Optimal design of tapered steel
portal frame structures exposed to
extreme effects
PhD dissertation
Tamás Balogh
Supervisor László Gergely Vigh, PhD
Associate Professor
Budapest University of Technology and Economics Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Structural Engineering
Budapest 2017
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
Declaration of Authenticity
I, the undersigned, Tamás Balogh, declare that this dissertation is my original work, gathered
and utilized especially to fulfil the purposes and objectives of this study. The work and results of
other researchers, which are referred squarely in order to separate from the original work, are
specifically acknowledged.
Budapest, 6th June 2017
Tamás Balogh
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. László Gergely Vigh,
who has been helping me as a mentor since my MSc studies and who encouraged me to start my
research. I would like to thank in particular his advices and help during the consultations, this
research work could not have been done without his guidance.
I also would like to thank to the members and colleagues of Department of Structural
Engineering, in particular to Dr. József Simon, Eduardo Charters, Bettina Badari, Dr. Árpád
Rózsás, Lili Laczák, Péter Hegyi, Dr. László Horváth, Dr. László Dunai, Kitti Gidófalvy, Dr. Ádám
Zsarnóczay, Dr. Viktor Budaházy, Dr. Attila László Joó, Dr. Mansour Kachichian. I am very
grateful for their friendly support, valuable advices and comments that they gave during personal
and seminar consultations.
I highly appreciate the help and guidance of Mario D’Aniello and Professor Raffaele Landolfo
during my short study program in Naples, Italy. They treated me not only as a student, but as a
colleague and as a friend.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved fiancée and my family. Their endless
encouragement and kindness helped me to get through the difficulties to continue my work.
Without their support I could not have finished my thesis.
The research work is completed under the support of the following projects and programs:
• Development of quality-oriented and harmonized R+D+I strategy and functional model at
BME project by the grant TÁMOP-4.2.1/B- 09/1/KMR-2010-0002,
• Talent care and cultivation in the scientific workshops of BME project by the grant TÁMOP-
4.2.2.B-10/1--2010-0009,
• Campus Hungary program supported by the grant TÁMOP-4.2.4.B/1-11/1-2012-0001,
• HighPerFrame R&D project GOP-1.1.1-11-2012-0568, supported by the Új Széchenyi Terv,
• János Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
Abstract
In the last decade seismic and fire design became everyday practice in Hungary since the
harmonized European Norms require the designers verifying the structures in extreme design
situations more precisely. Economical configurations may hard to be found because high degree of
nonlinearity characterizes these extreme effects and the structural response to them. Optimal design
of tapered steel portal frame structures exposed to extreme effects has not been extensively studied
earlier. However, steel is very heat conductive material and this kind of structure is very sensitive
to stability failure modes, thus fire design situation may easily become the leading design situation.
Furthermore, my calculations showed that optimal design to seismic effects may be also important
(even in a seismically moderate area) because seismic action can be dominant comparing to wind
action in case of high seismicity or high vertical loads. The aims of this thesis are: a) developing
appropriate and effective tools to obtain optimal structural configurations considering extreme
effects based on structural reliability; b) analysing optimal safety levels that lead economical
solutions; c) obtaining optimal solutions for a number of design situations within the framework of
a parametric study; d) deriving conceptual design concepts related to the design of tapered portal
frames to extreme effects.
In this study, a new and effective reliability assessment framework is developed and applied to
structural reliability calculation of portal frames under seismic and fire exposure. Reliability
analysis is based on first order reliability method; state-of-the-art analysis and evaluation tools are
incorporated. This framework is used for estimation of possible target reliability indices for seismic
and fire effects. The calculated and recommended values in Eurocode differ, it seems that lower
target values would be more appropriate in case of extreme effects.
A reference structure, namely a tapered storage hall, is optimized in more than 60 cases
considering different initial design conditions. The optimization is performed using a genetic
algorithm based heuristic structural optimization algorithm. The developed reliability assessment
framework is invoked within the objective function evaluation during the structural optimization.
The objective functions express the life cycle cost of the structures. After the analysis of the results,
valuable conclusions can be drawn related to the optimal safety level and conceptual design of steel
tapered portal frame structures.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
Összefoglalás
Az elmúlt évtizedben szerkezetek megbízhatóságának tűz- és földrengési hatásokkal szembeni
igazolása mindennapos gyakorlattá vált Magyarországon is a harmonizált európai szabványok
(Eurocode szabványok) hazai bevezetésével. Ezen rendkívüli hatásokkal és a méretezéssel
foglalkozó szabványfejezetek egyrészt a korábbinál több és modernebb szabványosított méretezési
módszert/előírást tartalmaznak, másrészt azonban a korábbinál szigorúbb feltételeknek kell
megfeleltetni szerkezeteinket.
Gazdaságos szerkezetek tervezése sok esetben nehézkes és iteratív folyamattá válik a rendkívüli
hatásokban, a szerkezet viselkedésében és a méretezési módszerekben található nagyfokú
nemlinearitás miatt. Változó keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek extrém hatásokra való
optimális tervezése a viszonylag kevéssé kutatott területek közé tartozik, annak ellenére, hogy
például tűz esetén az acél anyag merevségi és szilárdsági tulajdonságainak drasztikus változása a
szerkezetet rendkívül érzékennyé teszi különböző stabilitásvesztési tönkremenetelekre és a
tűzhatást is figyelembe vevő tervezési szituáció mértékadóvá válhat. Továbbá számításaim szerint
a földrengési hatások sem hanyagolhatók el, ugyanis könnyen előfordulhat olyan tervezési helyzet,
még moderált szeizmicitású övezetben is, hogy a szeizmikus hatásból származó terhek
meghaladják a szélhatásból számított terhek intenzitását és a földrengési hatásokat is magába
foglaló tervezési helyzet válik mértékadóvá.
Az kutatásom céljai a következők: a) hatékony eszközök kifejlesztése melyekkel változó
keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek esetében optimális szerkezetkialakítások meghatározhatók
extrém terhekre a szerkezeti megbízhatóság figyelembe vételével; b) optimális biztonsági szint
vizsgálata mellyel gazdaságos szerkezetkialakítások érhetők el; c) paraméteres vizsgálat keretén
belül optimális szerkezetkialakítások meghatározása számos lehetséges tervezési helyzetben; d)
koncepcionális tervezési javaslatok kidolgozása a paraméteres vizsgálatok eredményei alapján.
