One Teacher's Journey Into Classroom Inquiry About Science Teachingand Science Writing

Zoe DonoahueMay 1994

IntroductionAn inquiry starts with a question or, in Judith Newman's words, a "critical incident" (1987), which occurs when a teacher is unsettled or uncomfortable about a part of the classroom program. This is precisely what happened when my grade 4/5 students were working on an introductory design technology unit. The children were rotating through six stations, working with a variety of manipulative materials. I wanted them to record their learning and accomplishments in writing so I designed a record sheet for them to fill out that asked them where they worked, what they made, its function, what materials and tools they used, what they discovered and/or learned, changes they made as they worked, problems they had and how they solved them and what they liked or disliked about working with the material. As well, they were to draw a labeled diagram of what they had made.

My goal in setting up this structured response activity was to get the children to reflect on the process they went through as they constructed, focusing on problem solving and the way things work. I wanted them to be more aware of their learning and understanding and to have a record of what they had done. Drawing a diagram would teach them to observe and give them practice in technical drawing and labeling, as well as providing a visual record of what they had made. At least, that is what I thought would happen.

In her article "Learning to Teach by Uncovering Our Assumptions", Newman states that teachers can use "critical incidents as a way of finding out more about their current beliefs and about the assumptions underlying what [they are] doing in the classroom" (p.727). Wells and Chang-Wells (1992) extend this point when they write that teachers can use what they learn through critical incidents and "reconsider some of the assumptions on which they based their pedagogical decisions. Beliefs that had before been tacit [become] more explicit and, in some cases, [are] found to need radical change" (p.172).

The critical incident which gave rise to my inquiry happened when I saw how the children were completing the record sheets I had prepared for them. It was clear that there was not a match between why I was having the children fill out the sheets and the way that they perceived the task. They worked quickly and carelessly and wrote as little as possible. Many were not answering the questions completely and I was sending them back once, twice or even three times to add to or improve their answers. Their diagrams also showed little care and rarely contained titles or labels. My frustration with the poor job the children were doing eventually turned to reflection. I wasn't content to nag and force them to produce the quality and quantity of work that I felt was appropriate. It was obvious that they did not see value in what they were required to do or how it was

contributing to their learning and understanding of technology, that they were only filling out the record sheets because I insisted on it.

Newman writes that "what these critical incidents often revealed, was a surprising gap between what we said we believed about learning and teaching (our "espoused beliefs") and what our actions were conveying" (p. 728). I wondered how I could make this a more meaningful writing activity for the children, how my program and teaching strategies (my actions) could better convey my beliefs about science writing to the children. My dissatisfaction with their work on these record sheets set in motion an inquiry that has been ongoing for eighteen months with two different classes.

In this chapter I will discuss three science units that took place over this time period, all focusing on design technology using construction kits and other manipulative materials. Two units took place in my grade 4/5 classroom and one in a colleague's grade 2/3 class. Through these units I conducted an inquiry that focused on a number of issues and ideas about science teaching and children's science writing.

Design Technology To begin with, it is important to understand what design technology is and what children can learn from it. An excellent resource is the Springboards to Technology document, published by the Metropolitan Toronto School Board (1991). The document begins, "This approach can help children understand the world around them through practical problem solving, involving discovering and using concepts and skills in conjunction with design and make activities" (Overview, p.2). Through a creative problem solving approach, in relevant contexts, the children come to see that there are many solutions to one problem. Divergent thinking is encouraged and difficulties are viewed as "new opportunities, not disappointments" (Overview, p.2). Using concrete materials develops manipulative skills and helps children to better understand their world and simple technological ideas. Children learn to evaluate their own ideas and to decide which materials and techniques will be most effective in solving their self-initiated problems. They are encouraged to be imaginative, flexible, inventive, innovative and resourceful. Interpersonal skills develop as children work collaboratively to solve problems. They learn to communicate with others, to appreciate their peers' ideas and capabilities and to share ideas and materials. Self esteem increases as children face challenges and work as a contributing member of a group.

The Structure of the UnitsAll three units focused on using construction kits and manipulative materials - Ramagon, Capsela, Tekko, Lego Technic, The Gear Box, woodworking and building with wooden bungs and blocks. The grade 4/5 class also worked at the water table with a pneumatics kit that contained syringes, valves and tubing. Each class took part in an introductory unit where they rotated through stations one week at a time in order to be exposed to and gain experience with the materials. The grade 4/5 class participated in a second unit that focused on the way things work, where they had a larger choice of materials, including an electricity science kit, Baufix, and constructing using junk materials. During this unit

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they had free choice as to the materials they used and how long they worked at one activity.

The children were grouped with friends for the introductory units, as we felt that they would co-operate and work best with people they liked. We tried to make the groups exclusively male or female, as we thought that many of the boys would have had more experience with the materials and hoped that the girls would take more risks and display more initiative if others in the group had had similar experiences. During the second grade 4/5 unit who the children worked with was determined by the material they chose.

QuestionsAt this time I was just beginning a Master's level course that focused on classroom based inquiry and science teaching. Our group met bi-weekly from September to April and consisted of classroom teachers and university personnel who were involved in classroom inquiry with teachers. It was in this setting that I began to talk to others about my concerns and to formulate and articulate my questions.

Once I started to critically examine my science program I found there were many issues that I wanted to study. One of the hardest parts about conducting my inquiry was narrowing down my questions so that I had a clear focus for my interests and energies. This was important, as I wanted my findings to have an impact on my program. I decided that writing was my primary interest. My broad question was:

How can the teacher and children create a meaningful context for purposeful science writing so that the children will see how writing can help them to learn about and understand science topics better?

More specifically I wondered:

What situations and strategies can the teacher create and use to support and encourage children's science writing so that they see and approach it as being different from the story writing, with which they have had a great deal of experience?

As we used a variety of strategies with the children I came to see how talk can help their writing and I wondered:

What kinds of values and expectations are conveyed by the teacherand constructed by the class about science writing through collaborativetalk as the children construct and share their constructions and writing?

And then I wondered how all of this would impact upon their learning of the topic:

How is meaning (in this case about technology and the materialsthey were using) developed through constructing, writing and collaborative talk about their constructions and writing?

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Lastly, I wanted the children to see a practical use for their writing:

In what way can the children's writing be used for a real purposeat the end of the unit?

In summary, I was interested in strategies that would help children write with purpose and meaning in order to learn and understand science topics, in ways that teachers and children could work together to construct common values and expectations about science writing and in the role of collaborative talk in this process.

Asking the ChildrenI thought of my original reasons for having the children write and could see that the record sheets were not fulfilling my purposes. I wanted children to see that writing could help them to understand a topic better and to see what they had learned and understood. They could wonder and ask questions, make predictions, try out hypotheses and make plans. I wanted them to see that they could use different formats depending on their purpose such as lists, point form, sentences, diagrams, webs.

Since the children's response to the task had given rise to my questions, it made sense to ask them what they thought about filling out the record sheets. I decided to ask them for suggestions as to how we could meet my desire to have them do some writing along with their technology work and how we could make the task more meaningful and interesting for them. I would see if they had any ideas as to how we could create a situation where they could write about their learning with more commitment and purpose.

I told them ahead of time that I was not happy with the record sheets and the work that they were doing, and asked them to give the issue some thought. We met as a class and I asked my student intern to videotape the discussion. The children had some thoughts about why the record sheets were not working well. Two points were raised repeatedly:

- sometimes it was not possible to answer the questions. For example, people don't always have a name for their creation, they may not have had any problems.

- how the children worked with some materials did not fit the questions. For example, children working with the pneumatics kit were experimenting, rather than making one creation. The record sheet assumed that everyone would create a final product.

