Official Master's Thesis + Project

Running head: EFFECTS OF REVEALING SPORT ATTIRE

THE EFFECT OF SPORT ATTIRE ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

IN AESTHETIC AND ENDURANCE SPORTS:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

A Master’s Project

presented to

the Graduate School of Professional Psychology

University of Denver

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Sport & Performance Psychology

by

Ben Lampert, Nicole Caron & Taylor Thompson

Dr. Jamie Shapiro, Master’s Project Chair

MAY 2015

EFFECTS OF REVEALING SPORT ATTIRE

The undersigned, appointed by the Dean of the Graduate School of Professional Psychology, have examined the Master’s Project entitled

THE EFFECT OF SPORT ATTIRE ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE IN AESTHETIC AND ENDURANCE SPORTS:


presented by Nicole Caron, Taylor Thompson, & Ben Lampert

candidates for the degree of Master of Arts

and hereby certify that in their opinion it is worthy of acceptance.

Jamie Shapiro Ph.D., Chair

Jessica Dale PsyD

Jessica Dale PsyD., Committee Member


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On behalf of the researchers, we would personally like to acknowledge and thank specific

persons, without whom this presented study would not have been possible. We would especially

like to thank Dr. Jamie Shapiro for being the chair member of this project. Additionally, Dr.

Jessica Dale, for assisting our research interests and being an important member of this research

team. Finally, Dr. Artur Poczwardowski for educating the researchers on processes related to

qualitative data collection and analyses.


THE EFFECT OF SPORT ATTIRE ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

IN AESTHETIC AND ENDURANCE SPORTS:


Nicole Caron, Taylor Thompson, & Ben Lampert

Dr. Jamie Shapiro, Master’s Project Chair

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to better understand how various sport attire (athletes’

clothing and uniform) influences the thought processes and feelings experienced by athletes.

Eight female student-athletes from a large Division I university and two Division II universities

representing the aesthetic and endurance sports of swimming, gymnastics, and dance participated

in this study. Researchers conducted a phenomenological study in which they collected relevant

experiential data from each participant using a semi-structured interview guide to assist them

through the video conferencing interview process. Results of the study provided evidence that

the revealing nature of athletes’ sport attire and external pressures, such as coaches, influence

their level of body (dis)satisfaction. Future research should evaluate coaches’ roles as sources of

external pressure. In order to better understand this, future research should evaluate coaches’

knowledge of the unhealthy risk factors that accompany athlete’s low levels of body satisfaction.

The current study allowed for researchers to gain a better understanding of how female athletes

perceive, think, and feel about their own bodies when wearing different levels of revealing sport

attire.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1 Preliminary Materials

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii Abstract...............................................................................................................................iv List of Tables......................................................................................................................vi

List of Figures....................................................................................................................vii

Part 2 Body of Master’s Project

Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

Review of Literature................................................................................................1 Method.................................................................................................................................6

Participants...............................................................................................................6 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria....................................................................................7 Research Design......................................................................................................7

Instrumentation........................................................................................................7 Procedure.................................................................................................................8

Data Analysis...........................................................................................................9 Results................................................................................................................................11 Theme 1. Body Image (Dis)satisfaction................................................................11

Theme 2. Revealing Sport Attire...........................................................................14 Theme 3. Pressure From External Sources............................................................16

Theme 4. Risks.......................................................................................................19 Theme 5. Mindset..................................................................................................21

Discussion..........................................................................................................................23

Conclusion.........................................................................................................................29

References..........................................................................................................................30 Tables.................................................................................................................................34 Figure.................................................................................................................................35

Part 3 Appendices

APPENDIX A. Demographic Survey............................................................................... 36 APPENDIX B. Sport Attire in Aesthetic and Endurance Sports - Interview Guide.........37

APPENDIX C. IRB Approval...........................................................................................39 APPENDIX D. Email Script for Coach.............................................................................41


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Demographic Information of Participants.......................................................................34


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Hierarchal structure of themes: The effects of revealing sport attire.............................35


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The effect of sport attire on athletic performance in aesthetic and endurance sports: An

exploratory study

Body image concerns, particularly those of female collegiate athletes, are well

documented (Davidson, Earnest, & Birch, 2002; Swami, Steadman, & Tovee, 2009; Torres-

McGehee, Monsma, Dompier, & Washburn, 2012) ; however, the data on how these concerns

affect an athlete’s cognitive and emotional state are limited. Researchers also remain uninformed

as to how body image concerns influence athletes’ performance.

Body image is the perception one has of her physical self, but more importantly the

thoughts and feelings one experiences as a result of that perception. It is a dynamic concept,

which encompasses how people see themselves, how they think and feel about the way they

look, and how they think others perceive them. Body image can be positive, negative, or a

combination of both and is influenced by individual and environmental factors. Body image

concerns, also referred to as body dissatisfaction, are indicated by body size misperceptions

and/or negative feelings towards the human body and its appearance (Varnes et al., 2013). In the

second edition of his comprehensive literature review of research on body image, Grogan (2008)

defined body dissatisfaction as a person’s negative thoughts about his or her own body. This

includes judgments about size and shape, muscle tone, and generally involves a discrepancy

between one's own body type and an ideal body type.

Extensive research has been conducted to investigate body image concerns amongst

females. The vast majority of published literature suggests that women express higher levels of

body dissatisfaction than males (Feingold & Mazzell, 1998; Frederick, Forbes, Grigorian, &

Jarcho, 2007), and that women typically desire to be thinner (Cash & Henry, 1995; DeMarest &

Allen, 2000). Due to the gendered nature of body image (Smolak, Murnen, & Ruble, 2000), an


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exclusive focus on the female population became an important variable in the present study.

These researchers believe a single sex focus will allow for a more in-depth review of published

literature and allow for more informed results and analysis of data. The focus on college women

is warranted, as it is well documented that this population is at high risk for body image concerns

(Neighbors & Sobal, 2007; Williams, Cash, & Santos, 2004).

It seems that satisfaction with one’s body is a rare commodity in society today (Smith-

Jackson, Reel, & Thackery, 2011). This is supported by research from Gillen and Lefkowitz

(2006) stating that most (65-78%) college aged women are dissatisfied with their bodies, and in a

Psychology Today survey, an estimated 56% of women reported being unhappy with the way

their bodies look (Garner, 1997). Varnes et al. (2013) believe that the sociocultural changes that

occurred over the past twenty years regarding the new ideal, mostly unattainable body type that

women feel pressured to obtain is a driving force behind the rising body image concerns and

dissatisfaction today. A study by Tiggeman (2002) supported the argument that thinness is

usually idealized and associated with positive attributes. Just as society and culture emphasize a

thin ideal, similar pressures exist in the sport environment regarding being thin or lean, with

research suggesting that a majority of female athletes and exercisers feel that they would never

be satisfied with their own bodies because of the unrealistic ideal body image type conveyed

through media and other mediums (Krane et al., 2001).