Ebben a dolgozatban bemutatok egy új és hatékony, extrém hatások figyelembevételével
szerkezeti megbízhatóság számítására alkalmas keretrendszert. Ezen keretrendszer segítségével
határozom meg a szerkezeti megbízhatóságokat szeizmikus- és tűzterhekre. A keretrendszer
elsőrendű megbízhatósági analízist alkalmaz, komplex nemlineáris analízis és kiértékelő
módszerek a határállapot függvénybe kerültek beépítésre. A számított és az Eurocode 0 által
megkövetelt megbízhatósági szintek eltérnek, az eredmények alapján az előírtnál alacsonyabb
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
biztonsági szint jövőbeni alkalmazása gazdaságosabb tervezést eredményezhet extrém terhek
esetében.
Egy raktár funkciójú, változó keresztmetszetű példaszerkezet szerkezetoptimálását összesen 60
különböző tervezési helyzetben végeztem el. A felírt szerkezetoptimálási feladatot genetikus
algoritmus segítségével oldottam meg. A kifejlesztett megbízhatósági analízis keretrendszer
beépítésre került az optimáló algoritmusba, a bemutatott célfüggvények a szerkezet életciklus
költségeit fejezik ki, amely magába foglalja a létesítési költségeket és tönkremenetelkor keletkező
károk kockázatát. Az eredmények alapján értékes következtetéseket tudtam levonni változó
keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek extrém terhekre való optimális tervezésével kapcsolatban.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
6
Table of contents
Table of contents ............................................................................................................................. 6
List of symbols ................................................................................................................................ 8
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. 8
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 9
1.1. Literature review ............................................................................................................... 9
1.2. Aims and outline of this research ................................................................................... 15
1.3. Details of the investigated structure ............................................................................... 17
1.4. Preliminary research and results ..................................................................................... 19
2. Optimization algorithm development .................................................................................... 21
2.1. Basic description of the optimality problem .................................................................. 21
2.2. Objective function in case of fire optimization ............................................................. 23
2.3. Objective function in case of seismic optimization....................................................... 25
2.4. Genetic algorithm based optimization framework ........................................................ 26
2.5. Global optimum ............................................................................................................... 28
3. Reliability analysis.................................................................................................................. 29
4. Reliability evaluation of frames under fire exposure ........................................................... 33
4.1. Overview from the methodology.................................................................................... 33
4.2. Event tree and Bayesian probabilistic network ............................................................. 36
4.3. Limit state function ......................................................................................................... 38
4.4. System reliability ............................................................................................................. 39
4.5. Fire effects ....................................................................................................................... 41
4.6. Random variables ............................................................................................................ 42
4.7. Structural analysis ........................................................................................................... 45
4.8. Verification of the elements ............................................................................................ 48
5. Reliability evaluation of frames under seismic excitation ................................................... 50
5.1. Overview from the methodology and limit state function ............................................ 50
5.2. Seismic effects and hazard curves .................................................................................. 53
5.3. Random variables ............................................................................................................ 55
5.4. Structural model and analysis ......................................................................................... 57
5.5. Verification of structural model ..................................................................................... 58
5.6. Calculation of target displacements ............................................................................... 59
5.7. Verification of the elements ............................................................................................ 60
6. Target reliability in case of extreme effects .......................................................................... 62
6.1. Minor, moderate and large consequences of failure...................................................... 62
6.2. Target reliability estimation in case of fire design situation ......................................... 64
6.3. Target reliability estimation in case of seismic design situation .................................. 68
7. Reliability based structural optimization results ................................................................... 75
7.1. Optimized variables ......................................................................................................... 75
7.2. Convergence and performance of the optimization algorithm ..................................... 76
7.2.1. Settings of the algorithm ..................................................................................... 76
7.2.2. Shape of the objective function .......................................................................... 78
7.3. Optimal solutions in fire design situation ...................................................................... 80
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
7
7.3.1. Parametric study .................................................................................................. 80
7.3.2. Parametric study results ...................................................................................... 83
7.4. Optimal solutions in seismic design situation ............................................................... 89
7.4.1. Parametric study .................................................................................................. 89
7.4.2. Parametric study results ...................................................................................... 90
8. Summary and conclusions ...................................................................................................... 95
9. Future research ........................................................................................................................ 96
10. New scientific results.............................................................................................................. 98
10.1. Thesis I. ............................................................................................................................ 98
10.2. Thesis II............................................................................................................................ 98
10.3. Thesis III. ......................................................................................................................... 99
10.4. Thesis IV. ....................................................................................................................... 100
References.................................................................................................................................... 102
Publications of the author related to the theses ..................................................................... 102
Other references ...................................................................................................................... 103
Appendix A – Parametric study tables and results.................................................................... 109
Appendix B – EC design of steel frames for extreme effects .................................................. 114
Appendix C – Evaluation of limit state function in case of fire design ................................... 120
Appendix D – Evaluation of limit state function in case of seismic design ............................ 124
Appendix E – Fire optimization framework .............................................................................. 128
Appendix F – Seismic optimization framework ....................................................................... 129
Appendix G – New scientific results in Hungarian .................................................................. 130
G 1. I. Tézis ............................................................................................................................ 130
G 2. II. Tézis .......................................................................................................................... 130
G 3. III. Tézis ......................................................................................................................... 131
G 4. IV. Tézis ......................................................................................................................... 132
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
8
List of symbols
Greek Roman
αu load amplifier of the design loads to reach the characteristic resistance ag ground acceleration
β reliability index b flange width of an I section γov material overstrength factor db diameter of the tension-only braces γI importance factor f(X) joint distribution function Δ deformation g gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 μ mean g(x) inequality design constraint η utilization (demand-to-capacity ratio) h height of an I section ρ correlation coefficient h(x) equality design constraint σ standard deviation p(x) penalty function θ deformation tf flange thickness of an I section
Φ cumulative distribution function of standard normal distribution
tw web thickness of an I section
tp thickness of fire protection
q behaviour factor
x vector of design variables
C cost
C(x) initial cost function
CLC(x) life cycle cost function
D damage
G(X) limit state function
P probability
Pf failure probability
R(x) risk function
Sa spectral acceleration
Sd spectral displacement
W(x) structural weight function
X vector of random variables
Abbreviations
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction LTB lateral torsional buckling CoV coefficient of variation MCS Monte Carlo simulation CP collapse prevention MPP maximum probability point DL damage limitation MRF moment resisting frame EFEHR European Facility for Earthquake Hazard and
Risk MRSA modal response spectrum analysis
EN European Norm PA pushover analysis FE finite element PEER Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
Center FB flexural buckling PGA peak ground acceleration FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency PSHA probabilistic seismic hazard analysis FORM first order reliability method SLS serviceability limit state GA genetic algorithm SORM second order reliability method IDA incremental dynamical analysis SRSS square root of the sum- of the squares IDR interstorey drift THA time history analysis JCSS Joint Committee on Structural Safety ULS ultimate limit state LFM lateral force method
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
9
1. Introduction
In Hungary, the reliability of structures has to be verified against stricter requirements since the
introduction of European Standards (ENs). The verification against extreme effects (e.g. fire and
seismic effects) has started to play a significant role in the structural design practice. In lot of cases,
the complexity and nonlinearity of these extreme effects makes the design procedure to a time-
consuming iterative process. For this reason, the conceptual design of structures has become more
important. This is especially true when the aim is to find an economical or optimal solution. The
problem is even more difficult and complex if the structural behaviour is highly nonlinear, e.g.