The record sheets were not fulfilling my purposes and it became apparent that they were not fulfilling the children's purposes either. They did not understand why I was asking them to complete the sheets and many had difficulty deciding what to write. This gave rise to another issue: the relationship between writing and talk about writing. First, I realized that we needed to talk more about why we were writing, that I needed to be more explicit about my reasons for having them write after they constructed. Secondly,

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we needed to schedule time to talk so that children would be more aware of what they were learning. As well, it is important for children to have a chance to share what they have learned so that they can get feedback and constructive criticism, answer questions and celebrate what they have accomplished. (Wells, in press). Another important reason for building in time to talk is elaborated upon by Wells (in press), who relates this issue to Vygotsky's ideas. He argues that the child needs to use oral language in the context of social activity in order to "construct for him/herself the mental functions, or procedures, that are mediated by the use of speech". Only after using language by interacting with others can the child use it "as a resource for individual mental activity", in this case expressed through writing (p.17).

I asked the children if they felt talk would help their writing:

Louise: I think it's a good idea because, um, reporters do that because they talk to the people that were in this . . what happened, and then they go down and write it out since they found their information. And then we know what we did but then to talk it out with other people in a group and then they could give us other ideas about it and then for us to write it down we could have more ideas and then it might be better.

Joyce:It's better because we share each other's ideas, and just say if you don't know something . . . like um . what you're doing, let's say you didn't know something about it, and you needed to know, and someone in your group is talking, and they gave you an idea about it and you remembered it and then it's better because you can write it down.

Jay: It's better to talk than write because, um, because you get ideas for what you're writing about so you don't have to, like, just stay there for the half an hour and just sit there and do nothing.

The children had a number of ideas about what we could do instead of using the record sheets and how we could allow for more talk about technology before they wrote:

- the children could write about what they did on blank sheets of paper.

- the teachers could walk around during work periods and children could talk to them about what they were doing. I was concerned that I would not get around to everyone but the children suggested that I could make up a schedule and see everyone over the course of a week.

- the children could approach the teachers during the work period to show what they had made.

- we could meet as a large group and everyone could talk about what they

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had done. One child said that people would be able to tell a lot more orally than they would be able to write down. I liked this idea, as it incorporated talk, and we did do this.

- we could make up different record sheets for specific activities: a question record sheet for some and free writing for others.

From Record Sheets to Technology LogsWe summarized the ideas from our discussion. A show of hands confirmed that most no longer wanted to fill out the record sheets. The children wanted to schedule time to talk about what they were learning and they felt that talking would help them with their writing. We decided that they could continue to use the record sheets or could keep a open-ended log book with unlined pages. They would still be required to draw a labeled picture of their work but would decide what they wanted to write about. This was the beginning of the first cycle of inquiry: listening to the children and trying to incorporate their ideas to make the completion of my task (writing about their technology work) more meaningful for them.

This new structure was effective for a few children, who started to use their logs to reflect on their learning and understanding, to ask questions and to make plans. Some children started to make notes in their logs as they worked. Torbe and Medway (1981) feel that this type of writing is effective because it "take(s) the students forward in their learning" as "the writers are discovering something about themselves at the same time as they tell it to others" (p.82). D'Arcy (1989) thinks that children need more opportunities, such as this, to use writing as a "learning process - writing to help them think, writing to come up with questions, writing to reflect about the work they [are] doing...writing to map their own progress and to share their thoughts and feelings as learners with their teachers" (p.105) He refers to this as "think-writing" (p.141), writing that shows how well children are understanding a topic and indicates to the teacher what each child's needs are. This writing is about what is being learned, not about what is known. Children who write this way will grow to see writing as a powerful tool for thinking and as a way to sort out ideas (p.106).

At the end of the unit I was happier with the children's science writing, but I still felt unsettled about this aspect of my program. I planned to do another technology unit in the spring term, and was eager to continue to seek answers to my questions.

Introducing Logs AgainDuring the second grade 4/5 unit we used learning logs again and this time I was determined to employ strategies that would help the children to utilize them more successfully. I introduced the logs by explaining that we would write after every construction session about what they had done and learned. I suggested that they might also ask questions and make plans and that they could do this by writing or drawing. Looking back at the videotape of this session, I can see that my introduction was too general and that I did not reinforce these instructions later. As well, I did not ensure that

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the children were using their logs for planning and questioning; they tended to use them only to record sheet what they had done each day.

One of two strategies that I did use to help children write more effectively was to brainstorm ideas that would give them a focus as they wrote. The ideas were record sheeted on an overhead transparency which was posted for reference every time they wrote. These were just suggestions and it was not expected that every idea would be addressed each time a child wrote:

- describe what you did- draw a picture with labels- how it works- problems- how you got the idea- plans- changes- if you followed instructions - changes you made- what you learned- hard/easy - why- if someone helped you and how- predictions you made and how it was different than you predicted

The second strategy was to schedule more time for talk before the children wrote. We met as a class several times during the unit so that they could talk about and show others what they had made. Their classmates asked questions and gave suggestions as to how they might improve on their constructions or solve problems. I hoped that this talk would help with ideas for log writing.

But in the end I was still not happy with the way the children were writing. Most were writing simple descriptions of what they made and who they worked with. A few did write about problems or about how things work but without much detail. Here are some typical examples of the grade four and five students' entries, which fell into three main categories: summaries of what was accomplished that day, descriptions of how things work and descriptions of problems:

What Was Accomplished That Day:

Me and Marisa made a pulley. We are half way through it but we are going to finish it. I'm really excited about it. I had a lot of fun. We had no trouble doing it. When we finish it I think it will be good. I learned what a pulley is because Marisa told me. Something that was different was that in the book the squres(squares) were one colour and in the tub was another colour. That's o.k. but it was fun.

Mary, grade 5

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I continued to work at Capsela I made a boat.Jeremy, grade 5

I made a car with Leon and Bertram it wasn't a very good carI didn't like worked at woodworking it was boring I don't think I'll work there again.

Jeremy, grade 5

Today I used the Gear Box and I tried to make something, not knowing what I was going to make I made something that looked like this. (Illustration was below.)

Albert, grade 5

I made a littel car. It moved by an eraser. The eraser came out. I made it smaller.

Kris, grade 5

How Things Work

Today I worked at the batteries and bulbs. This is what I made. (Labeled illustration was below.) The wires hook up to the motor which turns the eraser.

Kyle, grade 4

. ...We know how it works but we still don't know what it's called. The handle turns and moves the gears and the gears moves the pulley and that's how it works. We aren't finished yet but that's how I think it will work.

Marisa, grade 5

I made a pump. If you pull the syringe it sucks in air. Then push the syringe and the air goes in the bolon (balloon).

Kris, grade 5

Today at battreys and bulbs I made a light porjector. I understand how it works when you turn the handle on thegenorator it sends electricity through the wires and lights up

the light.Steven, grade 5

Problems

Our technology is going good. But our only trouble is that we don't know how to put the string through the pulleys and the screws. We have an idea, but I'm not sure it will work...

Mary, grade 5

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I am working at technology and I am making a car with a moter. So far today I was sawing a pice (piece) of wood because I needed a base for my car. I had problems with cuting the wood because I was using a hand saw. It took a while for me to cut because the saw was small and hard to work with.

Jay, grade 5

Today me and Melissa made a robot this time it worked we putthe motor in the cantener (container) instead of the motor on the topof the cantener. The robot goes faster and better. It was easy. andone more thing we didn't put so much tape.