In recent years, female athletes have received a great deal of attention in regards to

research on body image and eating disorders. It has been stated that they are at an even higher

risk of body image concerns when compared to the general population, most likely attributable to

social pressures and expectations, as well as sport-specific pressures about body, weight, and

appearance (Swami, Steadman, & Tovee, 2009). Other factors that put female athletes at risk are:


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the perception that a certain body size or shape will lead to success, revealing sport attire, and

sport specific expectations and norms (Reel, Petrie, SooHoo, & Anderson, 2013; Thompson &

Sherman, 2010).

Certain sports that emphasize thinness or a particular physique present a higher risk for

body image dissatisfaction because there are direct demands that focus on appearance and body

shape (Reel, et al., 2013), and body image disorders have been proven to be more prevalent

among athletes involved in such sports (Swami et al., 2009). Female athletes often feel pressure

to change their body weight, shape, or size to improve performance or meet a perceived athletic

ideal (Thompson & Sherman, 2010). The concerns and stress associated with an emphasis on a

lean body and its purported relationship with enhanced performance may be amplified by

comments from coaches, teammates, and judges (Anderson et al., 2012).

In aesthetic sports, such as dance, gymnastics, swimming, and figure skating, the success

of the athlete is influenced by the athlete’s overall appearance, oftentimes moreso than the actual

performance of the athlete (Reel, Petrie, SooHoo, & Anderson, 2013). These athletes are often

subjectively evaluated while wearing tight-fitting and revealing uniforms or clothing. They are

faced with unique weight and body pressures that their ball-sport athlete counterparts do not

typically experience. This statement is supported by research that found that girls participating in

aesthetic, appearance-oriented sports have a heightened focus on weight and body shape when

compared to those participating in non-aesthetic sports (Davidson, Earnest, & Birch, 2002). For

example, competitive swimmers reported significantly higher levels of body dissatisfaction than

athletes in sports that do not demand leanness. These same swimmers believed body type has a

major influence on success (Ferrand, Magnan, Rouveix, & Filaire, 2007). Although female

athletes from any sport may potentially experience weight pressures and could be vulnerable to


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developing body image concerns, certain sports present an even greater risk due to a heightened

focus on appearance as it relates to performance success, such as evaluation by judges and

competing in uniforms that reveal bodily flaws (Reel et al., 2013).

The type of uniform athletes wear is one determining factor of the increased self-

consciousness and negative body image perceived by the athlete (Torres-McGehee, et al., 2012).

Torres-McGehee et al. (2012) found that more than half of the participating cheerleaders in their

study reported that the midriff uniform led to increased body consciousness and body

dissatisfaction when compared to a full coverage uniform. It is even more concerning that every

participant involved reported a desire to have a lower body mass index (BMI) than they currently

had. The pressures and stress related to revealing sport attire was also experienced by swimmers

who reported that their tight, form-fitting swimsuits were a source of body dissatisfaction (Reel

& Gill, 2001). In a sample of dancers, 99% of the participants expressed feelings of negative

body image when wearing costumes that did not hide body flaws (Reel, SooHoo, Gill, &

Jamieson, 2005). It is therefore quite understandable that revealing sport attire has a negative

impact on an athlete’s body image satisfaction level (Swami, Steadman, & Tovee, 2009), but

more in-depth research is needed to determine the relationship (if any) between the low body

satisfaction level and the perceived level of athletic performance. This research attempts to

contribute to the lack of understanding, and considers the following information crucial in

making sense of this relationship. Evidence suggests that revealing uniforms can cause social

physique anxiety in female collegiate athletes (Krane, Waldron, Michalenok, & Stiles-Shipley,

2001), and can serve as a performance distractor for female dancers (Reel, SooHoo, Gill, &

Jamieson, 2005). Furthermore, a study by Frederickson and Harrison (1998) supports the notion

that tight-fitting clothing decreases performance in females. This particular study examined the


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math performance of females while wearing a swimsuit or a sweater. Results indicated that the

females who were wearing swimsuits performed significantly worse on the math test than those

wearing sweaters (Frederickson & Harrison, 1998). These findings suggest that revealing

clothing induces self-objectification in women, which subsequently disrupts cognitive

performance. Once more, it has to be stressed that no qualitative research has examined the

nature of cognitions and emotions female athletes experience while wearing revealing sport

attire.

Due to pressures within the sport environment, female collegiate gymnasts, swimmers,

and divers may develop unhealthy eating practices in order to lose weight or change their body

size/shape to fit a sport-specific physique (Davidson, Earnest, & Birch, 2002). A group of

adolescent swimmers reported feeling a need to display a “swimmers body” (i.e., thin and lean

with broad shoulders) to perform their best (Porter, Morrow, & Reel, 2012). Similarly college

female dancers felt the pressure to portray long and thin bodily lines during performance, and

hold a common belief that dancers should be thin and light weight (Reel et al., 2005). It has been

suggested that perhaps because dancers’ bodies are the medium through which art is expressed,

they have a high risk for body dissatisfaction (Smolak et al., 2000). A quantitative study by

Swami and colleagues (2009) suggested that this risk for body image dissatisfaction may be due

to a perceived need to attain athletic physiques as a result of sport specific tasks and/or social

pressure. This makes sense when considering female cheerleaders’ beliefs that they must not

gain weight in order to hold their position as a flyer (SooHoo, Reel, & Pearce, 2011). These sport

body stereotypes must be considered when assessing female athlete body image and

satisfaction.


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It is important to better understand an athlete’s thought process during an athletic

performance. Some thoughts are beneficial and help improve performance, and others have the

opposite effect. The way one feels about her body and how others perceive her can be a

distracting thought and detrimental to one’s performance (Reel, SooHoo, Gill, & Jamieson,

2005).

The purpose of the current study was to understand how sport attire affects the thoughts

and feelings of the female collegiate athlete. Female collegiate athletes participating in

endurance or aesthetic sports were asked to share their experiences, particularly what they were

thinking about and how they felt regarding their perceived body image, while wearing different

sport attire. A qualitative approach is ideal in this situation, as it allows for the participants to

share freely, with limited bias. Previous literature has been quantitative and the current study

aims to understand the reasons why athletes in aesthetic sports experience body image

dissatisfaction. The researchers approached the current study with the theoretical perspective of

constructivism, believing that individuals construct their ideas, concepts, and emotions based on

their current and past experiences.