when the structure is sensitive for stability failure modes, if the dominant failure mode may be an
interaction between different stability failure modes and if the structural configuration is non-
conventional. These statements are particularly true in case of tapered portal frames. Structural
optimization tool may be used effectively in order to find optimal and economical solutions in these
cases.
1.1. Literature review
Nowadays, many researchers deal with structural optimization since it is still a developing area.
Due to the large number of publications in this field, presenting and listing all of the connected
papers and books is definitely hopeless. In this thesis, only the relevant research works and studies
are referred. In Hungary, the researchers of Structural Engineering Department of Budapest
University of Technology and Economics (BME) presented solutions for optimal design of cold-
formed steel elements in [1], for new generation steel wind-turbine tower in [2] and for steel
stiffened plates related to optimal stiffener geometry in [3]. These papers directly focused on
practical problems, similarly to the work of József Farkas and Károly Jármai from University of
Miskolc, who gave solutions for various problems, e.g. in [4] and in [5], from the field of optimal
design of steel structures. In [6], they presented a detailed cost calculation method for steel
structures and optimized a multi-storey steel frame based on structural costs, considering seismic
effects. They also gave solution for cost optimization of a welded box beam and a stiffened plate
in [7]. From the Department of Structural Mechanics of BME, János Lógó [8] gave a
comprehensive overview about relevant literature from the field of structural optimization and
mathematical programming, including early researches and applications. For this reason, for
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
10
inquiring readers the author suggests to read and study the work of János Lógó as a good and
comprehensive introduction to this field. In [8], he presented a solution for optimization of a
haunched steel frame, which had been experimentally tested in the laboratory of Structural
Engineering Department. In recent publications, with his colleagues, he dealt with optimal design
considering uncertain loading positions, e.g. in [9] and in [10], and optimal design of curved folded
plates, e.g. in [11] and in [12]. György Rozványi, also from the Department of Structural
Mechanics, earned wide international reputation with his oeuvre in the field of topology
optimization [13]. Anikó Csébfalvi, from Department of Structural Engineering, University of
Pécs, deals with optimization of frame and truss structures. In [14], she presented genetic algorithm
based heuristic weight optimization of frames with semi-rigid joints. She proposed and applied on
three dimensional truss structures the so-called ANGEL algorithm, a metaheuristic optimization
algorithm, that combines ant colony optimization, genetic algorithm and gradient-based local
search, in [15] and in [16].
This literature review focuses on summarizing the most relevant literatures related to the
optimal design of steel multi-storey and portal frames considering various loading conditions
(considering “conventional”, seismic and fire effects). Because of the discrete and highly nonlinear
nature of the optimality problem, the researchers mostly apply evolutionary or other heuristic
strategies to find the optimum of the objective function that measures the fulfilment of design and
performance criteria. A number of studies, e.g. [17], [18], [20], [21], [22], [19], [23], [24], [25] and
[26], exist related to the optimization of regular or tapered portal frames considering
“conventional” loading conditions (dead load, snow load, etc.) in order to achieve a more economic
design usually by minimizing the weight or the cost of the structure. Nowadays cost optimization
is becoming the most widespread; however, in lot of cases the calculation of the structural costs
may be difficult and controversial.
As regards to the optimal seismic design of frames, Kaliszky and Lógó in [27] presented a
method for elasto-plastic optimal weight design of frame structures subjected to seismic excitation
according to the design rules of Eurocode 8 Part 1 (EC8-1) [28] standard. Due to the high
nonlinearity of the design problem they proposed an iterative design procedure where a
mathematical programming problem and a pushover analysis had to be carried out in each iteration
step. Salajegheh, Gholizadheh and Khatibinia, in [29], analysed the optimal design of a multi-
storey steel frame and a spatial truss structure considering seismic effects using time history
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
11
analysis. Oskouei, Fard and Aksogan, in [30], presented the optimal design of multi-storey frames
exposed to seismic effects using both linear and nonlinear static analyses. The aim of optimization
was to find a structure with minimum structural weight considering constraints for allowable
stresses, deformations and the position of plastic hinges. They could achieve lighter solutions by
using semi-rigid connections and nonlinear static analysis method.
There is lack of studies dealing with optimal fire design of steel structures in the literature, only
few studies are available in this topic. Jármai in [31] presented optimal solutions for a simple one-
storey frame constructed using square hollow sections. Particle swarm optimization technique [32]
was applied in order to minimize the objective function which expressed the initial cost of the
structure. Internal forces in the elements were calculated using first order theory and the gas
temperature was calculated according to ISO standard fire curve [33]. The author concluded that
by using passive fire protection significant cost savings can be achieved.
