Petroleum, Birds, and Toothbrushes The Effects of Oil Spills on Birds and the Idea of Rehabilitation as Conservation

Courtney Dunn

Crude Oil• Produced when

zooplankton and algae undergo pressure and intense heat under sedimentary rock

• Recovered through drilling and refined for multiple uses.

• 88 million barrels consumed daily– 1,019 barrels every

second.

Hazards (Before Use)• Refining is the most energy intensive

operation in the U.S.

Contaminants in Tons Per Year

Volatile Organic Compounds: 161,207Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): 298,602Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs): 163,589

From EPA.Gov

The End-Product• Majority of crude oil used for vehicle gasoline.– Carbon Dioxide– Carbon Monoxide– NOx– VOCs

Waste Dumping• Illegal but still continues

throughout the world.• Waste (oil sludge)

emptied while en route.

• Chronic exposure towildlife populations.

Oil Spills

Stuyvesant – Humboldt Bay, California

Castillo de Bellver – Apollo Sea, South Africa Exxon Valdez – Prince William Sound, Alaska

Initial Effects

• Oil severely impacts waterproofing of feathers• High contamination can lead to “automatic” blindness and immobility• Can lead to hypothermia• If not hypothermia…starvation

Wiese and Robertson 2004

Initial Effects• Majority of affect bird populations will die simply from

coming in contact with oil.

• Newfoundland, Canada known for illegal ship dumping.

• One beach was surveyed for oiled birds over a period of 20-27 weeks in the winter months from 1998-2001.

1998-1999: 61 Birds1999-2000: 151 Birds2000-2001: 66 Birds

Only 15% Survived

Wiese and Robertson 2004

Chronic Exposure

• Oiled Seabird Mortality Model (OSMM)– Estimate mortality over time along an entire

coastline– With this mathematical model, 315,000 Murres

estimated to die due to chronic exposure to oil

Wiese and Robertson 2004

Wiese and Robertson 2004

Wiese and Robertson 2004

Wiese and Robertson 2004

After Ingestion• Affected systems:– GI– Respiratory– Integumentary– Central Nervous

• Aspiration among the biggest concerns– Pneumonia

• Cerebral anoxia

Immune Suppression• Decreased nutrient absorption– Gastrointestinal inflammation

• Increased Corticoid production– Destruction of lymphocytes– Blockage of lymphocyte activation

Newman, et al. 1999

• Fibrinogen– Clotting Factor– Elevated 200mg/l

• 11.0% Decrease in Hematocrit levels– Hemalytic anemia

Newman, et al. 1999

Reproduction

• Magellanic Penguin populations suffer chronic exposure along the coast of South America due to illegal dumping.• Populations continuing to go down despite only small spills occurring.

Reproduction

Fowler, et al. 1995

Long-Term

Common Species → Endangered• Many marine bird populations already low from

overhunting and prey depletion from overfishing.• African Penguins– Already suffering from illegal egg collecting and prey

depletion– Localized to breeding colonies– Hard hit by two oil spills – the Apollo and Treasure

Rehabilitation Efforts• 10,000 oiled penguins affected by the Apollo Spill– 5,213 survived and were re-released

• 20,251 oiled penguins affected by the Treasure Spill– 18,000 rehabilitated and released

• Studies ongoing which reveal released birds existing in breeding colonies.

Underhill, et al. 1999

Rehabilitation Efforts• Good or Bad?– Conservation with a price

• Stress hormones present in higher quantities in rehabilitated birds compared to non-oiled controls (Wiese and Robertson 2004).

• Bacterial infections known to spread amongst birds in rehabilitation centers prior to release.

Ecosystem DisruptionAfrican Penguin Populations200,000 in 2000 55,000 in 2010From International Union for the Conservation of Nature

• This example can be related to other seabird species which serve as vital parts of their ecosystems.

• Considerations - how are more susceptible species being affected?

Underhill, et al. 1999

Questions?

Fowler, G., J. Wingfield, and P. Boersma. 1995. Hormonal and Reproductive Effects of Low Levels of Petroleum Fouling in Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus Magellanicus). The Auk 112.12 382-89.

Among the marine bird species penguins are often harmed the most when an oil spill occurs. Direct effects include ingestion of the petroleum as well as coating of the feathers – leading to hypothermia. These quickly noticeable physical mean high mortality rates for penguins involved directly in the spill. Long term effects are less noticeable but often of higher consequences. Fowler, et al discovered high corticosterone concentrations in female Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) which led to suppressed immune and reproductive systems. Presence of the hormone was also noted in birds which were only handled and washed by the humans. These findings note rehabilitation efforts which are high stress could severely impact future survival of Magellanic Penguins previously involved in a spill.

Kahn, C. M. "Toxicology - Petroleum Exposure. 2005. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Whitehouse Station, NJ. Print.

Chapter discusses the range of effects frompetroleum exposure in a host of animals. Clinical findings range from GI upset to nervous system disorders. Diagnosis and treatments differ depending on severity of the case.

Newman, S., R. Golightly, E. Craig, H. Carter, and C. Kreuder. 1999. The Effects of Petroleum Exposure and Rehabilitation on Post-release Survival, Behavior, and Blood Health Indices: A Common Murre Case Study. 1-46. Final Report - Oiled Wildlife Care Network, Wildlife Health Center,.

In the Fall of 1999, the mouth of Humboldt Bay in California was covered in nearly 9,000 liters of petroleum prompting many wildlife organizations to begin rehabilitation of the oiled and injured coastal birds. Complexities and time spans recorded for after rehabilitation monitoring have severely limited any analysis of these efforts. Researchers aimed to further understand the impacts of these organizations by monitoring Murre birds during rehabilitation and post-release. 31 Murres were fitted with radio transmitters, mortality sensors, and had biological measurements taken (including blood samples). 25-31 days after release the birds were recaptured and reassessed for recovery. Through this effort, the long-term effects of petroleum were seen to be minimal on birds which had undergone rehabilitation procedures. Mean survival increased significantly for those who had been rescued by wildlife centers as compared to control Murres.

Underhill, L. G., P. A. Bartlett, Baumann, R. J.M. Crawford, B. M. Dyer, A. Gildenhuys, D. C. Nel, T. B. Oatley, M. Thornton, L. Upfold, A. J. Williams, P. A. Whittington, and A. C. Wolfaardt. 1999. Mortality and Survival of African Penguins Spheniscus Demersus involved in the Apollo Seaoil Spill: An Evaluation of Rehabilitation Efforts. Ibis 141.1 29-37.

Wiese, F. K., and G. J. Robertson. 2004. Assessing Seabird Mortality From Chronic Oil Discharges At Sea. Ed. Boal. Journal of Wildlife

Management 68.3 627-38. Major oil spills like the Exxon Valdez are often times what comes to mind when referring to wildlife exposure to petroleum. More likely is a small spill such as a dump from a cargo ship to come in contact with avian populations. Researchers have long sought to understand how populations are affected by chronic exposure but have not been able to overcome hindrances such as carcass disturbance. A mathematical model known as the Oiled Bird Mortality Model was constructed to determine overall deaths in relation to those which were known over a 27 week period during the winter months in Newfoundland, Canada.

Sources