Joyce, grade 5

Me and Louise are still having problems with the wheels. For thewheels we changed from lid containers to film containers. Then with the film containers we realized we needed bigger axles, so wejoined to together with elastics. We can also adjust them that way.We had some trouble with the base, it was collapsing where wetaped, but then we fixed that by putting a piece of wood under itfor support.

Patricia, grade 4

Some of the children were beginning to get the idea that the purpose of the logs was to reflect on problems and on what they were learning. The suggestions on the overhead transparency and the whole class sharing sessions probably contributed to their improved understanding of how to use the logs. However, I realized that I should have deliberately used more strategies to help children, been more overt about why I wanted them to write and about my values and expectations for technology writing.

Technology Logs and Strategies to Help WritersDuring the third unit I was on maternity leave and worked in a colleague's grade 2/3 classroom. I told Susan, the classroom teacher, that my interest was to help the children write in a purposeful and meaningful way about what they were learning. They would write in an open-ended technology log but this time I had many ideas about strategies that I hoped would help them to write more effectively and to develop a better understanding of what design technology is all about.

As in the previous two units, we videotaped incidents that we thought might be important to re-examine. Having access to these video tapes as reflective "texts of classroom practice" was an important part of the inquiry. Wells and Chang -Wells (1992) write that these tapes can function "as both a source of evidence for answering the teacher's original question and as a stimulus to reflection and further inquiry" (p. 171). This was especially true for this unit, as I had time to look at the tapes as the unit was in progress and was able to use the information learned to alter what we did next.

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Building Knowledge About Design TechnologyAt the beginning of the unit we asked the children to write about the question "What is technology?" After they wrote they brought their logs to the large group and we listed materials that are used in technology and talked about the kind of thinking that is involved in this type of work. Their responses show that most had had some experience with design technology and that they thought of it predominantly as working with wood and tools:

It's when you make things with wood and nails and you use hammersand tools. You can make airplanes and motercicles bikes and lots ofother things like that? You can [make] toys if you don't Gule (glue)good or nail them good what ever you make it could brake and i'llhave to start all over again.

Spencer, grade 2

Is technology bilding with wood and tools? Last year I made cote rakes (coat racks) and a chair for my stoft anamls (stuffed animals). I want to make a car.

Anne, grade 2

We make things out of wood. We use tools at the technology centre.Technology is a fun activite but sometimes dangers (dangerous). In technology there are a lot of tools but I think they are dangeres

Daphne, grade 3

It's building with wood and tools. Last year me and Anne had technology in our class. I made an airplane. It was red and blue. This year I want to make a car.

Katie, grade 2

One of our goals for the unit was to increase the children's understanding of what design technology is through construction projects, log writing and collaborative talk. By using a number of strategies which will be detailed later, we hoped that they would understand, among other things, these main ideas about technology work:

- problem solving is a focus- it involves learning about the way things work- people can work together and help one another

At the end of the unit we would ask them to write again about this question to see if these ideas had been internalized.

Establishing Purposes for Technology LogsWe spent time at the beginning of the unit discussing the logs themselves. I didn't do this with the grade 4/5 students, and they never seemed to understand why they were being

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asked to write in their logs and what use the logs could be to them. This undoubtedly had an effect on their effort and commitment toward their work and on the quality of their writing. I wanted to build an understanding of how technology writing is different from fiction and non-fiction story writing, with which the children had had a great deal of experience. First we discussed why scientists might keep a record sheet of their work. The children came up with these ideas:

- to make reminder or record sheet of what they did- to plan what they want to do next- to list steps, things to do - to list tools that they used- to write about the most important thing they learned or discovered

We discussed the word observation and talked about record sheeting facts, making predictions and writing down what happened.

Then we discussed when they might write in their logs. The children thought they could keep their logs beside them as they worked, write plans before working, and write after a construction session.

We brainstormed a list of different writing formats that the children could use depending on what they were writing about such as webs, point form, sentences, lists and diagrams with labels. This was not an issue when the grade 4/5 students were filling out the record sheets, as they were filling in the blanks on a prepared form, and I had never directly discussed this with them when they were writing in their logs, where they had written exclusively in sentence form.

The last question we discussed was what scientists would do with their writing once their work was done. This issue was especially important, as I realized that my grade 4/5 children had had no final use for their writing. The grade 2/3 children thought that scientists might keep their logs somewhere safe, look back at them and remember things they had done or share them with other people. I planned to talk about this issue again mid-way through the unit.

It was important to answer these questions about log writing, as we articulated important ideas that were touched upon repeatedly throughout the unit. The children had an understanding and sense of purpose about their writing that was to grow progressively stronger.

The log writing that the younger children did was different, and better, than the writing the older students had done the year before. They used a greater variety of formats and wrote about a wider range of topics. Their focus was solidly on problem solving, their learning and how things worked, not on simply relating what they did each day, who they worked with and whether or not they had fun. Their writing had a scientific tone and, by the end of the unit, the children saw the difference between science writing and story writing and were confident about their ability to do both.

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Susan and I used many strategies and techniques to help the students write about their learning that resulted in better writing and increased learning about design technology. We were deliberate in teaching specific ideas about science writing, but always in the context of the children's construction projects, talk and writing. Newman writes that the role of the teacher in a learner centred program is to consciously offer this support, rather than feeling that learner centred teaching means "hands off" (p. 732). Torbe and Medway (1981) stress that we must "make explicit to the students how they themselves can learn to control the processes of language by which they learn" (p. 93). We believe that the following strategies achieved this purpose. Strategies to Foster Meaningful, Purposeful Science WritingPromptsWe didn't want to put limits on the children's writing when they first started to use their logs, as we were curious to see what they would come up with within the boundaries of what we had discussed regarding why and how they might keep a log. After the children had written a couple of entries we had them volunteer to read their writing aloud to the whole class and started to make a list of prompts, beginnings of sentences that would get their writing started:

(Ingrid reads an excerpt from her log.)

T2: When I was listening to Ingrid I heard a few sentences that I think we can start a list with. And the first thing I hear, or the second thing I heard was, this is what you wrote, "the thing that helped me was" (writes on chart). And maybe some of you, when you're writing, might want to use that at the beginning of a sentence and then add on and write about the thing that helped you.

(Seana reads an except from her log.)

T2: I heard a couple of good sentences in there. Did you hear the one about the problems? How did Seana say it, though? She said it a little differently from Ingrid.

(Lauren reads from her log.)

T2: Thanks, Lauren. Could you keep the book open because there are a few sentences that I think we can use from yours too. Did you hear Lauren's sentence about a problem? How did she say it?

Once they got the idea of what a prompt was we asked the children to look through their writing and pick out examples to add to the list. By the end of the session we had 22

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prompts and we continued to add to the list throughout the unit. Prompts which deal with similar ideas are grouped together:

It all started when...I just started... The hardest part was...I had to do a part over again... The best part was...I didn't know what to do... The most fun part was...

I liked...I had a big problem... The worst part was...I had a few problems... The most boring part was...I had one problem... The easiest part was...I solved a problem... It was hard at first, but...

My favourite part was...I am building...It was made of... I found out that...I was using... I learned...I made... I discovered...What I did...I wanted to... I helped...I found a use for... The thing that helped me was...

I got the idea from...I was surprised that...

We posted the list so that it was always visible when the children were writing and constructing and when we had large group discussions. Through the prompts we believe that expectations about technology writing were developed, as the list conveyed clearly to the children what the general themes of their writing should be - problem solving, instructions, descriptions, learning, discoveries, predictions, plans and questions. As well, the prompts reinforced values about technology work: that it is okay to have a problem and to try to solve it, that people often don't know what to do at first, that people help and learn from one another, that things don't always go well, and that technology work is hard work.