Conventional prescriptive design criteria may be not able to describe well the structural
performance for highly nonlinear loading conditions, such as seismic and fire effects. For this
reason, more and more researcher and designer apply the so-called Performance Based Design
(PBD) concept [34]. The performance of the structure is often characterized by the reliability or
failure probability through the seismic or fire risk. The main advantages of PBD comparing to
prescriptive design are the following: 1) PBD gives the opportunity to take into account the
uncertainties and the consequences in the design; 2) PBD makes the comparison easier among
structures with similar initial costs and with similar demand-to-capacity (D/C) ratios.
Nowadays, performance based optimization of structures is a rapidly evolving, state-of-the-art
topic; the risk or the structural reliability provides a good measure for structural optimization.
Kaveh et al., in [35], published a paper on performance based seismic design of steel frames using
ant colony optimization algorithm [32]. The performance of the structures was evaluated with
nonlinear static structural analysis; they pointed out that the presented method was able to obtain
lighter frames having less damage. Saadat, Camp and Pezeshk, in [36], also presented performance
based seismic design optimization of steel frames, but considering direct economic and social
losses. The optimization objective, optimized with genetic algorithm (GA) [37] [38], was selected
as the lifetime cost considering initial costs and possible losses due to seismic effects in the future.
In [39], Rojas, Foley and Pezeshk presented a GA based optimization method in order to minimize
both the structural weight and the expected annual losses considering constraints related to
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
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performance objectives and to element resistance. Fragility functions of HAZUS [40] were used
for performance evaluation according to PEER framework [41].
Liu, Wen and Burns presented a life cycle cost oriented seismic design optimization in [42].
The authors minimized life cycle cost of steel MRF (moment resisting frames) structures using a
detailed failure cost function considering AISC steel design specifications and seismic design
provisions. The applied search engine was a GA based procedure. In [43], the authors presented a
seismic design optimization with reliability constraints. The response of MRF structures was
assessed with the help of pushover analysis (PA) within a FEMA-356 [44] conforming
performance evaluation procedure. The objective function which expressed the initial cost had been
minimized with GA. They solved the reliability problem with both Monte Carlo simulation (MCS)
[45] [46] and first order reliability method (FORM) [47].
No study may be found in the literature related to performance based optimization of structures
exposed to fire effects, although such optimization results would provide useful information related
to optimal design considering both initial costs and possible failure risks. This is especially true in
case of steel structures, because their structural response and load bearing capacity is highly
sensitive to elevated temperatures. Results would also help to provide more information about
possible target reliability indices. The target safety level is an important issue from the point of
view of economic design because it ensures a balance between the initial costs and failure
consequences (Fig. 2-1a).
Related to structural reliability, a Hungarian researcher and engineer Gábor Kazinczy may have
been the first who proposed the application of probability theory (accounting the variability in
manufacturing and the quality of construction materials) for assessing the safety of structures [48]
[49]. In Hungary, among others Endre Mistéth did a remarkable research work related to structural
reliability theory, he summarized his oeuvre in a book [50] that is well-known among scientists
and engineers working on this field.
Structural failure reliability is the probability that the structure will retain its safety over the
design period (service life) under specified conditions [51]. Reliability index is frequently used in
the literature as the measure of structural reliability. In case of normally distributed and not
correlated joint density functions, structural reliability (R), reliability index (β) and the probability
of failure (Pf) are in the following relation:
( ) ( )ββ ΦΦ =−−=−= 11 fPR , (1)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
13
where Φ(•) is the standard normal cumulative distribution function. Probability of failure may
be calculated with integration (Eq. (15)) the joint density function over the domain (failure region)
where the value of limit state function (that separates feasible and non-feasible alternatives) is
violated [51], Eurocode 0 (EC0) [52]. The density function shows the relative frequency of
realizations calculated using random variables (e.g. strength, geometry, load intensity).
Suggestions related to distribution, mean value and standard deviation of random variables can be
found in the literature, e.g. in [53] or in studies connected to reliability assessment of structures
[54].
To the best of the author’s knowledge, there is a lack of studies in the literature on
comprehensive reliability calculation of complex structural systems exposed to fire; the available
studies mainly deal with the reliability calculation of simple, separated elements. For example, in
an earlier study Holickỳ et al. [55] analysed the reliability of unprotected simple supported steel
beams with SORM, which had been verified according to Eurocode 3 Part 1-2 (EC3-1-2) [56].
Jeffers et al. in [57] analysed protected simple supported steel beams as well using both ISO
standard fire curve (equivalent fire effect that is commonly used for fire design given in
temperature vs. time format) [33] and Eurocode 1 Part 1-2 (EC1-1-2) [58] conforming parametric
fire curves (Eurocode conforming curves that were obtained on the basis of properties of the
compartment and the combustible material) to model the temperature in the compartment. The
reliability of the beam was assessed using MCS with Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS). They
pointed out that probability calculation is needed to ensure consistent reliability level in the fire
resistant design and further discussion is necessary in order to decide the acceptable level of risk
in structural fire engineering. Guo and Jeffers [59] presented a detailed discussion on the reliability
calculation theory extended for calculation of the failure probability of a protected steel column
under fire exposure. They calculated the reliability of a simple pinned column with FORM, SORM
and MCS. Based on the resulted probabilities they showed that there could be significant difference
between MCS and FORM, where FORM resulted more conservative failure probabilities. Li et al.
[60] investigated the reliability of steel column elements protected by intumescent coating. They
were able to assess the aging effect of the intumescent coating on the structural reliability.
Reliability analysis of complex structures exposed to fire can be found in [61] and in [62]. In
the first study Boko et al. analysed an unprotected steel roof structure with SORM and FORM.
