วารสารการบริการและการท่องเที่ยวไทย 97 ปีที่ 12 ฉบับที่ 1 (มกราคม – มิถุนายน 2560) On the Edge of Thai Society toward Tourism Employment มุมมองของชุมชนชายขอบต่อสายงานในธุรกิจการท่องเที่ยว Kanokkarn Kaewnuch National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) Abstract A comprehensive study was carried out in the tribal area in Chiang Mai, Thailand with a group of hill tribe people, Karen and Hmong. The study aims to explore perceptions of these groups of people towards impacts from tourism employment. This paper seeks to extend our understanding of these two culturally distinct groups by considering them as employees in tourism sectors located in Chiang Mai. The analysis discusses the perceptions of Karen and Hmong employees, working for tourism business managed by Thai nationals. The analysis focuses upon the respondents perceptions regarding their perceived impacts from employing tourism job with the Thai. Due to the limited numbers of hill tribe people, two hundred questionnaires administered. The research demonstrated that the cultural backgrounds and ethnicities of these two tribes do effect their perceptions resulting in differences in their views of impacts from working in the tourism industry. That said, it can be briefly elaborated that despite a few similarities in the perceptions of the Karen and Hmong of positive impacts upon themselves resulting from their working with the external tourism actions (ETAs), the major concerns were focused on the significant differences in their perceptions towards negative impacts as Hmong tend to perceive more of the negative impacts when compared to the Karen group in terms of losing their value and belief in their traditions and sacred sites as they had to deal with them as tourist attractions. Moreover, Hong also strongly projected that they have failed to maintain their relationship with their family due to their working pattern with the ETAs. Keywords: hill tribe, perception, tourism employment, acculturation
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วารสารการบริการและการท่องเที่ยวไทย
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On the Edge of Thai Society toward Tourism Employment
Introduction In recentyears therehasbeenagrowth inmulti-culturalworkingenvironments (Fineet al., 1990), notonly in thedevelopedworld (Berry, 1997)but also in less developedcountriesand regions, (Wilsonetal.,2001).Vergunst (2008)argues thatas societiesdevelopeconomically there isan increaseddemand for resources, including humanresourcesandasa result, there isan increaseddegreeof interactionbetweenpeople frommoredeveloped,oftenurbanareasand those fromthe lessdeveloped,oftenruralareas,despitesimilaritiesordissimilaritiesincultureand/orethnicity.TheThaigovernmenthas for sometime recognised tourismasanopportunity for reducing theprosperitygapbetweenurbanand ruralareas, retaining thepopulationand improving thewelfareof rural communities (CommunityBasedTourism Institute (CBT-I), 2008). Therefore,theThaigovernmentpromotesthedevelopmentofhilltribetourismtobothprivateandpublic sector investors inorder tocreate jobopportunities and thereby improvetheincomesoflocalpeople. Inthisresearch‘externaltourismactors’(ETAs)aredefinedasThaientrepreneurswhotendtodominateahostcommunityduetotheirhighersocialstatusandwealthwhen comparedtothehilltribepeople.Theyareindividualsfromoutsidethetribalcommunitywhoarenottourists,butattractedbytheopportunitytodeveloptheirbusinessesinanewlocation. Theperceptionsandattitudesofresidentstowardstourismemploymenthasbeeninvestigated inanumberofstudies (Pizam,1978).However, relatively little researchhasthus farbeenconductedontheperceptionsof twotribalpeoplewhoworkwithETAs,. Twohypotheseswereconsidered;one (Ho) is that the respondents fromeachof the differenttribeshavesimilarexperiences,perceptionsandvaluesinrelationtoemploymentwithindividualsfromoutsidetheircommunity.Thealternativehypothesis(H1)isthatethnictribalandculturaldifferenceswillresultindifferencesintheirviewsoftheiremploymentby individualsofanotherculture in this instanceThainationalwhoare themajorityof theThaipopulation.
Research Objectives Toexploreandcompareperceptionsof thetwoculturallydistinctgroupsofhilltribepeopletowardstheiremploymentintourismbusiness.