Methods

Participants

Participants included eight female collegiate athletes or performers. Three of those eight

individuals were currently participating on a collegiate Division I team and the remaining five

individuals were participating on a collegiate Division II team in either an endurance or aesthetic

sport. Participants’ sport/performance domains included swimming (n = 3), dance (n = 3), and

gymnastics (n = 2).


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Inclusion/exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria for this study were: female collegiate athletes, ages 18 to 23. Exclusion

criteria for this study were: individuals who, at the time of the study, were receiving mental

health counseling and/or individuals who had been previously diagnosed with a mental disorder

(according to the DSM-5). The demographics survey (see Appendix A) was utilized to screen

participants for the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study. One participant was turned

away from the study due to not meeting the qualifying criteria.

Research Design

Researchers conducted a phenomenological study using qualitative methodology

enrolling the participation of female collegiate athletes who, at the time of the study, were

participating in aesthetic and endurance sports. The objective of this study was to collect relevant

experiential data, particularly in the area of how changes in sport attire (athletes’ clothing and

uniform) affect the cognitive and emotional state of the athlete.

Instrumentation

Researchers used a semi-structured interview guide (see Appendix B) to gather

information related to the research question(s). Questions were constructed so that researchers

could better understand how sport affects the cognitive and emotional state of the athlete.

Researchers utilized this particular format of the interview guide to facilitate an interaction that

was most suitable to obtain thorough experiential details from the participants. This type of

interview guide allowed for flexibility, giving researchers an optimal opportunity to discover any

relevant information without limiting participant disclosure.


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Procedure

Following IRB approval (see Appendix C), researchers sent a scripted e-mail (see

Appendix D) to members of coaching staffs of potential participants. Researchers used personal

connections with the aforementioned coaching staffs to make contact. Researchers utilized their

network within the following sports: female collegiate dance, swimming, and gymnastics. The

script explained the purpose of the study, why researchers targeted participants from the specific

sports listed above, and the risks and benefits of participating in the study. It was made clear to

all parties that participation was voluntary and participants could withdraw at any time during

any part of the process. Upon receipt of the e-mail, coaches gave e-mail addresses of potential

interviewees to the researchers. Researchers made the first contact with potential interviewees

via e-mail. Then, the athletes who chose to participate in the survey, at their discretion, replied to

the researchers via e-mail. A specific e-mail address was set up and used solely for the purpose

of this study.

After receiving the recruitment e-mail from their coach, participants filled out a

demographic form that determined if they fit the inclusion criteria of the study. Participants gave

written consent as part of the demographic form. Verbal consent was later obtained from each

participant at the start of the interview. Following the interview, the participant was debriefed

and given an opportunity to ask researchers any questions she had. In addition, interviewees

discussed their reactions, thoughts, and concerns. Researchers used audio recording. This

mandatory procedure ensured that all pertinent information was captured and it was useful in

limiting researcher bias.

Participants committed between 25 and 45 minutes of their time to the study. During the

first five minutes, researchers outlined the purpose of the study as well as the consent process.


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The remaining time was used to conduct the interview. The final 3 to 5 minutes were set aside to

debrief.

Data Analyses

Jacelon and O’Dell describe the data analysis process of qualitative research in the

following way:

Data analysis in qualitative research is a creative process. As the instrument of data

analysis, the researcher explores and reflects on the meaning of the data. In most

qualitative traditions, the data analysis phase overlaps the data collection phase. As data

analysis proceeds, the researcher moves back and forth between data analysis and data

collection in order to create and explain the findings. (2005, pp. 217-218)

Qualitative research works around the idea of gaining the most accurate and thorough

understanding of a population as possible. Researchers attempted to create a more holistic view

of this issue by interviewing athletes from multiple aesthetic and endurance sports and recording

their unique accounts and experiences. In this study, Grounded Theory (Martin & Gynnild, 2011)

was used as a research tool to enable researchers to seek out and conceptualize the patterns

discussed regarding revealing sport attire and body image concerns. Researchers used an

inductive approach to generate codes from the data. Later, a deductive phase was used to

structure the emerged themes based upon more abstract labels and categories.

Three researchers transcribed a total of eight complete interviews verbatim, reviewing the

full transcription upon completion to ensure accuracy. Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

and investigator triangulation were used to identify and agree on coding and themes.

Specifically, all transcripts were read and notes and comments were shared. The first step

included an in-depth familiarization with the transcript through repeated review of the interview


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in full. Next, two members of the research team reviewed the interview using qualitative data

software (Atlas.ti) to identify quotations relevant to the research questions and assemble a data

set for analysis. Once this process was complete, the third member of the research team –

designated as the peer reviewer – reviewed all identified meaning units for accuracy and

agreement (Smith & Eatough, 2006; Smith & Osborn, 2008).

Participants had access to audio recordings and were encouraged to contact researchers if

they had any follow-up questions or concerns. No participants contacted researchers following

the initial interview. Following the review of all identified meaning units, researchers cleared the

text, eliminating insignificant statements, crosstalk, and laughter that were not essential to

understanding the meaning of the experience relayed by the interviewee. In addition, irrelevant,

repetitive, and overlapping data were ignored in order to focus on data relevant to the research

questions.

After the text was cleared of unnecessary data, all three members of the research team

worked together to group the meaning units into clusters or families, indicating similarity in

meaning. The clusters were then grouped into lower-order themes, and linked with complete

quotations from the interview. The above steps were followed for each interview, applying the

identified themes and frameworks as the master list for each subsequent transcript. The master

list or template was modified to account for any changes in meaning or information provided in

subsequent transcripts, to ensure a focus on the specific experience of each participant. One data

set was established to facilitate linking of similar concepts from all participants. The lower-order

themes were then grouped into higher-order, or superordinate themes (Biddle, Markland,

Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001).


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Trustworthiness of the study was enhanced through the training of the research team by a

senior faculty member in qualitative research (i.e., designing open ended and probing questions,

practicing interview protocol, developing thematic analysis skills and procedures). Researchers

analyzed previous qualitative studies to gain a better understanding of appropriate data analysis

strategies and techniques.

Results

Qualitative analyses revealed five higher order themes: body image (dis)satisfaction,

revealing sport attire, pressure from external sources, risks, and mindset. These five higher order

themes emerged from the participants’ accounts of their experiences of being a collegiate athlete

participating in a sport with revealing sport attire. These higher order themes, along with their

thirteen lower-order themes will now be discussed in turn.

