androgen use. JAMA 252:507-513, 1984.
14. Johnson, R.C., S.K. Young, R. Cotter, L. Lin, and W.B. Rowe. Medium-chain- triglyceride lipid emulsion: Metabolism and tissue distribution. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52:502-508, 1990.
15. Katch, V.L., F.I. Katch, R. Moffatt, and M. Gittleson. Muscular development and lean body weight in body builders and weight lifters. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12:340- 344, 1980.
16. Kleiner, S.M., T.L. Bazzarre, and M.D. Litchford. Metabolic profiles, diet, and health practices of championship male and female bodybuilders. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 90:962- 967, 1990.
17. Kleiner, S.M., L.H. Calabrese, K.M. Fielder, H.K. Naito, and C.I. Skibinski. Dietary influences on cardiovascular disease risk in anabolic steroid-using and nonusing bodybuilders. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 8: 109-1 19, 1989.
18. Manore, M.M., L.A. Vaughan, and W. Lehman. Development and testing of a statisti- cal and graphics-enhanced nutrient analysis program. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 89:246-250, 1989.
86 / Manore, Thompson, and Russo
19. Mifflin, M.D., S.T. St. Joer, L.A. Hill, B.J. Scott, S.A. Daughery, and Y.O. Koh. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51:241-247, 1990.
21. Sandoval, W.M., and V.H. Heyward. Food selection patterns of bodybuilders. Int. J. Sports Nutr. 1:61-68, 1991.
22. Sandoval, W.M., V.H. Heyward, and T.M. Lyons. Comparison of body composition, exercise and nutritional profiles of female and male body builders at competition. J. Sports Med. 29:63-70, 1989.
23. Scalfi, L., A. Coltorti, and F. Contaldo. Postprandial thermogenesis in lean and obese subjects after meals supplemented with medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53:1130-1133, 1991.
24. Spitler, D.L., F.J. Diaz, S.M. Howath, and J.E. Wright. Body composition and maximal aerobic capacity of bodybuilders. J. Sports Med. 20: 18 1-188, 1980.
25. Steen, S.N. Precontest strategies of a male bodybuilder. Int. J. Sports Med. 1:69-78, 1991.
26. Swift, L.L., J.O. Hill, J.C. Peters, and H.L. Greene. Medium-chain fatty acids: Evidence for incorporation into chylomicron triglycerides in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 522334- 836, 1990.
27. Weir, J.B. de V. New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism. J. Physiol. 109:l-9, 1949.
28. Wilmore, J.H., P.A. Vodak, R.B. Parr, R.N. Girandola, and J.E. Billing. Further simplification of a method for determination of residual lung volume. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12:216-218, 1980.
29. Yuhasz, M.S. The effects of sports training on body composition in man with predic- tions of optimal body weights (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1962).
Sports and Cardiovascular Nutritionists (SCAN)
10th Anniversary Symposium
"Cardiovascular Nutrition: Food, Fitness, and the Family"
April 23-25, 1993, Sheraton Harbor Island, San Diego, CA
For more information: David Berwick Great Gatherings & Perfect Meetings 34 Union Street, Suite 100 Brighton, MA 02135 Tel: 617/782-4145