Definitions of perception SchiffmanandKanuk (1987)academicallydefinetheterminologyofperception as“aprocessbywhichan individual selects,organises, and interprets stimuli intoa meaningfulandcoherentpictureof theworld”Rungapadiachy (1999); Samovarand Porter(1991)offerasimilardefinitiondefiningperceptionasthemethodbywhichstimuliarechosenfromtheexternalenvironmentandinterpretedintoprofoundmeaningfulinternal experiences.According toSmith (2002)perception is aprimary aspectof judgment. Perceptionissignificantinsupportingtheviewsofanindividual,andtheirthinking,about theworld.Itdetermineshowindividualsexperienceobjectsorevents(Haakonssen,2006).Merleau-Ponty(2002)“Perceptionisthebackgroundfromwhichallactsstandout,andispresupposedbythem”.Theemphasisoftheselaterdefinitionsisparticularlyrelevanttothisinvestigation,asithelpsclarifyhowdifferentlygroupofhilltrippeoplewouldperceiveandvaluecertainimpacts.
Influences upon perception AccordingtoBronfenbrenner(1979)perceptionisnottotallyobjective,itdependsonneonatal,childhood,and laterexperiences (Klein,2007).Supaap (1993)pinpointedfivedeterminantsofchanges inperceptionare family, friends, school, careerand the media.InviewofReisingerandTurner(2003)perceptionsareinfluencedbyanumberof externalfactors,economic,social,cultural,geographical,andinternalfactors,demographic, psychographic,andbehaviouristic.Tajfel(1978),SamovarandPorter(1991)andBrislinandCushner(1996)agreeduponthenotionthatoneofthemainfactorsthatdirectlyinfluenceperception isculture. In termsofperceptionsof tourismdevelopment, severalscholars (e.g.,ApandCrompton,1993;BroughamandButler,1981;Husbands,1989;Lawsonetal.,1998;Murphy,1983;Pizam,1978;RyanandMontgomery,1994;Thomasonetal.,1979;Tyrelland
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Spaulding,1984)have focusedontheperceptionsof tourismheldby residentsof the destinationcommunity.Thesefindingsdemonstrate thatpeoplewho live in thesamecommunityand share the sameculturedonotnecessarilyhave shared interestsor perceptionsandtheyoftenholdverymixedviews(Hall,1994).Therefore,thebackgroundplaysasignificantroleindirectinghowonethink,feelandlikelytoresultinhowtheyformtheirbehaviours. Cause of cultural diversities in the workplace AccordingtoTung(1993)across-culturalworkgroupoftenformsasaresultofanorganisationrecruitingpeoplefromdifferentculturestoworktogether.Yet,Granroseand Oskamp(1997)highlightseveralfactorsasreasonsforculturaldiversityintheworkplace explaining thatsomegroupsvoluntarilycometo live together (e.g., immigrants, in thiscase theETAs)whileothersare involuntary (e.g., refugees, slaves, indigenouspeoples)orwillinglymove toanew location (e.g., immigrants and refugees)or ifpermanent (e.g.,ethno-cultural groups)or temporary (e.g. sojourners suchas guestworkersand asylumseekers),whileothergroupshavehadthenewculture (e.g., indigenouspeoplesandnationalminorities) (GranroseandOskamp,1997).However,despitedifferentfactorsleadingtotheestablishmentofpluralsocieties,BerryandSam(1996)suggest that the fundamentalprocessesofinterculturalrelationsandpsychologyadaptationappeartobecommonamongthesegroups,whatisdifferentisthedegreeofinteractionofeachgroupwhichcanresultindifferentoutcomes. On theotherhand,GranroseandOskamp (1997)explain that theoutcomeofcontacts inculturallyplural societiescanbedivided into twodomains;acculturationandethnicrelations.While,Berry(1990)pointsoutthatwhenindividualsorgroupshave continuousinterculturalcontacts,changesoccursandtheminoritiesoftenbecomepartofthemainstreamculture.However,GranroseandOskamp(1997)assertthattheresultsfromtheinteractioncouldvaryduetoanumberoffactors,social,politicalandpsychological factorsthatcharacterisethetwogroupsincontact.Moreover,theyjustifythatacculturationandethnicrelationsinpluralsocietiescanresultinoutcomesthatrangefromconflictandstresstomutualaccommodationandadaptation.