The prompts became imbedded in our discussions and our talk as the children constructed and during large group discussions. When children were sharing their products, they often talked about items from the list and other children's questions frequently focused on prompt topics. Prompt language was used as the children constructed and solved problems and we then reminded them to refer to the prompts to help them with their writing. The prompts made a tremendous difference in the quality and type of the children's writing. As well, there were other strategies that we used, often incorporating the prompts, to encourage and aid children with their technology writing.

Keeping Logs Out During Construction SessionsBefore each construction session we talked to the children about keeping their logs beside them as they worked in case they made a discovery, wanted to draw a diagram or

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needed to jot down a few words to remind them of something they wanted to write about later. However, we were not as consistent as we might have been about insisting that children keep their logs out, and found that few did write in them during construction sessions. In the next unit we would be more conscientious about modeling this by directly suggesting to children we had worked with that they write down a discovery or a note, ensuring that they follow through on the suggestion and having children talk to the class about how making these notes helped them to write more effectively.

Talking to Children as They ConstructAs the children constructed with the materials the teachers circulated and talked to them about the processes they were going through, what they were learning and the problems they were solving. The teachers worked with the children in their "zone of proximal development". Wells (in press), summarizing Vygotsky, defines this as "the zone with respect to any task that lies between what the learner can manage alone and what he or she can achieve with the assistance of an adult or more knowledgeable peer" (p. 23). Wells calls this collaborative talk, because it comes out of what the child is doing at the moment and involves an exchange where the teacher responds to the child and helps her or him to address concerns which are currently being worked on.

During construction sessions we wanted to make an explicit link between the construction work and log writing. As the children constructed and solved problems some would spontaneously say, "This problem will be good for me to write about" or, "I'm going to have a lot to write about today." The teachers encouraged this by suggesting that what they had just witnessed or worked on with a child would be a suitable topic for their logs. A teacher or the child might refer to the prompt chart and suggest a sentence that would be a good beginning.

Sending Children To Write With A FocusBefore the children started to write we would remind them to refer to the prompts, which were posted on the blackboard. One strategy was to ask a few children to tell the group what they were going to write about before everyone began writing. Another strategy was to use a prompt when asking children what they were going to write about. This helped them to focus on and begin their writing more easily:

T1: If you are going to go off and you're going to write . . (looks at prompt chart) about something that was hard at first, you may go off first. (Several children get up.) If you're going to talk about "I had a big problem", you may go off. (Many children get up.) Or "I had a few problems". If you're going to start yours, "I am building" [you may go now]. (More children get up.)

A third strategy was to highlight formats for writing when sending children to write:

T1: If you're planning to do a web, you may go off first. (Some children get up.) If you're planning to do a diagram and label the diagram, you may go. (More children get up.) If you're planning to do

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questions and answers like Seana, you may go. (Other children get up.) If you're going to write in sentences...

Sometimes we talked directly to the children before they started to write. For example, we wanted to encourage them to use a variety of formats and to focus on different prompts:

T1: You're going to have a chance now to go off and write. Remember to refer up here to the prompts so you'll know how to start. I would also like you to be thinking about the type of writing that you have been doing. If you're always writing about problems, you might want to write today about some good things that have happened to you when you've been building, some solutions to problems. . . . .If you're always doing a diagram, and labeling the diagram, it's probably time for you to be doing some actual writing in your book, in sentences. If you're always doing writing in sentences, maybe it's time that you did a web or did a diagram. Be thinking about that as you go off.

Talking to Children As They WriteWe talked to children as they wrote to give them guidance, especially if we had watched them work and knew the types of challenges and thinking that they had gone through. As well, we suggested different formats (draw, write, list, web) that might be an appropriate way to express their learning.

Sharing Construction ProjectsAn important aid to writing well is talking about what has been constructed before a writing session. We considered having the children share their work in small groups, as it would take a considerable amount of time to have many or all of them talk in the large group. But we decided that it would be best to do this with the whole class, so that the teacher leader and the children could continue to build common values and expectations about science writing. As well, I hoped that children would get ideas for using materials from hearing about and seeing what their peers were doing. We hoped that the talk that went on during product sharing time would be a rehearsal for writing. When children asked questions it would give the presenters ideas to add to their writing.

Sharing Writing with the Class - VoluntaryDuring out initial discussion, one of the children brought up the important idea of sharing writing with others, reinforcing that regular time must be scheduled for the children to read their work aloud. Hearing what others have written helps to develop norms and values around what is appropriate for this genre of writing. Children are encouraged when they see that others are writing in a similar way and can get ideas from one another. As well, they are eager to share what they have done and get positive feedback and reinforcement from their peers and teachers. We made time at regular intervals during the unit to share writing. I had not done this with my grade 4/5 class.

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Sharing Writing with the Class - Teacher Chooses and ReadsSusan and I felt that many children were doing a great job of log writing but were not volunteering to share their work. We thought that they might feel more confident about their technology writing if we chose their work to show as a model to others. We realized that our model would be a powerful one, so we were careful to show writing with different formats and topics, to choose a balance of boys and girls and to show an example of each child's work over several sessions. At first we tried to choose children who had not shared voluntarily or who were lacking in confidence about their ability to do technology writing. The children were very attentive as we read their peers' writing aloud and we noticed some children copying formats and writing styles from the writing we had shared in their future log entries.

Teacher's Role During Whole Class DiscussionsHands-on work with the construction materials needs to be accompanied by minds-on work when the children write about their constructions and by collaborative talk, led by the teacher (Edwards and Mercer, 1987; Lemke, 1990). Through discussions, the children and teachers "attempt to achieve common knowledge and shared understanding" (Wells, in press, p. 17). They are creating meaning together. Wells calls this a "dialogic co-construction of meaning" (p. 17); the teacher is learning with the children and does not know the answers ahead of time. This type of interaction can especially be seen in the following interactions where the children are talking about solving problems and about their growing knowledge of technology concepts.

The teacher helps children to extend their knowledge of technology concepts and to solve their problems through talk during whole class discussions and as they construct by working within their zone of proximal development. This type of support is in evidence in some of the following transcripts.

The teacher has an important role in leading these construction project and writing sharing sessions if they are to help the children with their writing. The comments that the teacher makes contribute to the establishment of norms and values around science writing. As well, teachers can use this setting to "think about how to sustain engagement, how to support student's struggles, how to celebrate their accomplishments, as well as to help [the students] examine their strategies more closely" (Newman, p. 733).

Looking at video tapes of sharing sessions revealed a number of roles for the teacher:

1. Models the type of questions children might ask one another and helps children to extend their thinking about what they have made:

(John is showing a teeter totter made from Lego Technic. Thomas and Ingridalso participate in the discussion.)

T1: What happens if one side's heavier than the other?

KS: Oh, if it fell...

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T1: So what would happen if two people were riding on the teeter totter?

KS: Um, if only one was, then it would be like down right here, if two people would be like this.

T1: With one side heavier, would it still be like that?

KS: Uh, yeah, I think so. Thomas? (Has his hand up to ask a question.)

ND: Was it hard to make?

KS: A little bit. (Motions toward another child who has her hand up.)

IB: You could do like an automatic teeter totter. You put one on the light side and then to try and balance.

T2: Thomas was asking you what was hard about it. Can you tell people what was hard about it?

KS Oh, doing the screw. . doing the screws, the screws was the hardest thing.