Theme 1. Body image (dis)satisfaction

Body image (dis)satisfaction was common amongst nearly all participants. Each

participant disclosed whether they were currently satisfied or dissatisfied with their perceived

body image. Further, all participants discussed times when they were uncomfortable with their

body image. Though it was not shocking that the participants’ perceived body image changed

over different parts of the season, it was interesting to find that their decision to change or alter

their body was strongly influenced by external factors. Participants discussed that their body

dissatisfaction was associated with their perceived body image and responses to external

pressures while body image satisfaction was related to a championship season.

Lower order theme 1: Perceived body image.

I’m not the typical skinny gymnast… I’m 5’1”. I have big thighs. I have curves and I

have a big butt for how little I am…This one girl on my team…she’s kind of curvy, kind


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of not…But she’s like, ok, we’re each other’s main F’s, like main fatties, because we feel

like we’re sometimes the fatties on the team. (P7, gymnast)

When I was playing softball I never really thought about my body. I guess one year when

I put on a [swim] suit I was like ‘oh wow!’ (P3, swimmer)

I fainted in the beginning of the year so then they tested my body fat and they said that I

was too thin to be a distance swimmer...I always thought I was fine, I never thought I was

overweight and I never really thought I was underweight…when they said that I was

surprised. (P1, swimmer)

All participants discussed their perception of their body image. It was interesting to find

that the majority of participants’ body image perception had changed over time. All participants

shared being dissatisfied with their body at some point throughout their athletic career.

Additionally it appears that at times these participants’ perceived body image did not resemble

absolute truth. For some participants, further self-awareness was built around their body image

and it resulted in altering their body to ultimately enhance their performance.

Lower order theme 2: Response to External Pressures.

I’d say there were a few of us where that [talk about weight] got the wheels turning in our

heads, like ok maybe we should do something so then there was a couple of us that

actually did, we did a program to help us get more in shape. (P8, dancer)

We definitely are conscious of those games where we do have to wear half tops. So we

will just work out harder or maybe not eat fries or something. (P5, dancer)


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My coach was like “if you lost five pounds you would be doing so much better in the

pool” but it wasn’t like “you need to lose weight, you look horrible”… And I think if

someone told me “you need to do this” it would make me feel horrible. (P2, swimmer)

Several participants expanded on their reactions to pressures from outside sources. These

participants were able to recognize and acknowledge where the pressure was coming from and

they further explained how they followed through with changes to improve their bodies. This

was particularly true for those who were told they needed to be fitter in order to excel in their

performance domain.

Lower order theme 3: Championship season impact.

Our jazz costume was a little more revealing. It had cut outs on the stomach. And our

backs were showing…if I were to put it on now I probably would feel more insecure, but

since I was in a lot better shape during nationals season I didn’t feel as insecure…During

nationals season, I feel a lot more confident because I am in better shape…but when we

are out of season that is when I am like “uh, I don’t know if I really want to be wearing

this…” but I kind of have to. (P4, dancer)

I mean it felt good that I could get [the suit] on and we obviously looked at ourselves and

checked ourselves out and we were all just making comments like, “oh like I look flat-

chested now” or like, “I have no butt anymore.” Cause like they’re so tight…but it ended

up being good. (P1, swimmer)

Feeling in the best shape prior to and during championship season was common for all

participants. This was especially apparent for participants who described feeling more confident


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in revealing uniforms during the championship season. All participants described how the

championship season had a positive impact on body image satisfaction.

Theme 2. Revealing sport attire

Participants from dance, gymnastics, and swimming domains all discussed their

experiences while wearing revealing sport attire. All participants specialized in their given sport

domain at a young age. Therefore, it was common amongst participants to explain that they were

used to wearing a sport attire that was revealing. Despite this, participants discussed how there

were many specific characteristics about the revealing sport attire that had a negative impact on

the participants’ comfort and confidence. The majority of participants explained that they

preferred wearing a sport attire that was the least revealing.

Lower order theme 4: Comfort level.

It [uniform] was pretty much a half top and a skirt connected by like a little piece of

fabric. I think the comfort of having that little strap right across your stomach, you know

for a lot of girls, is very comforting, than if it was completely separate. (P8, dancer)

Some girls wear leotards, I don’t because it’s a leotard, it’s self-explanatory. It’s so

tight… and I don’t want to make it sound awful but it’s like wearing a full body bathing

suit for four hours long and it just starts squeezing you. (P6, gymnast)

When we get in our leotards, like I know I said it today in our pink leotards, like, I was

like, “Oh, my God. I hate this leotard.”… I don’t have a problem with it, but it’s like, ok,

you can see my back fat, you can see my curves. (P7, gymnast)


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It was common amongst nearly all participants to feel more comfortable when their

bodies were more covered up. Additionally, a shared belief amongst participants what that they

felt more comfortable when they were not wearing a revealing sport attire that was extremely

tight.

Lower order theme 5: Confidence level.

I feel more confident in certain uniforms than compared to other uniforms. When we

wear half-tops, like I am obviously not going to be as confident because everything is

out. (P4, dancer)

I feel way more confident in the black [dress]. The white [dress], the material is very

sheer and it’s very, very, very, well at least mine, is very form fitting. And, I like it…but

it’s one of those where I feel like I have to constantly be like standing up straight, holding

myself together. Whereas the black is like a thicker material and it’s shiny, so I’m like

okay I can relax. So I feel more confident in the black one because I don’t have to think

about it, whereas in the white one, it’s constantly on my mind. (P8, dancer)

Several participants discussed their confidence in regard to the sport attire they were

wearing. Many participants explained that they felt more confident in a sport attire that was the

least revealing. In some cases, confidence levels were negatively impacted when the sport attire

was very revealing. Confidence levels were even more negatively impacted when the

participants were out of season and required to be in revealing sport attire.

Lower order theme 6: Preferred sport attire.

I would say our blue sparkle half top and skirt…to me, it is a good cut on

everybody…and I feel like I have broad shoulders, so I like it because it makes my


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shoulders look less broad. The skirt comes up almost to your belly button and the top can

pull down to your rib cage. So you don't feel as exposed. (P5, dancer)

We have a black dress and it actually covers pretty much everything. It’s like a turtle

neck, it’s like a traditional like tank top cut so it shows all of our arms but other than that

it’s just a straight black dress with a big giant buff. That’s kind of my favorite, and it’s

the least revealing costume ever. But that’s my favorite. (P8, dancer)

When you’re in a one piece, you don’t have to worry about anything…like off the blocks

in practice I like to wear my Nike suit just because it’s easier and won’t fall off… you’re

more covered in a one piece, so you don’t have to worry about body image or whatever to

like guys on your team or if you like a boy on your team you don’t have to worry about

it. (P2, swimmer)

It was common for all participants to discuss the longevity of their participation in their

given sport. Despite being used to training and competing in many different sport attires

throughout their athletic career, the majority of participants explained that they preferred and

favored sport attire that was the least revealing. This tied into how confident and comfortable

they felt with their bodies.