Social Exchange Theory Understanding the roleof socialexchange theoryandwhat it represents can contributegreatlytothemain ideaofthispaperas itexplainshowonewouldperceivebenefitsandcostsof their interactionwithcertain issue.Sutton (1967)assertsthathost
andguestcontactscanbecomparedtoasocialexchange,andthattherefore,thesocial interactionbetweenoutsidersandhost residentscanbeassessed intermsofperceivedcosts andbenefits. Social exchange theory (SET), hasbeenwidelyused in tourism research todetermine resident’sperceptions in touristdestinations (Allenetal.,1993; Anderecketal.,2005;Ap,1992;Nash,1989;Perdueetal.,1987).Severalresearchershaveapplied this theory tostudydiversityofperceptions inasinglecommunity (Ap,1992; Jurowskietal.,1997;Madrigal,1993;Perdueetal.,1987).Thesestudiesfoundthathostresidents favour tourismwhen thebenefits theyacquire fromtourism is greater thantheir losses.The theoryassumes thatpeople selectexchangeshavingassessed the rewards and the costs (Ap, 1992). Theoretically, residentswhoview the resultsof tourismaspersonallyvaluableandbelievethatthecostsdonotexceedthebenefitswill perceivemorepositivelyandfavourthe introductionoftourism(Ap,1992;Turner,1981)andthesestudiessupportthishypothesis.
Hill tribe people in Thailand Thailandhasapopulationofaround70million(Colin,2014)andhostsavarietyofethnicgroups,thehilltribeminoritygroupsinthenorthofThailand,estimatedat914,755(SocialDevelopmentCenter,2008)arenotan indigenouspopulationandhavebeen relocatingaroundSoutheastAsia forover1000years.Rajani (2002)argues that these tribeshavemovedtoThailandduebothtotheir traditionalnomadic lifestyle -moving aroundona7yearcyclepracticinga“slashandburn”, ‘swidden’ farming techniques,coupledwithpoliticalandeconomicproblemsandother socialpressures (Evrardand Leepreecha, 2009; Eversole et al., 2005;Hall andPatrinos, 2006;McKinnon, 2003). Rajani (2002) suggest that theKarenpeoplemoved toThailandapproximately 200yearsagowhereas theHmongenteredThailand later,around150yearsago, scattered throughoutthecountrybutoccurprimarilyintheremotemountainsofthenorth(Toyota, 2005).However,an increasingnumberofhilltribepeople inThailand inrecentdecades have shownawillingness toparticipate indevelopmentprogrammeswith thehope of becoming closer tomainstreamThai society (Aguettant, 1996; Buadang, 2004; Wijeyewardene,1990).CharlesandMiMi,1961;Cohen,1989;Nadel,1995;andParry(2007)suggestthathilltribepeopleliveinsocietiesthatappeartobedistinctanddifferentfrommanycontemporarysocieties includingThai society.Cummings (2005)andWall (1996) claim thathill tribepeople tend tohave lower standardsof living.McKinnon (2003) describes thestereotypeofhill tribepeopleas“forest simpletons”.They tend tobe treatedasasecondclasscitizenoftenbeingmistreatedbythemajoritygroupsinThailandandlesspowerwhencomparedtootherethnicgroupsinthecountry.
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Hill tribe tourism and External Tourism Actors (ETAs) The rangesofactual/potential tourismactivities inhill tribe locationsarenotonly interesting for touristsbutalso for stakeholders, investorsandbusinessmenwho foresee theopportunities todevelop tourismbusinesses (Cohen,2000).Thepotentialforhilltribetourismistogenerate incomeforthenation;thus,thegovernment,private sector investorsandvariousNGO’s, theThaiRoyalFamily,consideredastheETAshave provideemploymentopportunitiesforlocalhilltriberesidentsandasaresulthavecreated multi-culturalworkplaces introduceda rangeof activities forhill tribe community destinations, i.e. the Royal Project, an agriculturally based foundation has been promotingcashcropsandhilltribetourismasreplacementsforgrowingtheopiumpoppy(Rajani,2002;RoyalProjectFoundation (RPF),2003).Variousgovernment led initiatives have sought toencouragehill tribepeople tobecome involved in tourismwith the primarygoalstoprovidesupplementaryincomeandtoprovidegenuineknowledgeaboutthesepeopletorectifyanymisunderstandingamongoutsiders,and importantlytohelpboost theThaieconomy.More recentlymanyETAshaveenteredthesehill tribeareaswiththeintentionofdevelopingtourismbusinesses(ThaiDevelopmentResearchInstitute (TDRI),1997).