2. Highlights the problem solving process that children have gone through as they share their construction projects and directs children to help one another generate solutions to problems, as in this example where Eden shows a coat rack with which she has had some problems. Patrick and Thomas make some suggestions:

T1: How 'bout starting with this one because you encountered a real problem, didn't you? (Holds up Eden's coat rack.) You didn't, and I don't think you realized you had the problem until home time that day....

T1: First of all explain what the problem is.

EL: Ah, first I was nailing them in * * on Tuesday and I thought that it would be too short so I turned it over so I nailed them in *.

T1: Uh, huh.

EL: * * * * *

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T1: Yes.. Now, if you hammered them to try and get them tighter do you think they can go much further? (Is showing the coat rack as she talks.)

EL: Yeah.

T1: Do you think they could?

EL: * * * * * *

T1: Anyone else think differently on that? What do you think? Do you think that would solve the problem? (Looks at Eden.) Do you want to ask someone?

EL: Patrick.

PF: Like you could take the hammer and hammer in the wood instead of just the nail.

T1: Aaaah, so if you hammer right on the wood.

PF: Yeah.

T1: (Looks at Eden.) Did you try that? Did you try hammering the wood part rather than just the nail?

EL: I was doing that.

T1: Oh, you were. Ah, so maybe that wouldn't solve the problem.

ND: Maybe you should put glue on the bottom and clamp it.

Child: So it sticks forever.

T1: Would you still include the nail? Would that be helpful to have the nail as well?

ND: Yeah. It would... But it would be a problem because if you put the middle down you wouldn't have the glue * * *.

3. Encourages scientific thinking and approaches by telling the children that discoveries are made by making changes and modifications in one's work.

4. Helps children to become aware of the technological concepts about which they are learning and challenges them to attend to these concepts the next time they work with a

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particular material, as in this example where Seana reads questions and Jenny answers them:

T1: Last week Seana was working at the Lego Technic and she made a very important discovery about how gears move, And so when she went to write, that was the most important thing that she had learned as she worked. How 'bout, since it's a done in an interesting format, how 'bout I let you take over. Use a nice loud voice. Seana's going to ask you a question and see if you know how to answer it. She's done it in a question and answer format even though she already knows, um, what the big discovery was. Seana?

ML: What would happen if you turn a big gear first and a little gear second. Would it go fast or slower?

JJ: Faster?

T1: Why did you think it would go fast? . . .Let me just grab a gear over here. . . . (Comes back with a big gear and a small gear from the gear box.) Seana was using Lego Technic but the same thing would work here. (Holds up the gears so they touch.) We're moving the big gear first. Who thought it would move fast? Why would it move fast?

JJ: * * * * * * * * * *

T1: So you were saying then the big, the big gear would only go around about once and the small gear would probably go about three times around, to match this. Very good explanation. Be watching for this when you're using your gears. See if you can discover the reason why it would go faster.

5. Discusses the difference between story writing and technology writing, tells the children how well they are learning to write in this genre and encourages them to share their writing with others. Sundeep, Patrick and Thomas contribute ideas to this discussion during a whole group writing sharing session:

(Several children have read their writing aloud. No one else is volunteering to share.)

T2: I'd like to encourage some more of you to put your hands up. Why do you think it's important that some people volunteer to share their work? Why do you think we're spending timedoing this . . instead of having you go right off to work?

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SH: Because you could talk about what you work on and if youhave any problems that someone else could help you.

T2: Uh, huh. Patrick?

PF: All the stuff we're writing, maybe you can do something,adding on maybe some hard parts and some easy parts.

T2: Thomas?

ND: Maybe when they go there they'll get some ideas.

T2: Put up your hand if you think you're better at technologywriting or story writing. Who thinks they're better at storywriting? (A majority of the children raise their hands.) Whothinks they're better at technology writing? (Several childrenraise their hands.) I wonder if that's why some of you aren't writing, aren't reading, is because you don't think that your writing is very good, because it's new for you. You've all been doing story writing since you were in grade one, haven't you, and some of you probably even in Kindergarten and you're very good at it. And this is a new kind of writing for you and I know that maybe you're a little shy about reading it, but if you read your writing it will give other people ideas of how they can write. So that's why I'd really like to encourage more of you to put your hands up and share your work. Have I convinced anybody?

(Three more children then volunteer to share their work.)

6. Helps children to identify scientific writing by highlighting the qualities of good examples:

(Blake reads his log entry.)

T2: That's real scientific writing, Blake. You've described exactlyhow the teeter totter works. And if you're working today you mightwant to come over and see what Blake's doing because it's reallyinteresting how the air works, isn't it, with those pumps, in the Lego Technic. Good description.

7. During writing sharing sessions, encourages children to elaborate on what they have written by asking about, for example, problems or the hardest part, and then suggesting that they add to their writing.

8. Points out how labels and titles make a diagram clearer:

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(Shows Jenny's diagram and talks about it at length.)

T1: Really good drawing. She's also said, "I made a helicopterfrom Ramagon and this is what it looks like." I think that'simportant to put a few words on so that people will knowwhat material you used and what you made.

T2: It's always important when you write, when you draw adiagram you always have to have a title for your drawing sopeople will know what it is, and labels are good (too).

9. Highlights different writing formats during sharing sessions by asking questions such as, "Did anyone else make a list?" or "Did anyone else make a diagram with labels?" and then encouraging those children to read their examples aloud. Urges them to try a variety of formats, especially if they have been using the same one for each entry.

10. Directs the children's attention to the prompts when someone uses them in his or her writing, asks the children to listen for prompts before a child starts reading aloud, encourages children to use a variety of prompts in one entry and adds prompts to the chart from children's writing. Blake, Ingrid, Scott, Paul and Thomas participate in this discussion about Anne's log entry:

T1: What different things was Anne including here? Raise your hand if you can tell, from this list (points to the prompts) what she was including. (Nods at a child who has his hand up.)

Child: Helping?

T1: Yes, how they helped each other and one was maybe an expert at one time. Helping. (Nods at another child.)

BR: Discovered.

T1: What they discovered, good. (Points to another child.)

IB: Materials.

T1: Yes, materials that they used. (Nods at another child.)

IB: (Points at chart.) This one.

T1 : What was hard at first?

IB: Not exactly * * *.

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T1: Blake.

BR: I was surprised that...

T1: Yes, they were surprised that it wasn't one thing that was wrong that they thought was wrong. And also, again, problems that they had are listed.

.

.

. T1: Thomas. (Holds his learning log up, open.) This is when they

were at Capsela. (Reads.) Patrick and I built a robot. It was hard at first... (Stops reading and points to prompt chart.) There's this on the chart, (reads from the chart) it was hard at first...(reads from log) but . . Sundeep helped us (stops reading and points to prompt chart). Is that on our list?

SB: (Points to chart.) Yah, it says

KS: (Points to chart.) I helped.

ND: Second line, helped.

T1: Good. (Reads.) Sundeep helped us fix it. (Stops reading.) Now, a problem. (Reads.) The wires were tangled up. Patrick and I were mad. (Stops reading.) A feeling, how you felt. (Reads.) Then I made, with the help of Sundeep.

ND: Again.

T1: (Reads.) I made the propeller and it wouldn't turn fast enough. (Stops reading.) Another problem. (Reads.) I had to switch the battery a few times. (Stops reading.) So something he is trying to. . to do to solve the problem. (Reads.) I had to switch the gears, the battery, several times, but I figured out that the gears were mixed up. (Stops reading and looks at chart.) Is that on here? I figured out.

T2: I don't think so. I'm just writing it down as you said that.

T1: (Adds "I figured out" to the chart.)...(Thomas goes to get his work to show to the class.)