Theme 3. Pressure from external sources

Several participants shared how outside pressures influenced their perceived body image.

For the majority of participants, how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with their body image

depended on the approval or lack thereof from external sources. These external sources included

coaching staff(s), crowds, as well as the media and societal pressures. It appears that these given


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pressures impacted the participants’ perceived body image and resulted in them wanting to

change their bodies. All participants believed the pressure from external sources, specifically

from coaches, to change their bodies was due to the coaches’ belief that their performances

would improve if they were in optimal shape.

Lower order theme 7: Coaches.

I’ll never forget the conversation… it was like ‘we as a judging panel feel as if, and this

is across the board, that you guys could all use some hit in the gym and toning up.’ So

they beat around the bush of ‘we think you guys need to lose weight’ (P8, dancer)

They pushed me to go down [a size], usually I had worn a 24 and then this year…they

pushed me to wear a 22 and I was like, ‘I don’t know if I can fit into that.’…And I mean I

was nervous about it. (P1, swimmer)

College coaches when they come to recruit…they aren’t allowed to talk to you so they’ll

talk to the coaches but they’ll say if some girl is a little heavier set or something…If

some girls are out of shape or a little bigger than they should be, then they are less

interested because they want fit, they want the best athletes so it does hurt your chances

of getting certain scholarships. (P6, gymnast)

I guess we kind of all check ourselves off if [coach] checks us off. So if she is like ‘you

look fine’, you do. (P5, dancer)


18

Coming into the beginning of the season I wasn’t in my best shape and [coach]

mentioned something to me but he didn’t do it in a way where it made me feel bad about

myself. It was like, I’ll get better if I lose weight and if I get back to the shape that I was

(P3, swimmer)

For P8, the information stated by her coaching staff caused her and a few of her

teammates to believe they needed to lose weight and in turn they opted to start a new workout

plan. This participant believed that this workout plan increased her dancing ability as well as her

overall performance. It also seemed to positively impact her confidence and comfort when

dancing in a revealing uniform, i.e., a half-top. Several participants discussed feeling pressure

from coaches, or that the coaching staff had expectations that the participants aimed to reach.

Some participants discussed feeling that their coach simply made recommendations and in the

end, those expectations and recommendations proved to generally enhance their performances in

regards to the given sport domain.

Lower order theme 8: Media, pictures, and crowds.

It definitely keeps you aware of how you look at any second because you may not be

looking directly at the camera but the camera could be on you…being conscious of being

on at every moment. You can’t stand on the sidelines and slump your shoulders over

because the camera is gonna get you. Just being really conscious throughout the whole

game or during any appearance that you are doing. Which is really tiring. (P5, dancer)

If someone were to tag me in a picture like on Facebook or something and if they caught

me at the exact wrong angle then that’s when I’m like ‘oh crap maybe I should think

about this next time we wear that’ or something. (P8, dancer)


19

We have to be in leotards in front of our whole entire school so it’s not like other sports

where you’re wearing basketball shorts, so it’s pretty much all out there to see. (P6,

gymnast)

All participants described their experiences of performing in front of crowds. Several

participants discussed how they worry about what the crowd thinks prior to performing.

However, all participants are able to block out crowds and focus on their performance. A few

participants, specifically the dancers, discussed their experiences with the media and how

draining it is to be constantly consciously aware of how they are looking and appearing to the

public eye. These participants disclosed that this becomes even more stressful when the sport

attire is more revealing.

Theme 4. Risks

Several participants described scenarios that highlight the risks involved from pressures

regarding body image (dis)satisfaction. Pressures form external sources may lead to risks such as

eating disorders, constant comparison to others, and a lack of positive talk regarding body image

satisfaction. Engagement in these risk factors can be linked to cognitions and emotions that

eventually lead to poorer performance.

Lower order theme 9: Eating disorders.

You do feel the pressure, but then it’s like they don’t want to push you too hard because

that’s when, like, you hear girls are starting to go, anorexic, bulimic. (P7, gymnast).

I have never been diagnosed with an ED, but in high school I struggled with one...So I

think that I have a different outlook on appearance. (P5, dancer)


20

Only a few participants described the rules and regulations at their current universities

around what talk can occur around body image. P7 (gymnast) eluded to the fine line between

appropriate and inappropriate conversations between coaches and athletes regarding how hard to

train and what the athletes should look like based on that training.

Lower order theme 10: Comparing to others.

You are so self conscious of what you are going to look like for the upcoming games you

worry about what you eat…And I really think being in front of 25 other girls in sports

bras and in hot shorts is really intimidating…I’m constantly reminding myself to suck in.

(P5, dancer)

First coming to [college] I was by far the most curvy girl…I was like, ‘Oh, my God. I

look so much fatter than everybody’…I was being negative. (P7, gymnast)

These participants described their thoughts and emotions resulting from comparing

themselves to their peers on their team. P7 stated clearly that she was being negative. Both

participants alluded to an increased focus on something other than performance.

Lower order theme 11: Talk (or lack thereof) about body image.

The conversation comes around when it’s time to put those uniforms on, or when it’s

time to put the half-tops on. That’s when the comments start coming out. (P8, dancer)

I think from a school standpoint it’s quiet because it has to be quiet... I know for us at our

school it’s completely not allowed…But leading up to nationals season our trainer always


21

does weigh-ins in the morning… it’s technically supposed to be blind. So we have to get

on [the scale] backwards. So they see it, but we don’t see it. (P8, dancer)

We talk about our post-season diet, we can’t be eating chips or whatever during not

swimming. That’s really all that we’ve talked about it…I don’t wanna insult anyone…I

don’t know how other people feel about themselves. (P2, swimmer)

Participants described how much discussion regarding body image occurs between their

teammates as well as between their coaches and the athletes. All 8 participants discussed how

comments are made about body image, but they are done so in a joking matter. P8 described a

situation when athletes dress in revealing uniforms that often sparks body image discussion. She

also described the status quo on the topic of body image between coaches, staff, and the athletes.

P8 explained that her coaches are not allowed to directly discuss body image with her and the

other dancers. P8 described a scenario during the season that is indicative of coaches finding a

way around the status quo in order to help manage their expectations regarding the appropriate

weight and body image of their athletes. P2 stated discussion around what to eat and what not to

eat does in fact take place. All participants described that if talk about body image concerns

occurs, it is usually around foods they should avoid.