They pointed out that using rules and recommendations from EC1-1-2 and EC3-1-2 appropriate
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
14
safety level can be ensured. The analysed truss structure was not taken into account as structural
system, the presented reliability indices are related single elements. In the second study, Boko et
al. presented the analysis of a steel portal warehouse without fire protection. The reliability related
to the failure of the beam was obtained with different parametric fire curves (EC1-1-2) calculated
using different values for fuel load, fire area and opening factor. They pointed out that the usage
of ISO standard fire curve leads for conservative structural reliability value.
It can be concluded that structural reliability calculation under fire exposure is still a developing
area and (because of some shortcomings in the available studies: simplification of fire curve,
simplification related the consideration of failure within the reliability analysis, simplified analysis
and analysis of an isolated element) it does not ensure strong and consistent basis related to
reliability level of different structures that were designed using prescriptive rules of modern codes
(EC1-1-2, EC3-1-2).
As it can be seen in the presented table (Table 1-1), different standards and recommendations
give different values for target reliability in terms of reliability index.
50 years service life: EC0
Low consequence
(CC1)
Medium consequence
(CC2)
High consequence
(CC3) 3.3 3.8 4.3
50 years service life: Probabilistic Model Code of JCSS [53] Relative cost of safety
measure Minor
consequences Moderate
consequences Large
consequences High (A) 1.67 1.98 2.55
Moderate (B) 2.55 3.21 3.46 Low (C) 3.21 3.46 3.83
Service life: ISO 2394 [63] Relative cost of safety
measure Some
consequences Moderate
consequences Great
consequences High (A) 1.5 2.3 3.1
Moderate (B) 2.3 3.1 3.8 Low (C) 3.1 3.8 4.3
Table 1-1 – Target reliability index values from standards and recommendations
Holickỳ pointed out in his study [64] that the suggested safety level is inconsistent among the
codes. Further studies, e.g. [65], [66], [67], [BT5], [BT9] and [BT12] showed and pointed out that
the structural reliability against seismic effects does not achieve EC0 required level, the achievable
reliability index for conventional structures is β≈2.0 – 3.0, due to the high uncertainties in the
seismic effects. In case of fire effects, in [BT8] and in [BT10] the authors showed that the reliability
level was inconsistent and lower than EC0 suggested levels in the case of structures that had been
designed according to the prescriptive rules of EC1-1-2 and EC3-1-2 standards. Further issue is
that the EC0 does not differentiate groups according to the relative cost of safety measures, in this
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
15
way, it recommends the same target reliability for persistent, seismic and fire design situations.
This method does not seem to be able to provide solutions with consistent reliability that is one of
the bases of safe and economic design. It shows that further research work is necessary in order to
extend our knowledge on optimal design considering fire or seismic effects to refine or check the
available target reliability indices for extreme design situations.
1.2. Aims and outline of this research
Extend the existing information in the literature related to the optimal design of steel tapered
portal frames motivated this research because to the best of author’s knowledge there is no study
focusing on structural fire or seismic optimization of tapered portal frame structures (Fig. 1-1).
When seismic and fire effects are taken into account, highly nonlinear, discrete and non-convex
nature of the design problem (Appendix B) makes the design of tapered steel frames a time-
consuming and iterative process. This is caused by not only the design procedure but also the nature
of extreme effects, the structural response and the fact that the structure typically consists of slender
elements and it is sensitive to stability failure modes.
Fig. 1-1 – Investigated structural configuration – steel tapered portal frame (Rutin Ltd.) [68]
By fire design, it is not evident whether protected or unprotected strengthened structure is
characterized by better performance; passive or active safety measures provide more economical
structures. In case of seismic design, it is also not clear what is the influence of the sheeting system
rigidity on the performance of tapered portal frame structures. It is not obvious which target
reliability indices would be appropriate for fire or seismic design that makes the evaluation of
E
A
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
VH/1
O/2
M/6
ZKL/2
ZKK/3
KM/3
KM/3
VJM/4
M/7 S/1
VBM/12
VJM/4
M/6V
BM/12
HG/5
VBM/16
VJM/8
VJM/8
M/1
M/2
VBM/17
F
T/1
HG/7
VBM/12
T/1
D
BV/7
T/1
HO/6
VH/1
VJM/4
VBM/4
T/5
VBM/16
M/2
VJM/8
VJM/8
G/1
VBM/17
M/1
O/3
VJM/4
VJM/8
VJM/8
VBM/1
VBM/17
T/3
KK/6
KK/2
KK/2
HO/7
HO/7
BV/2
BV/4
BV/4
BV/5
FO/3
HG/4
VBM/12
VJM/4
VJM/4
M/6
VJM/4
VBM/13
C
B
T/1
VJM/11
T/1 KK/2
KK/6
KK/1
HO/1
HO/2
BV/7BV/3
T/7
T/5
VJM/11
T/8
T/8
T/7
T/7
T/7T/8
T/8
ZS/2
G/6
G/5
O/4
VBM/9
VBM/14
VJM/4
VJM/11
VJM/11
M/5
M/1
VBM/15
VBM/19
T/5
HG/7
ZKL/2
ZKK/3
VJM/4
BV/4
BV/6BV/4
T/3
HG/7
ZK/1
ZKK/4
FO/10
G
VJM/4
HG/1
VBM/7
ZK/1
ZK/3
ZK/3
M/7 ZKK/4
KM/3
M/7
KM/3KM/3
KM/3
ZKK/3
ZKK/4
VBM/12
VJM/8
VJM/4
VJM/4
O/6
VBM/4
VBM/1
K
VH/1
VJM/4
G/8
VJM/4M/6
M/3
S/1
VBM/11
VBM/11
VBM/12
VH/1
M/6
VBM/13
S/1
VBM/10VBM/10
S/1VH/1
VJM/4
VJM/4
BV/5
BV/2
T/1 VH/1
VBM/2
VBM/5
VBM/3
VJM/11
I
K/6
K/6
K/6
K/4
RT/1
K/11
K/2
K/9
VJM/1ZS/3
G/9
LK/1
T/6T/5
T/2
G/10
T/2
K/1T/2
VJM/1
FO/6
VBM/4
K/8
VH/1
ZS/1
FO/8
FO/5
FO/1
G/7
K/6
K/6
K/7
H
LK/3
T/2T/6
T/4
FO/6
VBM/4
LK/2
K/3 K/6
K/6
K/7
T/1
VH/1
FO/2
G/2
FO/7
KK/2
K/6
K/7
K/6
K/5
K/6
K/6 K/6
J
VBM/8
S/1M/7
VJM/4
VBM/6
VBM/5
VJM/4
T/1
KK/2
T/1
VH/1
M/3
S/1
S/1 VBM/6
HO/2
KK/2
BV/7
ZKK/4
HG/7
HG/7
KK/6
HO/5
VBM/17
VJM/8
S/1
ZKK/3BV/3
BV/6
M/6
VBM/7
S/1
S/1
VJM/4
M/8
HO/2
BV/4
VBM/8VJM/4
HG/7
G/4VH/1
HO/7
BV/4
BV/4
BV/4
VJM/2
T/4
VJM/2
VJM/2
VJM/2
VBM/9
VJM/11
VJM/11
VJM/11
M/5H
O/4
KK/2
VBM/15
T/1
FO/4
T/5
VH/1
VBM/2
O/5
T/5
VBM/3
O/1
BV/7KK/6
G/3
VH/1
VBM/14
VJM/4
VJM/4
HG/3
M/1
VBM/19
9.0 m
5.9 m
0.0 m
Type Valuedead load of the
framecalculated
dead load of theroof system
0.2 kN/m2
weight of theequipment
0.2 kN/m2
snow 1.25 kN/m2
velocity pressureof wind
0.58 kN/m2
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
16
performance based design results difficult. Assessment of target reliability indices for extreme