T1: While he's going, do you see how many different things Thomas

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included?...Do you see how many different things he included in one piece of writing? You don't just have to stick with one thing (points to the chart), a problem. You can talk about the problem, how it got solved, what you tried to solve it, and how that didn't work and then you had to try something else. So you can use a lot of these different starters in one piece of writing.

11. Helps children to develop an idea of what technology work is all about:

T2: I really like the way a lot of you are writing about your problems because a big, big part of technology is solving problems. Technology isn't doing something that's easy, that just takes you a second. It's problems and challenges and solving them. It's great the way you're writing about those things.

12. Helps children to articulate and write about their knowledge of technology concepts in a scientific way:

T1: (Reads from child's technology log.) Today I made a pump. . . and a teeter totter. Today I am going to talk about the pumper. (Stops reading.) And he describes how it actually works. (Reads.) The air goes in when you pull the switch to one side and goes down on the other side. The air has power to lift the teeter totter. (Stops reading.) Interesting that you used the word power 'cause technology has a lot to do with power, making things move . . . and one thing may be having the power to move something else. . .a lot of you were working with batteries. They have power to move whatever you've made.

The strategies that help children to write well illustrate how important it is for the teacher to talk to the class about what they are doing and why. It is crucial that children understand why the teacher has chosen a particular unit, why the unit is structured a certain way, what the teacher hopes they will learn and what behaviors and attitudes are valued. An example is the emphasis in technology work on problem solving. When I looked back on tapes from the first unit with the grade 4/5 class a child's comment made me realize that I had not conveyed how important problem solving is in technology work. The child said he thought that I was referring to social problems (the type they might have with other members of their group) when I asked them to write about problems. Another child said that he never had any problems with the materials he was using, and I realized that I was not talking enough about the way they should be working with the materials and that it is okay, and in fact desirable, to have problems as one works. Children will learn more and have a better idea of what is expected when the teacher consciously discusses these issues.

Technology Log Samples

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The children's log entries, as a whole, were very different from the writing that my grade 4/5 children had done the previous year. Both groups wrote about the way things work and about problems, but the younger children's writing had a stronger focus on problems and how they solved them. Two types of writing that were unique to the younger children were detailed descriptions of what they had made and descriptions with a strong math orientation. We were happy to see that many of the grade 2/3 children's entries contained references to how children had helped one another, as this was a behavior that we talked about and reinforced a great deal. The following are some representative samples:

DescriptionPart of scientific writing is writing accurate descriptions that help the reader to imagine what a project looks like. The following examples show how children were able to describe their construction projects in writing, It was important that they look at their project while writing their description.

Lauren and I made a swing thing. It has lots of gears. It was hard to make. All the gears tren (turn) each other...It has one handl and four gears. It has two swings and five stiks. But Lauren fixed it. Now one swing does not fly out. The handl looks like a stering weel (steering wheel).

Anne, grade 2

Me and Paul and Alex and Michael made a castle and a moat around the castle. And we put a bridge. Alex made [a] watch out tower and block so the water does not get in. we put ferc (fierce) animals around and in the castle. we made a dange (dungeon) for the bad can't rob the place. and get robbed and all the gold.

Spencer, grade 2 How Things WorkA major focus of design technology work is on how things work. Most of the construction materials were new to the children, as was working with gears, motors and batteries. A great deal of the talk as they constructed with materials such as Capsella and the gear box centred around how to make their projects work. Many children became very proficient at making working models, and it is interesting to see how clearly they are able to use writing to express their understanding of such technical items as motors, gears, wires and cables.

The motor is the 2nd most importon pece (important piece) in the Capcela. Becase it makes the energey power go. The wires are the most importon pece of them all. If their wasint any wires hooked up to the Battery the motor capsule it wouldint work. Now for the Battery. The Battery is the most esyis (easiest) part to put on and worck all you half to do is put the wiers in the Battery and the Motor Capsule and WA LA.

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Blake, grade 3

If a big gear is moving a sal (small) gear, the pene ween mave fates (propeller will move faster). If the little gear was maving, the big gear and peneweell (pinwheel) would move soler (slower).

Eden, grade 2

The battery condus (conducts) the power for the gears to work. Ech gear touchs another gear to make it work. The cable tak's the power from the battery to the motor so the motor will turn the other gears. You can use the propeller or the whel or anething alls (anything else) that can fit on the capsel (capsule).

Sundeep, grade 3

The big gear turns the small gear and the small gear moves the windmail (windmill). The flaps can move side by side...If the big gear moves the small gear the pinwheel part will go fast. But if the small gear moves the big gear then the pinwheel part will go slow. When you turn the windmail do you think the big gear is moving faster or the small gear is moving faster? I think the small gear cause the small gear has lest (least) bumps.

Jean, grade 3

the pink turns a yellow or a blue turns a yellow and another yellow and another and another and the yellow turns a blue and the yellow turns a red and the red turns a blue. The gears have to be close to each one so they would turn

Spencer, grade 2

How Others HelpedHelping behaviors were encouraged by both Susan and I as the children worked and during whole class discussions about how problems had been solved. Without it being suggested, children started writing about how their peers had helped them and we added these sentence beginnings to the prompt chart. Through the unit it became known that certain children were 'experts' at using specific materials, especially those containing batteries and motors, and their expertise was often utilized. Children were also encouraged to ask someone from the group that had worked with a material previously when they needed guidance.

Patrick and I built a Robot. It was hard at first but Sundeep helped us fix it. The wires where tangeled up. Patrick and I were mad. Then I made it with the help of Sundeep. The perpeler (propeller) would not turn fast enuof (enough). I hade to swith (switch) the battere a few times but I fegerd (figured) out that the gears were mixed up.

Thomas, grade 3

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At ramagon I had thebill (trouble) to put thess (these) red things in it. So I whent to Eden and she shord (showed) me how to do it and I new how to put it in the ramagon peces (pieces).

Jenny, grade 3

MathIt is easy to make connections between design technology and other curriculum areas. We were pleased to see children making these connections on their own in the area of mathematics by initiating activities around their construction work using mathematical concepts and language. Susan and I encouraged this type of exploration when we noticed it and we also suggested to groups that they look at a mathematics-oriented question. The children were generally receptive to our suggestions, but there were times when our agenda was clearly an intrusion on what the group was trying to accomplish! Priscilla's chart, below, was self-initiated and written as she worked. The other two pieces were also self-initiated, but written in logs after a construction session.

Shaps That I Builda cuboctohedron has a octagon dome has14 faces 10 Faces24 Eades (edges) 20 Eades12 Corners 12 Corners

Priscilla, grade 3

In our tower there are 730 bungs and 73 floors. The tower is tall and looks like it's going to fall down any minute. When you lookinside it will look dark. There are 51 bungs on the outside wall. There are 10 on each floor.

Priscilla, grade 3

How Many Bungs will I need730 BlocksRound Cylinder4 cm long 3 cm high & big round cylinderBlock size 6 cm long8 cm high & Block size Long sqeue prismze (square prisms) 14 1/2 cm long 3 cm high & middle size prisum (prism)Block size 15 cm long5 cm high & Block size 29 cm long Big round Bung5 cm high & Block size Flat bord (board)67 cm long 2 cm high

Paul, grade 2

Problems

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As previously mentioned, a major focus in design technology work is problem solving. Problem solving was highlighted as the children constructed and during whole class discussions and as a result, they naturally wrote in their logs about their problems and how they solved them. The entries about problems are generally short and to the point, containing a clear description of the problem and the solution. The fact that children wrote so willingly about their problems shows how well they have internalized that this is an acceptable and important part of design technology work.