Theme 5. Mindset

The participants discussed how their cognitions and emotions play a role regarding their

perceived body image (dis)satisfaction and how that relates to their mindset before and during

performances. Participants described thoughts and emotions that sometimes lead to a lower level

of overall body satisfaction.


22

Lower order theme 12: Cognitions.

A negative thought I have is usually just that everyone is looking at me. I have a lot of

other teammates a lot skinnier than me so like I’ll basically be constantly worried about if

my stomach is out...because especially in basketball we will be sitting and crisscrossing

our legs and people behind me can see, so I constantly feel like I have to sit up…so my

stomach isn’t getting rolls and stuff and we actually got a comment one time that we were

slouching too much and that our stomachs looked like we had rolls. (P4, dancer)

We were all worried about that and so once we all tried it on, a lot of the girls were really

nervous about the sizing and like everything is like a lot of times those suits get ripped

and so everyone was really freaking about like “oh is my suit gonna rip? Will there be an

extra one?”…When I’m putting mine on before my race like I’ll get scared like if I rip it,

so you just have to be careful about that. (P1, swimmer)

These participants described in detail their thought processes that are anxiety provoking

and lead to negative emotions during performance. P4 said that someone negatively commented

on their body image during a performance. P1 discussed the unknowns of certain sport attire and

how they lead to a focus placed on sport attire and not performance. Both participants alluded to

the impact that negative thoughts can have on body (dis)satisfaction.

Lower order theme 13: Emotions.

I ordered a [size] 25, but I got a 24. So, I had to put it on, and I was freaking out because

it wasn’t fitting, it wasn’t going on. And um, it actually ripped. (P3, swimmer)


23

It is fun getting all dolled up and stuff for meets. I mean, what sport do you actually have

to get like ready for besides like gymnastics or cheerleader or dance or something like

that (P7, gymnast)

These participants discussed scenarios that present both positive and negative emotions

with regards to wearing revealing sport attire for a performance. P3 said that a mistake in her

order caused her to receive a smaller size swim suit than she needed and as a result she freaked

out. P3 described that her suit malfunction lead to a plethora of thoughts and emotions that

increased her body image dissatisfaction prior to her performance. She discussed how anxious

she felt after it happened but luckily she said there was another suit available and she felt better

after getting that one on. P7 took a positive approach to describing her preparation to

performance. P7 described the getting ready process: she said that the events leading up to

competition which included dressing herself in revealing sport attire were simply enjoyable.

Discussion

The purpose of the present study was to understand how sport attire affects the thought

processes and feelings of the female collegiate athlete and how body image (dis)satisfaction

influences the performance of athletes competing in aesthetic and endurance sports, particularly

swimming, dance, and gymnastics. The eight athletes who participated in the present study were

asked to share their experiences related to these matters.

Results of the present study support previous quantitative data displaying that female

athletes often feel pressure to change their body weight, shape, or size to improve performance

or meet a perceived athletic ideal (Thompson & Sherman, 2010). Findings also show that these

sports require a particular thin physique. This supports previous research that indicates that

athletes participating in aesthetic sports are faced with sport specific weight pressures and are


24

more likely to develop body image concerns (Reel et al., 2013). Participants discussed how, due

to the revealing nature of their uniforms, they deal with unique pressures not observed by

athletes competing in ball sports such as basketball, softball, and soccer. Results indicate that

comments made by coaches may amplify the stress and concerns associated with body image

dissatisfaction (Anderson et al., 2012). Furthermore, results support that due to pressures within

the sport environment, female collegiate gymnasts, dancers, and swimmers may develop

unhealthy eating practices in order to lose weight or change their body size and shape to fit a

perceived ideal sport specific physique (Davidson et al., 2002).

It was surprising to find that despite the great length of time the participants spent within

their given sport domain, there were many specific characteristics about the revealing sport attire

that had a negative impact on the participants’ comfort, confidence, and overall body image

satisfaction. It can be interpreted from the participants’ responses that it is easier for them to

focus on their performance while wearing sport attire that is less revealing. On the other hand, it

appears that wearing very revealing or tight sport attire may lead to an increase in body image

concerns, an increase in worry about possible attire malfunctions, and a decrease in overall body

image satisfaction. This may in turn have a negative impact on their performance because they

are focused more on their bodies and sport attire as opposed to their performance. The decrease

in performance is explicable within the framework of self-objectification theory. This theory

postulates that the negative performance ramifications of state self-objectification are due in part

to the disruption of focused attention on the task at hand (Frederickson & Harrison, 1998), and

also may be attributable to tight-fitting clothing.

Additionally, it appeared that each participant placed a lot of worth in the words that

come from their coaches. It seems that these words have a huge impact on the participants’


25

thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Researchers remain uneducated in regard to what coaches can

and cannot discuss with their athletes. Regardless that coaches may not be able to directly

discuss body image concerns with their athletes, it seems that they may find a way to discuss

weight and nutrition. It was consistent throughout the interviews that the participants believed

being in optimal shape would lead to better performances. This may provide insight as to why

the participants’ placed such huge worth on the words and recommendations from their coaches.

The implications of this study provide useful information to particular populations such

as coaches, athletes, and mental health professionals. Results show that coaches and their staff

influence body image (dis)satisfaction levels of their female athletes. It can be interpreted that

coaches play a vital role in trying to prevent body image dissatisfaction and the accompanying

risks such as self-imposed pressures and eating disorders. An additional implication for coaches

would be to consider the cognitions and emotions that are associated with revealing sport attire.

Perhaps coaches could consider choosing a lesser revealing sport attire for certain performances,

or they could have athletes practice in these revealing sport attires to help reduce negative

cognitions while performing in the competition setting. Female collegiate athletes may resonate

with this study and find meaning in the results. There is potential for these athletes to feel more

comfortable discussing their thoughts and feelings regarding body image (dis)satisfaction. This

in turn might help normalize any negative thoughts and feelings and it could even elicit

supportive conversations among athletes. Results show that an athlete's cognitions are different

depending on the revealing nature of their sport attire. This may lead to feelings that are not

conducive to behavior necessary for optimal performance. Mental health professionals,

particularly sport psychologists, may be able to use data from the present study to better

understand, evaluate, and help create a positive change in athletes who suffer from high levels of


26

body image dissatisfaction. These mental health professionals may be able to further assist

athletes accept and cope with the cognitions and emotions associated with revealing sport attire.

This may be exceptionally important due to the likelihood of athletes having a choice in the

uniforms they wear during competitions is improbable.