effects, development of comprehensive and effective reliability analysis tools, investigation the
influence of different design variables on optimal solutions and derivation of new design concepts
and recommendations would be very helpful for researchers and also for practicing engineers to
find more economical solutions with better performance. The primary objectives of this study are
the following:
a) to develop a structural optimization framework,
b) to develop effective reliability analysis tools,
c) to define target reliability indices considering fire or seismic effects,
d) to perform a parametric study in order to identify the most influencing parameters,
e) to derive new and valuable design concepts for practicing engineers.
In the course of this research work, a complex structural optimization algorithm framework
(Appendix E – Fire optimization framework; Appendix F – Seismic optimization framework) has
been developed that adopts state-of-the-art design and analysis tools (Section 4 and 5) with respect
to performance assessment and optimization methods. In this context, the appellation framework
means that many different analysis and evaluation tools are incorporated and connected together
with structural optimization algorithm and it does not intend to refer to the universality of the
algorithm. The research and this thesis focus on the investigation of optimal design of tapered steel
frame structures subjected to extreme loading conditions in general instead of giving slightly more
optimal solution (e.g. a solution with 0.5% less structural weight, etc.) for a specific frame in a
specific design situation. The developed optimization framework is a tool, wherewith economic
and well performing structural solutions are determined in the course of parametric studies (Section
7.3 and 7.4). The algorithm evaluates the objective function (Section 2.2 and 2.3) for thousands of
possible design alternatives in each optimization process, thus it provides a comprehensive and
strong basis for the definition of new design concepts and recommendations and the determined
structural solutions can be considered optimal from practical point-of-view.
Wide range of possible design situations is covered in the parametric studies, namely fire effects
with different intensity and duration; seismic effects in seismically less and more intensive areas;
structures with low and high gravity loads; structural failure with low, moderate and high
economical consequences. By the analysis of optimization results, emphasis is laid on the amount
of passive fire protection (fire design), on the influence of sheeting system rigidity (seismic design)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
17
and on the optimal configurations. The considered sites for seismic design structural optimization
are characterized with moderate and high seismicity as it is described in Section 5.2. The severity
of fire effect is based on the quality and quantity of the stored materials. Different fire curves (for
calculation of fire curves see Section 4.5) related to different fire design situations are presented in
Section 7.3.1. In this study, intumescent coating fire protection is applied due to the facts that
painting is practical, aesthetic and easy to use. The properties of a specific product, namely
Polylack A paint of Dunamenti Tűzvédelem Hungary Ltd. [69], are considered in the calculations
and applied as passive fire protection in case of the protected structures. However, the calculated
paint thicknesses can be converted if a different product is used; the only criterion is that the
prescribed thicknesses in the design sheet need to be given according to MSZ EN 13381-8 [70]
standard. According to Hungarian regulations [71] [72] a minimum active safety measure, namely
automatic smoke detection system, is selected for the reference structure.
Details of the investigation on possible target reliability indices for the investigated structure in
both fire and seismic design situations is presented in Section 6. The results can be used to get more
information about the achievable reliability of complex structural systems subjected to extreme
effects and may be used later by the refinement of partial factors, prescriptive requirements in the
codes. The investigation covers a wide parametric range (consequence classes, load severity), thus
the result and recommendations may be generalized for other structural configuration types.
In order to reduce the complexity of the investigated problem, the reliability of purlins, sheeting
and its connections is not incorporated in this study. Furthermore, the failure of thin walled
elements and their connections under fire or seismic loading conditions is highly uncertain. The
considered failure modes are focusing only on the failure of columns, beams, connections and
bracing elements.
1.3. Details of the investigated structure
The basic configuration of the portal frame that is investigated in this research is shown in Fig.
1-1 with dead and meteorological loads acting on the structure (the presented structure was
investigated from different perspectives in the framework of HighPerFrame RDI project). The
structure has altogether 8 main frames and it is divided into two fire compartments; the first one is
considered to be a small office, while the second part with 36 m total length (7 frames, Fig. 1-1)
has storage hall function.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
18
The primary elements of tapered frames are welded and they are connected with bolted
connections; the steel grade is selected for S355. Secondary elements (e.g. wind bracing) are
constructed from S235 steel grade using prefabricated, rolled sections. Based on the outcomes of
a refined numerical study [73], base connections can be considered as pinned connections while
the beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections are clearly rigid connections according to the
guidelines of Eurocode 3 Part 1-8 (EC3-1-8) [74] standard. Actual properties of the connections
are taken into consideration within the nonlinear structural analysis with the help of nonlinear
spring elements (Section 4.7 and 5.4). Columns are restrained against torsion at the middle of the
eave height, while there are altogether six brace element equally distributed in the roof level in
order to prevent the lateral torsional buckling of compressed flange of beam elements. At high
temperatures, the sheeting and the purlins cannot be considered as supports for the flanges, because
they lose their stiffness very quickly due to their high section factor and thin walls.