Me and Spencer discovered why are motor wasn't working it wasn't working because the geaers weren't atact (attached). And me and Spencer also discovered that the wheels can not go with the motor.

Paul, grade 2

Me and Paul discovery why the motor wasn't working it wasn't put in right. We discovery why the perpaler [wasn't working it was] because the wheels are to strog for the perpaler (propeller). We fagered (figured) out how to make the perpaler.

Spencer, grade 2

I had some trobl mcing a arplan (trouble making an airplane) whin I triD to naLL the weLL on the Frnt But it wooDint go mor then a Fue inchis (When I tried to nail the wheel on the front but it wouldn't go more than a few inches) so I DsiDeD (decided) To make a Bote

Alex, grade 2

In Ramagon I had a few problems. One was putting in the things that let the people walk across. The 2nd was putting the rubber part on the chrcil (circle). Last but not lest the last problem was atacking (attaching) it.

Paul, grade 2

Me and Latoya are making a van out of wood. We hade a papam (problem) with the niel (nail). The niel was to big so this time we are going to yosua (use) a smaller one...We had a papam with the wood. When we nailed it got hammered in. The wood selit (split). We pet (put) the nail in the mitol (middle). Thny (then) the nail whent in sata (straight).

Scott, grade 3

FormatsThe strategies that we used were more successful in encouraging the grade 2/3 children to use a wider variety of formats than the grade 4/5 children, who had written almost exclusively in sentence form. The younger children used sentences, lists, webs, and questions and answers, a format that one of the children thought of and others imitated.

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The following are some representative samples of the lists, questions and answers and webs:

Lists

It has 4 Gears.It has 2 swings.It has 5 stickes.It has 4 8 holed Lago peces.It has 6 3 holed Lago peces.

Lauren, grade 2

Question and Answer Format

Lego Technic Q'sQ. What would happen if you turn a big gear first and a little gear second. Would it go fast or slow?A. Fast.Q. What would happen if you turn a little gear first? A. It would go slow.

Seana, grade 3

"What are you biluding?" asked a man I answered "a palane (plane." "What kind of palane?" the man asked. "an amaracun (American)

airline" I said. "What color is it going to be?" said the man. "Red" I said "Will it have wheels" asked the man "yes it will" I answed "will it have a propeller?" asked the man "yes, it will have a propeller"I answed

Paul, grade 2

CelebrationAn important part of a unit of study is a time for celebration at the conclusion. Children have the opportunity to reflect on their learning and to show others what they have accomplished. Presenting information in a clear and comprehensive way helps children to consolidate and summarize what they have learned. Explaining something to another person is the true test of how well information is understood (Wells, in press).

About halfway through the unit we talked again to the children about using log writing as part of the celebration. We brainstormed and the children decided they would work on their own or with a friend to construct something from one of their favourite materials and then write about their construction work. They wanted to invite a grade 3/4 class who had just finished a unit on technology to the celebration, as they would be interested and able to ask good questions.

Susan and I talked to the children about looking back in their logs to see how much they had accomplished and learned, and to focus especially on the writing they had done about

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the material they were going to use for their final construction project. The children decided that their final writing could take one of two forms:

- writing for display - they could write and draw about problems, tips for using the materials and the process they had gone through and display it on a chart for visitors to read

- writing for current and future students of the grade 2/3 class - they could make a booklet with tips for using the materials or instructions for creating their project that would be kept with that material for other children to use

The children said that it would be important for them to explain to their guests how their project works and how they made it. It occurred to me that they had internalized how crucial talk is in showing understanding and learning in technology. Looking at their charts and booklets would not be enough.

The celebration was a great success. The children set out their construction projects and charts and the grade 3/4 children wandered around the room and talked to them about their work. It was exciting to hear the grade 2/3 children explain how they had made something or solved a problem and they were able to answer their visitors' questions. This sharing time went on for over an hour and the children in both classes were involved and interested throughout.

Children's Knowledge About Design TechnologyAt the end of the unit we asked the children to write again about "What is technology?". Their writing reflects a number of important themes and elements of technology work:

Technology is working together and helping bilding and recherching (researching) putting things together and taking things apart ussing gears and saws and wood and other things too.

Sundeep, grade 3

Technology is kind of exsparamenting. Sometimes you have to be carefull. Like at the technology centre. Gears are used for lots of things. Technology allso is bilding with wood and tools.

Anne, grade 2

- Building stuff- learning How to cut wood and How mouters (motors) move and How gears turn. The technology center is so fun.

Jenny, grade 3

You get to help other pepol (people). You werk huard. You lern ulot (a lot). You get to lern how too built things. You yous gerse to moov things like perpelers. (You use gears to move things like propellers.) Whin you yous a perpeler you can moov a bote. (When you use a propeller you can move a boat.)

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Alex, grade 2

Technology is building with wood. Technology can be fun but sometimes dangerous. Technology is like sience but a little diffrent. Technology sometimes takes team work to do it.

Priscilla, grade 3

It's bilding with wood and tools. And making gears turn. And in Capsala you can make a car. Gears are used in lots of things. Like cars, Airplanes, factorys and much, much more. I lrned that gears can-not be two-on a line besiad each other.

Lauren, grade 2

When they wrote about technology at the end of the unit, building with wood and using tools was again mentioned frequently. In addition, gears and how they move things appeared in a number of children's entries. We were pleased to see that working hard, working together and helping others, which were not mentioned in anyone's beginning of the unit writing, came up often in the end of the unit writing. This writing, the children's log writing and their talk during construction sessions and whole group discussions illustrated how much they had learned about design technology.

The Difference Between Story Writing and Science WritingAt the beginning of the unit the children were very confident about their ability to do what they call story writing: writing fiction and non-fiction narratives and poetry. They had not had much experience with science writing. At the end of the unit we were curious to see if they were aware of the differences between story writing and science writing. They wrote in their logs about whether or not they think the two are the same:

Technology ritting is diferint becus it tells you about things that you mite knot know.

Alex, grade 2

Story writing and technology writing are different becauase [in] technology writing you write about the problems that you had.

Spencer, grade 2

No! [They are not the same.] In story writing you write storys. In technology writing you write in sentences or webs or diagrams. Diagram means pisher (picture).

Lauren, grade 2

Is story writing and technology writing the same to you? No. Because one is writing make believe and the other one is writing about something you have made.

Paul, grade 2

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They arn't the same because story wrighting you wright stories. Technology wrighting you wright about what you made and diagrams and other things about what you made. You allso wright difrent words about technology.

Anne, grade 2

I think story writing and technology writing is different because story writing is about writing stories. And technology writing is about something that you made and you descab (describe) the picters when you are finsh(ed).

Jean, grade 3

It is clear that the children see technology writing as being different from story writing, as it involves writing about problems. There is a realization that technology writing can be in different formats, while stories are written only in sentences. Technology writing is not make believe, but descriptions about something you have made or about something "you mite knot know". Not only do the children see the differences between story and technology writing, but they seem to see themselves as being competent at both.

Reflections on Classroom Inquiry and Science TeachingDuring the school year I find that it is easy to be consumed by the day to day

demands of teaching and difficult to make the time to step back and look critically at my program. This is frustrating, as I know that taking time to reflect would improve my teaching and alleviate some of my stress that I feel when things are moving too quickly and seem out of my control. I am often aware that a part of my program is not going well, but feel that I can't take the time to think about how to change what is bothering me. Conducting an inquiry into my teaching practice has addressed some of these concerns. Looking into one part of my program gives me a focus, makes me feel that I am doing one thing well and actually helps me to worry less about everything else. Finding answers to my questions causes me to feel a sense of empowerment and purpose in my own teaching. And seeing changes in the classroom program as a result of my inquiry is very gratifying.