Researchers attempted to maximize the strengths and control for the limitations that were

all but inevitable in the present study. Researchers recognized that by creating the interview

questions and conducting the interviews they induced a threat to internal validity in the form of

built-in bias. Researchers’ personal biases and idiosyncrasies inadvertently influenced the

interview process as well as the data analyses process. Researchers attempted to limit the built-in

bias by using a male researcher with no previous experience participating in aesthetic and/or

endurance collegiate sports to ensure researcher agreement during the data analysis process. This

researcher made sound judgments about the potential for bias or distortion, and challenged

emerging lines of thought and findings. A second threat to internal validity came as a result of

the participant selection process. The sample was limited to Caucasian female participants from

division one and division two collegiate institutions. The coaches of the potential participants

played a role in determining what athletes might participate. As a result, random assignment did

not occur.

Given the nature of qualitative data, rigor is difficult to demonstrate and maintain; the

current focus was limited to participants’ self-report of their experiences. In addition, the mere

presence of the researchers may have influenced what the participants were willing to share

during the interview process. To combat this, at the start of every interview, researchers worked

to create a safe, comfortable environment for the participants. Researchers verbally reminded

participants that there were not “right or wrong answers,” and that participants were free to share


27

“as little or as much as they please.” Finally, researchers facilitated a natural conversation style

as opposed to a direct question and answer style during each interview. In reflection, the

researchers conducting the interviews believed that their personal backgrounds made it easier to

relate to the participants. As a result, it was easy for the researchers to empathize with

participants. This helped create a safe and comfortable environment so that participants felt free

to share exactly what they were thinking. That being said, researchers believe that another

limitation could have been response bias where the participants respond in a way that they

believe to be pleasing to the researchers. It is also possible that participants were concerned that

the information they shared may get back to their coaches/instructors/administrators/teammates

and inadvertently and/or adversely impact their future participation on their respective team. To

combat response bias and in order to evoke genuine answers, researchers reminded participants

of strict confidentiality and ensured them that their names would not be linked to their responses.

The present study provided data from eight participants from a very specific niche. As a

result, generalizability is difficult and may not be appropriate. All eight of these athletes

specialized in their sport starting at a young age. As a result, they are all accustomed to wearing

revealing sport attire and they share a sentiment of comfortability in the sport attire they wear

during performances. It is possible that athletes who are less accustomed to wearing revealing

sport attire might share differing experiences in which they feel less comfortable.

Findings from this study support a more general notion – satisfaction with one’s body is a

rare commodity in society today (Smith-Jackson et al., 2011). Results from this study suggest

that athletes suffer from similar debilitating pressures with regard to the ideal body image that is

common in society. Previous research on this topic shows that the majority of female athletes


28

and exercisers believe they will never be satisfied with their bodies because of an unrealistic

ideal body image that is conveyed through the media and pop culture (Krane et al., 2001).

Based on the findings of this present study, researchers suggest specific areas of research

that might take priority when considering future directions. In the present study, many

participants discussed knowing a teammate who had struggled with an eating disorder. In

addition, one potential participant could not be interviewed due to previously being diagnosed

with an eating disorder. Eating disorders are a significant risk to one’s health, and findings in the

present study suggest that an athlete who struggles with body image (dis)satisfaction may be at

risk for developing an eating disorder or disordered eating patterns. It would be ideal for future

researchers to retrieve data on athletes with eating disorders and interview them about their

experiences in revealing sport attire. These results could then be compared to the results in this

particular study.

The lack of talk surrounding body image is concerning and may be inhibiting females

from seeking the help or guidance that they need. Results from the present study showed that talk

about body image is very uncommon among the athletes. When there is talk about body image, it

appears to occur in a joking matter. Future studies should seek to find ways to promote and

normalize conversation about body image (dis)satisfaction and associated risks between athletes,

coaches and athletes, and institutions and families of athletes.

Results from the present study gave brief insight into what coaches can and cannot

discuss with their athletes, and highlighted how strong of an influence the coach can have on an

athlete’s perceived body image. Considering that body image dissatisfaction has been implicated

in the pathogenesis of eating disorders (Bettle et al., 2001), future research could examine a large

sample of collegiate coaching staffs from all divisions and different performance realms on how


29

well informed they are about disordered eating patterns and eating disorders today. It would then

be recommended that prevention plans are implemented and then examined on the degree of

effectiveness for both coaches and athletes.

Conclusion

The findings in the present study provide evidence that revealing sport attire influences

the thought processes and feelings of female collegiate athletes participating in aesthetic and

endurance sports (dance, gymnastics, and swimming). Researchers have a better understanding

of how female athletes perceive, think, and feel about their own body when wearing different

levels of revealing sport attire. External factors strongly influenced body image (dis)satisfaction

for the eight participants in this study. Particularly, coaches were found to play a vital role in the

athletes’ perceived body image of themselves.

Future research should evaluate coaches’ roles as sources of external pressure. In order to

better understand this, future research should evaluate coaches’ knowledge of the unhealthy risk

factors that accompany athlete’s low levels of body satisfaction. Researchers in this study

suggest that normalizing communication between athletes, coaches and athletes, and collegiate

institutions and the families of athletes is a way to decrease overall body image dissatisfaction

among athletes.


30

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Table 1

Demographic Information of Participants

Participant Sport Gender Year

P1 Swimming Female Freshman



P4 Dance Female Junior

P5 Dance Female Senior

P6 Gymnastics Female Junior

P7 Gymnastics Female Junior

P8 Dance Female Senior

Note. In order to ensure and protect confidentiality, participants have been labeled P#.

Participants were given their corresponding number based off the order they were interviewed.


35

Figure 1. Hierarchal structure of themes: The effects of revealing sport attire. Rectangles on the

left represent the five themes that emerged based off the participants’ experiences. These five themes have branches connecting to their accompanied lower order themes.

Revealing sport attire

Mindset

Risks

Pressure from

external sources

Perceived body image

Response to external pressures

Championship season impact

Comfort level

Confidence level

Preferred sport attire

Coaches

Media, pictures, & crowds

Comparing to others

Eating disorders

Cognitions

Emotions

Talk (or lake thereof) about body image

Higher Order Themes Lower Order Themes

Body image

(dis)satisfaction


36

Appendix A

Demographic Survey

1. What is your gender? Female Male

2. What is your age?

18 19 20

21 22

23 24

3. What year are you in college? Freshman

Sophomore Junior Senior

4. What sport do you participate in?

Swimming Diving Gymnastics

Dance Cross Country/Track

5. Have you been previously diagnosed with a psychological disorder

Yes

No If yes, please specify:

Depression Anxiety Eating Disorder

Other *Note this information will not be used to identify any participant and will

remain confidential information

6. Are you willing to participate in a 60-minute interview?

Yes No


37

Appendix B

Sport Attire in Aesthetic and Endurance Sports – Interview Guide

1. How did you come to be a collegiate _______?

a. Tell me a little bit about your introduction to the sport

2. In your opinion, what is the necessary body composition of a _________ in order to

produce the best performance results?

a. Describe any demands and/or expectations with regard to body

composition in your sport?

b. How does this affect your perception of your own body image?

