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ON BEING NATIVE IN THE 21ST
CENTURY: New Meanings, New Data
C. Matthew Snipp
Department of Sociology
Stanford University
Being Indian in America
• A category of civil status– The sovereign rights of tribal governments– The rights of tribal membership– The substance of law and politics
• A category of race and/or ethnicity– The substance of demographic research– How White people (and others) know us…..
The evolving meaning of race
• An out-group designation– Jews during the Spanish Inquisition
• A category of civil status– The United States Constitution
• A biological concept– Carl Linnaeus 1735– Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 1776
• A social construct– Ashley Montagu 1942
• Genomic research and continental origins
Race as out-group
• Construction of “others”
• Demonization and the making of aliens– Heathen infidels– Noble savages
Race as “civil status”
United States ConstitutionArticle I, Section 2
“Representatives and direct Taxes … shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.”
“The actual Enumeration shall be made …. within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct.”
Race as Biology
• Early classifications– Linnaeus (1735): “Americanus Rubenscens”– Blumenbach (1776): “American”
• 19th & 20th century race science– The search for homogeneous gene pools– Accumulating genetic markers
• Modern biology and the human genome project
“PRINCETON, N.J., Jun. 15, 2005 - Orchid Cellmark Inc. (Nasdaq ORCH), a leading worldwide provider of identity DNA testing services, today announced the launch of a new service that allows Native American tribes to confirm the genetic lineage of individuals seeking tribal enrollment.”
“This new service can confirm the familial relationship of specific individuals to existing tribal members, in addition to determining their percentage of Native American-associated DNA.”
“Each tribe has its own criterion with respect to the degree of relatedness a person must establish to be eligible for enrollment. Because DNA testing can establish genetic relatedness with exceptional accuracy, it is a powerful tool to confirm the biological relationships of prospective tribal members.”
PRESS RELEASE
Scientific attempts to define race
• 150 years of failure• The emergence of the concept of “ethnicity”
– Group designation based on common culture, behavior, social organization
– Julian Huxley and Charles Haddon 1936– Ashley Montagu 1942
• American Indians as multiethnic
Race as a Social Construct
• Ashley Montagu 1942
• Administrative definitions as social constructs– Bureaucratic mandates– Political interest groups
Administrative Definitions for American Indians
• Blood Quantum
• Tribal membership– American Indian Self-Determination and
Educational Assistance Act (PL 93-638) 1975.
• Self-definition
Blood Quantum
• Lewis Henry Morgan
• Ely S. Parker 1828-1895– Military secretary to U.S. Grant 1863-66– Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1869-71
• Measuring progress to “civilization”
• Commissioners of Indian Affairs set ¼ blood quantum in 1933
• IRA (1934) tribal constitutions
Tribal membership
• Inclusive tribes– Oklahoma Cherokee– Some Ojibwe bands
• Exclusive tribes– Some Pueblos
• Multiplicity of criteria established by tribal governments
Self-definition
The source of most data about race and ethnicity in the United States
Some historical background about racial classification in the United States
• Before 1977• 1977: OMB Directive No. 15• 1990 decennial census• Post-1990 OMB review• 1997 Revision of Directive No. 15• 2000 decennial census
Racial classification circa 1977
• Absent standards, lack of consistent records– White, Non-white– White, Black, Other
• 1977 OMB Directive No. 15– American Indian or Alaskan Native– Asian or Pacific Islander– Black, not of Hispanic origin– Hispanic origin– White, not of Hispanic origin
“These classifications should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature…..” (OMB Directive 15).