The safety of the structures is verified in persistent design situation considering load
combinations, combination factors and partial safety factors from EC0. The utilization (demand-
to-capacity ratio) of the elements is calculated using geometrically nonlinear analysis on imperfect
structural model considering out-of-plane buckling with the help of reduction factor method of
Eurocode 3 Part 1-1 (EC3-1-1) [75], similarly to fire and seismic design situations. The
serviceability of the frame is checked in quasi-permanent load combination [52] in order to prevent
the aesthetically disturbing deflection of the main frame. The considered failure modes in persistent
design situation are:
1. shear buckling of column web,
2. strength and stability failure of tapered columns,
3. shear buckling of beam web,
4. strength and stability failure of non-tapered and tapered beam parts,
5. failure of connections,
6. failure of side and wind bracings.
The optimized structural configurations satisfy the above mentioned criteria thus they represent
adequate solutions in persistent design situation considering conventional loading conditions.
Components Cost rate Cost of main frame elements 2.25 €/kg Cost of bracing system 2.25 €/kg Cost of sheeting system (purlins included) 25 €/m2 Cost of passive fire protection 24 €/mm∙m2 Cost of automatic smoke detection system 40 €/m2
Table 1-2 – Cost components and rates considered in this study
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
19
The structural initial cost together with the failure consequences are used by the derivation of
the objective functions in case of both fire and seismic design optimization (Section 2.2 and Section
2.3). Cost components and rates (Table 1-2) have been determined based on consultation with
Hungarian industrial representatives; in order to represent Hungarian circumstances. Some
parameters are varied in the parametric study (Section 7.3.1 and Section 7.4.1) characterizing the
sensitivity of the optimum solutions and giving a strong basis for suggested design concepts for a
wide range of possible cases.
1.4. Preliminary research and results
The numerical framework’s development started in 2012 [BT1] with investigation of
prescriptive optimal seismic design of CBF (concentrically braced frame) (Fig. 1-2) structures
based on the suggestions and rules of EC8-1. With lot of improvements a more settled and
comprehensive application was published later in [BT3].
Fig. 1-2 – Axonometric view and ground plan of the investigated CBF [BT3]
Based on the results in [BT3], it could be declared that the developed algorithm was numerically
stable and suitable for cross-section and bracing system layout optimization of steel multi-storey
CBF buildings. This earlier application proved the applicability of the presented algorithm and the
steps of deriving design concepts based on the results of a parametric optimization study. It could
be also concluded that from practical point of view there may not be difference between the
achieved solutions and the global optima, since the fact that one or two elements could be slightly
different would not change the global concepts which had been derived from the obtained results.
This framework and objective function was applied later by the structural optimization of BRB
(buckling restrained brace) structures in [BT5] and in [BT7]. The probability of failure of the
structures was evaluated with the help of performance evaluation framework of Zsarnóczay [67].
The results of the research confirmed the good performance of designed frames thus the proposed
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
20
design procedure was appropriate for the design of concentrically braced BRB frames with
chevron-type brace topology.
From the point of view of providing well performing solutions, the introduction of Performance
Based Design concept for multi-storey steel frames was an important milestone in [BT4] instead
of the application of prescriptive rules. The optimization framework has not been changed
significantly since the early applications; only the objective function, the penalization and the
objective function’s evaluation were different by each application. The last step in the development
was the reliability based structural optimization of steel tapered portal frame structures.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
21
2. Optimization algorithm development
2.1. Basic description of the optimality problem
In most of the cases in the available literature, the aim of studies dealing with structural
optimization of steel portal frame structures is to find structural configurations with minimum
structural weight or minimum initial cost, e.g. in [23], in [21] and in [24], among others. In case of
minimum initial cost (C(x)) or minimum structural weight (W(x)) design, the aim is to solve one
of the following problems:
( )xCmin or ( )xWmin , (2)
where x is a vector which contains the design variables. Typically, these solutions are considered
the possible cheapest solutions. During a structural optimization procedure, aiming to find a
solution with minimum structural cost or weight, structural reliability is ensured and risk of
possible failure is limited by the application of prescribed design rules and partial safety factors of
the selected code.
However, many recent publications (see Section 1.1) have pointed that the structural reliability
against seismic and fire effects did not achieve EC0 required level in every cases if the structure
was designed according to Eurocode conforming prescriptive design rules. Thus a solution with
the minimum weight or initial cost may not necessarily be the optimal solution when the whole life
cycle of the structure is considered. The optimal configuration may be the one that gives the
minimum cost considering the life cycle of the structure, the risk of different damage states and the
amount of total losses. This aspect motivated my research to develop reliability based optimization
framework instead of cost optimization with prescriptive design constraints.
Fig. 2-1 – Optimal design concept: a) interpretation of life cycle cost; b) life cycle optimum
In some cases the structural reliability may be significantly increased and the expected losses
may be significantly decreased by slightly increasing in the initial cost. This is illustrated in Fig.
safety
Cost,Risk
safetya) b)
Cost,Risk
( )xR( )xC
( ) ( ) ( )xxx RCCLC += ( )xLCC
( )xR( )xC
unfeasible area
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
22
2-1b, where the red point indicates the optimal configuration having the sum of cost and risk (R(x))
minimum, the green one shows feasible optimum having minimum initial cost and maximum
acceptable risk according to the standard, e.g. according to [52]. The risk of a failure in CLC(x)
function means the risk of a failure in seismic or fire design situation. The dashed line (CLC(x)) is
the so-called life cycle cost (Fig. 2-1a). In life cycle optimization the primary aim is finding a
solution with minimal life cycle cost:
( ) ( ) ( )[ ]xxx RCminCmin LC += . (3)
Throughout the optimization process, in this study the global optimum (minimum in this case)
of the objective function shall be found which expresses the life-cycle cost (Fig. 2-1a) of the
investigated structure. The infeasible solutions are eliminated in the process with the help of
equality (g(x)) and inequality (h(x)) constraints:
( ) ,k,...,,i;gi 210 =≤ x , (4)
( ) m,..,kj;h j 10 +== x . (5)
Equality constraints may express the equilibrium conditions, so stable solutions are only accepted.