Using a video camera to record sheet whole group discussions was an essential part of this inquiry, as it allowed me to look objectively at what was going on, which is so difficult when one is teaching. Watching the tapes and, in particular, making transcripts of important interactions was very illuminating. Watching myself and Susan on tape and transcribing made me much more aware of the teacher's role and the effectiveness of our teaching. During the third unit I looked at the tapes as the unit progressed. This allowed me to modify teaching practices as we went along, rather than realizing what I could have done better when I watched the tapes at the end of the unit, as had happened previously.

Teachers engaging in classroom inquiry should do so in some kind of community with other like minded teachers. Meeting bi-weekly with teachers and university personnel allowed me to share what was going on in my classroom, to discuss my

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questions and concerns and to get ideas and suggestions from others. Working with Susan in her classroom was even more powerful. We talked regularly at school and on the phone, shared the teaching and videotaping, and had the rare opportunity to learn from watching a colleague teach. Wells and Chang-Wells (1992) summarize that "what [teachers engaged in classroom inquiry] all have in common is the recognition of the importance of treating the teacher as an agent with respect to her or his own learning, while at the same time providing some form of professional support" (p.171).

Writing about my experiences so that others could understand what I have discovered has also contributed to my learning. I kept a journal throughout my inquiry and it was helpful both during and after the units. Writing during the unit helped me to organize my thoughts about what was going on each day as well as providing a record sheet that I could look back on. As I wrote, I frequently thought of ideas to use during the next classroom session. Keeping a journal is another way for teachers to slow down and reflect during a busy day (Holly, 1989). Writing this chapter has helped me to organize and consolidate my thoughts about science writing and necessitated that I reflect further on what happened, do additional reading in order to put my experiences in the context of the work of other researchers and writers and make connections between theory and my own practice (Wells, Chang-Wells, 1992). Nancie Atwell (1989) believes that schools and students can change and be more thoughtful when teachers are "thoughtful practitioners", asking questions, observing and inquiring about their programs and their students. And teachers who write about their experiences contribute to the community of published writing about their topic, something she feels is very important.

Classroom inquiry, talk with colleagues and writing about my experiences has had a profound effect on my science teaching and on my students' science writing. I am convinced that this learning would not have taken place had I not engaged in an inquiry about my own questions.

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Bibliography

Atwell, Nancie. (1992) The thoughtful practitioner. In Side by Side. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.

D'Arcy, Pat. (1989) Making Sense, Shaping Meaning. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook/Heinemann.

Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. (1987) Common Knowledge: The Development of Understanding in the Classroom. London: Routledge.

Holly, M.L. (1989) Writing to Grow: Keeping a Personal Professional Journal. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.

Lemke, J.L. (1990) Talking Science: Language, Learning and Values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Newman, Judith (1987) "Learning to teach by uncovering our assumptions." Language Arts, 64 (7): 727-37.

Springboards to Technology (1991), Metropolitan Toronto School Board.

Torbe, M. and Medway, P. (1981) The Climate For Learning. Upper Monndlair, NJ: Boynton/Cook.

Wells, G. (in press) Language and the inquiry oriented curriculum. Curriculum Inquiry.

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Wells, G. and Chang-Wells, G.L. (1992). Constructing Knowledge Together. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.

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Time It was a constant struggle to find sufficient time for the children to write in their logs. As with any group, there were children who got down to work quickly and wrote a great deal, and others who took some time to get started and did not get much written down. We felt that it was important that the children write directly after their work periods or after sharing products, whenever possible, as the experience was fresh in their minds, but this was not always possible. As well, it helped when they could look at their products as they wrote.

This class has a story writing time each day. As a way to generate more time for log writing, Susan suggested that they might like to add to their log writing from the previous day before continuing on their stories. She found that few chose this option, perhaps because they were more confident about story writing than science writing. We talked about this one day as a group, and I stressed to the children that science writing was new to them and that they would become more confident about it as they did it more. This made me feel even more strongly that it is important to employ strategies that build values and expectations around science writing.

Despite everything, at the end of the unit some children's logs contained many unfinished sentences and entries. Time and variation in the speed that children are able to get their ideas down on paper will continue to be issues in most classes and most curriculum areas. We hope that the strategies we used helped children to be more productive than they would have been without our intervention.

after initial questions-Be sure that the paper does follow this outline. If not, add to it or rearrange it. May decide not to begin this way - may be too much, but also may be an effective way to set up the paper. Could also do it in web or chart form. Look at the questions above to frame what I am going to look at - should correspond to the sections of the chapter - outline it in terms of a problem that I saw in my teaching - then talk about what my questions were, what I did about the problem, how I did it.

from page 5 before JHM's comment about reportersT: Do you think it would help your writing to talk first? I'm curious

if you think it helps people. Do the two things go together, talk and writing?

(Many children begin to talk at the same time.)

T: O.K., I have a question. I'd like you to think about the question I just asked you. A lot of you put your hands up. Does talk help writing?

Several Children: Yes. Yes.

T: And if so, tell me a little bit about what you think.

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from page 6 - don't think I want this in

Weather Unit and Jot NotesBefore the next technology unit we studied the topic of weather. I will not go into detail about that unit here, but I would like to mention one aspect of the way in which I set up the unit that had a tremendous influence on the children's perceptions about science writing and how science is learned.

We started the weather unit by generating many questions about which the children were interested and dividing them into categories. The children formed groups around the resulting topics and set out to find the answers to the questions. I had intended for this to be an active unit where the children would learn from experiments, activities and observation and, in the end, produce a written product about what they had learned. During the unit, however, the focus changed as the children started to use a method of making jot notes from non-fiction books that they had learned in social studies. Before I realized what was happening, I was insisting that the children use books as their main resource and that they complete their jot notes and a final copy before they could do any active work. Writing down someone else's information was now the focus, instead of having the children learn by doing and supplementing their learning, getting ideas or answering questions from books.

During this unit I was working in collaboration with Myriam, a research officer who was involved in my bi-weekly course meetings on classroom inquiry and science teaching. Myriam and I were curious about a number of issues around science learning and teaching and together designed a set of interview questions that she asked eight children before and after the unit. The question that is relevant to the topic of science and writing and the way that the unit ended up being structured is the following: Based on your previous experience learning science, what do you think would be a good way to learn about this topic? When I read the children's answers, I realized how much the experience of making jot notes instead of doing their own writing had set back their thinking about science learning and writing:

Yeah, probably reading and making jot notes for fact record sheets, like the weather and all our other assignments.

Brendan, grade 5

Maybe we have two weeks for reading, maybe we do some jot notes and maybe we could do some experiments with things that we can make work, and then maybe we could write like a rough copy on what we know, so maybe four or five weeks. But since it's going to be a bit rushed cuz we have lots of things to do.

Lyndsey, grade 4

It should be about, well if all goes well, then maybe about four or five weeks because that'd give us time for research, then the good copy,

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then maybe a few days to plan, like for a demonstration to show what we learned.

Christina, grade 5

Many of the comments that children made when they were interviewed illustrate the way that this experience influenced their ideas about how a science unit should be conducted and about how people learn science. This illustrated to me how valuable information gleaned through interviews can be. While I was not happy with the direction the unit had taken when the children were writing jot notes, I would not have known what kind of lasting impact the experience had on their perceptions of how they learn science topics had we not interviewed the children. As a result, I was interested in changing their perceptions about science writing during our next unit as well as continuing to work on my concerns from the fall.

LaurenPriscilla AlexJennyAnne Sundeepbuilding buildingshelicopter

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