Implementation of Directive 15
• ALL federal agencies, grantees and contractors
• 1980 census
• 1990 census– a turning point in racial measurement
Triangulating Race and Ethnicity in the 1990 Census
Protests against the 1990 Census
• Omitted groups– Arabs
– Taiwanese
– Native Hawaiians
• Inter-racial family organizations– e.g. Atlanta-based RACE (Reclassify All Children
Equally)
• Congressional inquiries– Rep. Tom Sawyer (D-OH)
OMB Revised Standard
• Issued October 30, 1997
• Effective January 1, 2003
• Modified categories
• Modified instructions
OMB Revised Categories
• American Indian or Alaskan Native (including Central and South America)
• Asian
• Black or African American
• Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
• White
• Hispanic-Latino/a a category of “ethnicity”
OMB Revised Instructions
Respondents shall be offered the option of selecting
one or more racial designations. Recommended
forms for the instruction accompanying the multiple response question are "Mark one or more" and
"Select one or more."
First Implementation of Revised OMB Standard: 2000 Census
Being Multiracial in America: historic precedents
• Pocahontas and John Rolfe• Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau• Sally Hemmings and Thomas Jefferson• Loving v. Virginia 1967
Colonial Mexico:admixture classification
• Spanish-Indian: mestizo
• Mestizo-Spanish F: castizo
• Spanish-Castizo F: spanish
• Negro-Spanish F: mulatto
• Spanish-Mulatto F: morisco
• Spanish-Morisco F: albino
• Spanish-Albino F: torna atras
• Indian-Torna Atras F: lobo• Lobo-Indian F: zambaigo
• Zambaigo-Indian F: cambujo
• Cambujo-Mulatto F: albarazado
• Albarazado-Mulatto F: barcino
• Barcino-Mulatto F: coyote
• Indian-Coyote F: chamiso
• Mestizo-Chamiso F: coyote mestizo
• Coyote Mestizo-Mulatto F: ahi te estas
Projected United States Population by Single and Multiple Origins, 2000 to 2100 (in millions)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
Single Origin Multiple Origin
Source: Barry Edmonston et al. “Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration and their Effects on the Future Racial Composition of the United States.” Pp. 227-225 in J. Perlman and M.C. Waters (eds.)The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals . New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002. Table 9.8.
Projected United States Multiple Origin Population by Race/Ethnic Group, 2000 to 2100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
AIAN API Black Hispanic White
Source: Barry Edmonston et al. “Recent Trends in Intermarriage and Immigration and their Effects on the Future Racial Composition of the United States.” Pp. 227-225 in J. Perlman and M.C. Waters (eds.)The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals . New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002. Table 9.8.
Ten Most Common Multiracial Combinations by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2000 Census and 2004 American Community Survey (000s)
2000 Census 2004 ACS Percent Difference
1) Hispanic White and Other Race 1434.1 713.2 -50.3
2) Non-Hispanic White and AIAN 1119.0 1201.9 7.4
3) Non-Hispanic White and Other Race 829.1 92.6 -88.8
4) Non-Hispanic White and Asian 721.7 808.6 12.0
5) Non-Hispanic White and Black 694.8 974.7 40.3
6) Non-Hispanic Black and Other Race 293.5 38.6 -86.9
7) Non-Hispanic Asian and Other Race 196.1 40.1 -79.6
8) Non-Hispanic Black and AIAN 183.9 190.6 3.6
9) Hispanic Black and Other Race 166.4 102.1 -38.6
10) Non-Hispanic Asian and NHOPI 122.6 80.6 -34.3
Change in the Number of Persons in the Largest Multiracial Combinations Consisting of “Legacy” Races (000s)
2000 Census 2004 ACS Percent Difference
2) Non-Hispanic White and AIAN 1119.0 1201.9 7.4
4) Non-Hispanic White and Asian 721.7 808.6 12.0
5) Non-Hispanic White and Black 694.8 974.7 40.3
8) Non-Hispanic Black and AIAN 183.9 190.6 3.6
10) Non-Hispanic Asian and NHOPI 122.6 80.6 -34.3
Total 2842.0 3256.4 14.6
Percent of Married Persons 18 Years and Older in the Ten Largest Multiracial Groups in the 2004 American Community Survey