Methodology Atwostage integratedmethodologywasadoptedtogatherprimarydata. In the first stage, focusgroupswereconductedwith respondents fromeach tribewhowere employedbyETAs.TheprofilesofthefocusgrouprespondentsaregiveninTable1. The focus groupdiscussionsexplored the following themes; typesof tourism businesses,degreeof involvement, reasons forworkingwithETAs, and theconflicts encountered in theworkplaceandfinally, thevillagersproposedsolutions.Thedatafromthesefocusgroupswereanalysed,usingcontentanalysis,andgroupedtogetherto identifythemajorthemesrelatingtotherespondentsexperienceofemploymentwithETAsanumberofwhichhadnotemergedfromtheprecedingreviewoftheliterature.Thesefindingstogetherwiththefindingsoftheliteraturereviewwereusedtocreateanddesigna questionnaire,distributedtoasampleof respondents in theselectedcommunities to identifytheperceptionsandattitudesofKarenandHmongrespondents.Therespondents wereaskedto indicate their levelofagreementwithaseriesofstatements relating to: 1) thetypesof tourismbusinesses,2) theirdegreeof involvement,3) their reasons for workingwithETAs,4)theconflictstheyencounteredwithETAs,andfinallytheirproposed solutions.EachstatementwasevaluatedonafivepointLikertscale,where1=strongly disagreeand5=stronglyagree.
Apilotstudyleadingtoamodificationofthequestionnairewasundertakenwitha sampleof respondentswhohadexperienced the roleofETAs in theexpansionof tourisminDoiInthanonandwerethereforeabletorelatetothequestionnaire.Theresultsfromthepilot testsdemonstrated thatsomefurtherclarificationwas requiredandalso demonstratedthatface-to-faceinterviewswouldbeessentialassomeoftherespondents haddifficulties inunderstanding theThai languageandothersdidnot like to readthe questions;hence,togainasaccurateinformationaspossible,interviewercompletionwas essential. Itwasclear fromthe focusgroupsandgeneralobservations in thevillagesthatthemajorityofboth tribesare stillemployed inagricultureorothernonETA-relatedjobs.UnfortunatelynorecordsordataexistsastohowmanyoftheKarenandHmongin Doi InthanonworkwithETAs.Anestimateofmadebythevillageheadmenfrombothtribesindicatedthatapproximately150oftheirtribalmembersworkforETAs,representing approximately15%ofeach tribalcommunity.Basedupon this informationa samplesizeof100 respondents fromeachtribewhowork forETAswasagreed.Logisticaland pragmaticfactors,notleastthedifficultyoffindingrespondentsathomeduringdaylight resulted inasnowballingapproachtosamplingbeingappliedtoreach100respondentsfromeachtribe,workingwithETAs.DatawasanalysedusingSPSSVersion16.Descriptivedataincludingfrequency,meanscoreandmedianwereusedindiscussingthedistributionof responsesgatheredduringthequantitativesurvey.DifferencesbetweenthesamplesweredeterminedbasedupontheMannWhitneyUtest, isbasedonranks, themedian(middle rank),andtherefore,meanrange is themostappropriatesummarystatistics toreport (PeacockandKerry,2007).However, in this instancemedianscores,meanvalueandthefrequenciesofeachvariablearegiven,toclarifytheinterpretationoftheresults (e.g., Shohametal., 2006;Xuetal., 2009).Whilenominal andcategoricaldatawas collectedthemajoritywasordinalbeingderived fromfivepointLikertscalesandwas non-parametric (Field,2006); therefore, theMannWhitneyUtestwasusedtoanalysetheperceptionsof thedifferent independent sample groups (Polit andBeck, 2004). Furthermore,thechi-squaretestwasusedintheanalysisofthenominalandcategoricaldatacollected(Field,2006)e.g., typeofemployment,degreeof involvement,proposedsolutions forperceivedconflicts. Inbothcases the significantvalue for rejecting the nullhypothesiswas0.05(Field,2006;Pallant,2001).