3. How might a _______s perceived body image affect his/her performance?

a. How does it affect your performance?

4. What kinds of sport attire (SA) do you wear in your sport?

a. How has the sport attire you have worn changed over the years?

5. How does the SA that you wear impact your performance?

6. How do the different types of SA you wear affect your body image?

a. Which SA do you feel most comfortable/confident wearing? Why?

b. Which SA do you prefer wearing? Why?

c. Which SA do you least prefer to wear? Why?

d. How does your body (dis)satisfaction change while wearing different SAs?

e. How does sport attire impact your confidence during competition?

7. Before, during, or after competition, are you aware of any thoughts (negative

or positive) you have associated with the uniform you are wearing that day?

If so, please describe them.


38

8. How do you think others (teammates, coaches, and spectators) perceive you

while you’re wearing certain SAs?

9. What kinds of conversations do your teammates engage in with regard to

body image?

a. Describe any personal concerns you or any of your teammates have

expressed about body image (dis)satisfaction while wearing certain

uniforms

10. If you were able to choose what you wore during athletic performance in your sport, what

would you wear? Why?

Note: In the blank spaces above, researchers will insert the sport domain depending on what

sport the interviewee participates in.


39

Appendix C

IRB Approval

DATE: December 16, 2014

TO: Nicole Caron

FROM: University of Denver (DU) IRB

PROJECT TITLE: [670678-1] The Effect of Sport Attire on Performance in Aesthetic

and Endurance Sports

SUBMISSION TYPE: New Project

ACTION: APPROVED

APPROVAL DATE: December 16, 2014

EXPIRATION DATE: December 13, 2015

REVIEW TYPE: Expedited Review

REVIEW CATEGORY: Expedited review category # 6&7

Thank you for your submission of New Project materials for this project. The University

of Denver (DU) IRB has APPROVED your submission. This approval is based on an

appropriate risk/benefit ratio and a project design wherein the risks have been minimized.

All research must be conducted in accordance with this approved submission.

This submission has received Expedited Review based on the applicable federal

regulations.

Please remember that informed consent is a process beginning with a description of the

project and insurance of participant understanding followed by a signed consent form.

Informed consent must continue throughout the project via a dialogue between the

researcher and research participant. Federal regulations require each participant receives

a copy of the consent document.

Please note that any revision to previously approved materials must be approved by this

office prior to initiation. Please use the appropriate revision forms for this procedure.

All UNANTICIPATED PROBLEMS involving risks to subjects or others and SERIOUS

and UNEXPECTED adverse events must be reported promptly to this office. Please use

the appropriate reporting forms for this procedure. All FDA and sponsor reporting

requirements should also be followed.


40

All NON-COMPLIANCE issues or COMPLAINTS regarding this project must be

reported promptly to this committee.

This project has been determined to be a project. Based on the risks, this project requires

continuing review by this committee on an annual basis. Please use the appropriate forms

for this procedure. Your documentation for continuing review must be received with

sufficient time for review and continued approval before the expiration date of December

13, 2015.

Please note that all research records must be retained for a minimum of three years after the completion of the project.

If you have any questions, please contact DU Research Compliance Office at (303)871-

4050 or [email protected]. Please include your project title and reference number in all

correspondence with this committee.

This letter has been electronically signed in accordance with all applicable regulations, and a copy is retained within University of Denver (DU) IRB's records.


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Appendix D

E-mail Script for Coach Dear _______,

Thank you for taking a moment to read through this brief e-mail asking for your help in our Master’s project. As part of our curriculum toward a Masters of Arts degree in Sport and

Performance Psychology at the University of Denver, my colleagues and I are conducting an exploratory research project. We greatly appreciate your help and support.

The purpose of our research project is to better understand how sport attire (an athlete’s clothing and uniform) affects the cognitive and emotional state of the athlete, which may directly result in a change in athletic performance.

Participants will have the opportunity to discuss their thoughts and feelings regarding sensitive topics such as body image satisfaction, social pressures, and confidence levels with

qualified Master’s degree candidates. As a result of this discussion, participants may directly benefit resulting in a more optimal athletic performance in near future competitions. Indirectly, participation from your student athletes will add depth to the current research

and it will likely lead to further research that vows to produce specific strategies and techniques so that athletes may limit any negative thoughts and feelings resulting from their sport attire.

Researchers have considered risk factors and have concluded that the overall risk for participants is very low. The only type of risk that we may encounter is psychological and we have specific steps in place to limit that. If something were to escalate, we are backed by a group

of highly trained professionals (professors) who will step in to help if need be. Confidentiality will be protected and no identifying information will be shared.

Your role in supporting our research project is not very time consuming, yet it is crucial for establishing buy-in and helping us receive participation. If you are interested in helping support us, here is what we will have you do:

Whenever seems best (end of practice?), please mention in person what we are

doing, the purpose of our project, and how it might benefit the athlete. Here is a script that may help to facilitate that brief conversation:

“Team, a small group of Master’s students getting a degree in sport and performance psychology are conducting a research project and they have asked me to pass along this information to you

all as potential participants. The purpose of their research project is to better understand how sport attire (an athlete’s clothing and uniform) affects the cognitive and emotional state of the athlete, which may directly result in a change in athletic performance. You all will have the

opportunity to discuss your thoughts and feelings regarding sensitive topics such as body image satisfaction, social pressures, and confidence levels with qualified Master’s degree candidates.

As a result of this discussion, you may directly benefit resulting in a more optimal athletic performance in near future competitions. I support the work they are doing and I think research in this field will lead to positive long-term outcomes for our athletes. I will be forwarding you all

an e-mail with a few attachments to read that they asked me to send out. They said the instructions to participate will be in the e-mail. Lastly, they asked me to reiterate to you that all

information is completely confidential and no identifiable information will be shared. I, in


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particular, do not have any part in this other than forwarding on their e-mail and supporting their research project. Thank you for giving me/them a few minutes of your time.”

Coach _____, thank you for your time and your support with regard to this project. We greatly

appreciate you taking an active role in helping us conduct this study. Sincerely,

________________________

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