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
NH White &AIAN
NH White &Black
NH White &Asian
Hisp White& Other
NH Black &AIAN
Hisp White& Black
Hisp White& AIAN
Hisp Black& Other
NH White &NHOPI
NH White,Black,AIAN
Percent Educational Attainment of the Ten Largest Multiracial Groups in the 2004 American Community Survey, Persons Age 25 and Older
Years of School
Non-Hispanic
White & AIAN
Non-Hispanic
White & Black
Non-Hispanic
White & Asian
Hispanic White &
Other
Non-Hispanic Black & AIAN
Hispanic White &
Black
Hispanic White & AIAN
Hispanic Black &
Other
Non-Hispanic White & NHOPI
Non-Hispanic Black,
White & AIAN
Less than High School
16.1 9.5 5.7 21.4 16.8 26.9 22.4 12.5 8.8 9.8
High School
31.0 29.2 18.8 27.9 20.8 38.8 28.0 20.0 36.3 17.2
1 to 3 Years College
35.4 36.1 33.0 30.9 43.5 20.3 34.9 43.2 27.4 38.2
4 or More Years College
17.5 25.3 42.5 19.8 18.9 13.9 14.7 24.3 27.6 34.7
Percent of Persons 18 Years and Older in the Civilian Labor Force in the Ten Largest Multiracial Groups in the 2004 American Community Survey
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
NH White &AIAN
NH White &Black
NH White &Asian
Hisp White& Other
NH Black &AIAN
Hisp White& Black
Hisp White& AIAN
Hisp Black& Other
NH White &NHOPI
NH White,Black,AIAN
Distribution of American Indian and Alaska Natives by Type of Land Area: 1990, 2000 Alone, 2000 Multiracial
Reservations
OK TSAs
ANVs
ANRs
Other Land
1990
2000 Alone
2000 Multiracial
Source: Indian and Native AmericanTraining Coalition, 2004, Table 1
Unemployment Rates for AIAN Alone and AIAN Multiracial Populations by Land Area, 2000 Census
0
5
10
15
20
25
Reservations OK TSAs ANVs ANRs Other Land
AIAN Alone AIAN Multiracial
Source: Indian and Native American Training Coalition, 2004, Table 3.
Poverty Rates for AIAN Alone and AIAN Multiracial Populations by Land Area, 2000 Census
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Reservations OK TSAs ANVs ANRs Other Land
AIAN Alone AIAN Multiracial
Source: Indian and Native American Training Coalition, 2004, Table 3.
California Health Interview Survey, 2001
Multiple questions about race
Percent Age Distribution of American Indian and Alaska Native Women, California Health Interview Survey, 2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Any Mention AIAN Only DOF UCLA
18-49
50-64
65+
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of Education of American Indian and Alaska Native Women, California Health Interview Survey, 2001.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Any Mention AIAN Only DOF UCLA
LT HSHSSome CollegeBA+
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of Usual Source of Care, American Indian and Alaska Native Women, California Health Interview Survey, 2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Any Mention AIAN Only DOF UCLA
Yes, IHSYes, OtherNo USC
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of American Indian and Alaska Native Women Age 65 and Younger with IHS Coverage, California
Health Interview Survey, 2001
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Any Mention AIAN DOF UCLA
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of Current Smokers Among American Indian and Alaska Native Women, California Health Interview
Survey, 2001
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Any Mention AIAN DOF UCLA
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of American Indian and Alaska Native Women with a Body Mass Index Greater Than or Equal to 30
(Obese), California Health Interview Survey, 2001
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Any Mention AIAN DOF UCLA
Source: Swan et al. 2006, Table 4
Percent Distribution of Recent Cancer Screening Tests Among American Indian and Alaska Native Women, California Health
Interview Survey, 2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Any Mention AIAN DOF UCLA
Colo-Rectal Papanicolaou Mammogram
Concluding Comments
• Heterogeneity and Instability of Racial Data– Diversity amid Diversity
• The Complexity of Racial Measurement
• The importance of community engagement