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Perceptions of impacts arising from working with ETAsSimilarities Table1SimilaritiesintheperceptionsoftheKarenandHmongofimpactsuponthemselvesandotheremployeesresultingfromtheirworkingwithETAs
Equally,every respondent fromboth theKarenandHmongsharedtheopinion(mean>4.5)thatdemandswerehigherforfemalelabourandbyworkingwithETAshasgiventhemmoreconfidenceandallowedthemtobemoreopenandtoworkmoreeasilywithothernontribalpeople.ThiscanbesupportedbyAp,(1992)whoproposedthatpeople, especiallyhost residents, tendto favour tourismwhenthebenefits theyacquire from tourism isgreater than their losses.Turner (1981)alsoclaims that thesocialexchange theoryplaysasignificant role in thiscontextbysupporting thisfindingsas the theory assumesthatpeopleselectexchangeshavingassessedthe rewardsandthecostsfirstthendecidewhetheritworthdoingornot.Thisconceptisconsistencewiththeresultsofthisstudyasbothgroupsalsorecognisedthatwhiletheir incomeincreasedsodidtheir expenditures.Theywerealso inclined toagree that theyhavechangedthemselves to becomemore‘Thai’ likeasa resultofworkingwithETAs.Thismaybeduetothe factthat theyaremorewillingly toparticipate in the tourism industry,although theymay
VariablesMean Rank
of agree and strongly agreeMean Score
5=strongly agree
Perceived impacts resulting from working with ETAs
Karen Hmong Sig. Karen Hmong
The arrival of ETAs has resulted in agreaterdemandforfemalelabour
The results fromtheMann-WhitneyU test showedthat the twoethnicgroups perceivedsevenof the thirteen impactsdifferently. Itcanbeexplainedthatexternal environmentplayan important role indirectinghowonewould interpret theworldtheyarein,yet,thegreaterinfluencewouldbefromtheindividualprofoundmeaningful internalexperiences(SchiffmanandKanuk,1987;SamovarandPorter,1991).AcalculationofeffectsizewasperformedbasedontheirZ-scoresof theresultsthatholdsignificant differences intheirviews.Howevertheresultsrepresentsmalltomediumeffect (below the .3criterion) for theviewof impacts fromtheiremploymentwithETAs.Therefore, itcanbeconcludedthattheirexperiencesofimpacts,showninFigure1,weresignificantly different.However,thesedifferenceswerenotthatsignificantastheyonlyheldsmalltomediumeffectsize. Havingcomparedsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoethnicgroups,thefollowing tablesshowtheresults fromtheMann-Whitney test forsignificantdifferences inperceivedpositiveandnegative impactsbetweenmalesand femaleswithineach ethnicgroup(intra-tribalgroupbygender),aswellasacrosstheethnicsgroup(inter-tribalgroupbygender).ThefindingsfromthisstudycanclearlybeexplainedbySamovarandPorter(1991)thatoneofthemainfactorsthatdirectlyinfluenceperceptioniscultureand supportedbyGranroseandOskamp(1997)whobelievedthatculturestronglyinfluencestheenvironmentinwhichpeopleareraised,inthatitexposesthemtoexperiencesand producesmeanings.BerryandSam(1996)alsoemphasisedthatoncepeoplewhoholdadifferent setofcultureandvaluearecrossingeachother; it ismost likely result in
Conclusion Cultureplaysasignificantroleindirectinghowoneperceivesandinterpretsthings.Asaresult, it ismoreorlessreflectingontheirbehaviourtowardscertainsituation,and forthiscaseisatourismemploymentwiththeThais.Thefindingsfromthisstudysuggestthatthoughtourismbusinesscanenormouslydrawattentionandattractminoritygroups ofpeopletoworkinthisindustryduetotheobviouseconomicbenefits,yetthehilltrip people fromdifferent cultural backgrounds tend toperceive and act upon things differently.
Recommendations Understandingperceptionsofpeople,especiallythosewhoholdadifferentvalueand fromadifferentculturalbackgroundcan leadtoamoreappropriatemanagement for tourismemployment.Therefore, a combinationof insight intoculturally specific perceptions, behaviours and understanding of broader cultural value is strongly recommended inaworkingenvironmentwithahighdiversity.Thus, tourismemployers shouldbewell-awareandprepared tohandleandaccommodatedifferentmind-set from their employees. Abetter understanding of culturally embedded values and perceptionsofthehill tribeemployeesshouldresult ina rewardingworkingexperience forthemandeffectivemanagementfortourismemployers.
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