Inequality constraints express other design constraints, such as strength and stability checks of the
main frame elements in persistent design situation (Section 1.3). Solutions that violate the design
constraints are also unfeasible and are shown with grey colour in Fig. 2-1b.
By the optimization of steel frame structures the typical design variables are steel profile sizes
or cross section dimensions of column, beam and bracing elements. The fact that we are interested
in practically acceptable solutions makes the optimality problem discrete since available
dimensions of steel plates and steel profiles are discrete on the market. It is also conceivable that
large number of local optima may exist since cross sections with different types and sizes can have
the same load bearing capacity (e.g. higher and more slender, shorter and less slender cross sections
have the same moment resisting capacity). Furthermore, the highly nonlinear nature of extreme
effects makes the existence of local optima more likely.
Life cycle cost consists of a number of different cost components. These cost components may
be roughly differentiated into the following groups in case of seismic or fire design of structures:
• design and construction costs (design fees, infrastructure, construction, non-structural
components, management, etc.);
• maintenance costs (service, repairs, downtime cost, etc.);
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
23
• operation costs (insurance, management, energy costs, cleaning, etc.);
• risk of total losses due to a possible failure (missing income or malfunction in
production, repair costs, replacement costs, etc.).
Many of these cost components do not depend on the value of selected design variables (cross-
section dimensions of beams, columns and bracings, thickness of passive fire protection), thus these
components can be considered approximately constant (e.g. energy costs are clearly not dependent
on the selected variables). For sake of simplicity, components independent on the selected variables
are neglected in this research similarly to [64]. In this study, the life cycle cost function is a function
that consists of the initial cost of steel superstructure, the initial cost of passive and active fire safety
measures (in case of fire design) and the risk of failure, as described in the following sections. It is
assumed that the cost factor given for the passive fire protection (Table 1-2) consists of not only
the cost of intumescent coating but the cost of primer and the cost of the finish coat, as well. Aging
effect of the paint and the cost of repainting is not considered in this study.
2.2. Objective function in case of fire optimization
Life cycle cost function of the investigated structure (CLC(x)) may be formulated on the
following way [BT11] similarly to [64]:
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )
4444444444 34444444444 21
444 3444 21
x
x
x
xxx
R
erventionintignitionfignitionfff
C
LC
PC.PC.PC
...CCCC
+⋅+⋅+⋅+
+++=
050010
210
. (6)
In Eq. (6), C0(x), C1(x) and C2 are the initial cost, the cost of passive and the cost of active safety
measures, respectively, while Cf and Pf (x) refer to total losses and the failure probability (calculated
with reliability analysis, Section 3 and 4.1) related to the service life which equals to 50 years. The
last two terms express the damage cost which is caused by moderate fire (quenched before
flashover) and by intervention (e.g. damage caused by sprinkler system and/or firefighting). Cf
contains direct (e.g. value of stored material or the construction of a new storage hall) and indirect
cost components (e.g. missing income or malfunction in production).
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
24
Fig. 2-2 – The shape of proposed objective function with two decisive variables [BT11]
The optimal solution is associated with a structure that results the lowest CLC(x) objective function
value (Fig. 2-2). Almost every component of Eq. (6) depends on the value of design variables, for
example, if the thickness of the flanges or passive fire protection is increased, this increment will
directly change the C0(x) or C1(x) cost components. Furthermore, in case of a stronger or a better
protected frame the failure probability is lower compared to a less protected one and the risk of the
structural failure in fire design situation is decreased.
The initial cost is proportional to the weight of the structure:
( ) i,d,l,t,bCcld
cltbnC iiiish
n
isi
i
n
isiiif
bp
∀∈+⋅⋅⋅
+⋅⋅⋅⋅= ∑∑==
xx1
2
10 4
ρπ
ρ . (7)
This approach is clearly an approximation; however, it is often used by industrial representatives
in cost calculations and bids. In Eq. (7), nf, np, cs and Csh are the number of frames, the number of
steel plates of a frame, cost rate in €/kg unit and the cost of the sheeting and bracing system,
respectively. The weight of the ith plate is calculated by multiplying bi (width), ti (thickness), li
(length) and ρ (density). The nb and di are the number of bracing elements and the diameter of ith
steel bar, respectively. The cost of the passive fire protection is considered to be proportional to
the protected surface, thus it can be formulated as follows:
( ) j,tctlAnC j,p
n
jpj,pjjf
e
∀∈⋅⋅⋅= ∑=
xx1
1 , (8)
where ne, Aj, lj, tp,j and cp are the number of protected elements, the protected surface, the protected
length of jth element, the protection thickness in case of jth element and the cost rate in €/(mm·m2)
unit, respectively. Due to the fact that column base connections are pinned, the dimensions of
foundation are not design variables and the cost of foundation is not considered in this study.
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Sta
ndar
dize
d co
st fu
nctio
n, R
elia
bilit
y in
dex
01
2 01
22
4
6
8
10
12
x 104
Active safety measurePassive safety measure
Cos
t fun
ctio
n [E
uro]
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Sta
ndar
dize
d co
st fu
nctio
n, R
elia
bilit
y in
dex
Active safety measure
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
25
2.3. Objective function in case of seismic optimization
Similarly to fire design situation in Section 2.2, the objective function expresses the life cycle
cost of the structure. In this case, CLC(x) may be formulated on the following way:
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )434214434421
xx
xxxx
R
ff
C
LC PCCCC ⋅++= 10 . (9)
In Eq. (9), C0(x) and C1(x) are the initial cost (considering the sheeting system and purlins as
well) and the cost of the bracing system, respectively, while Cf and Pf (x) refer to total losses (Cf
contains direct and indirect cost components) and the failure probability (calculated with reliability
analysis as it is described in Section 3 and 5.1) related to the service life which equals to 50 years.
The optimal solution is associated with a structure that results lowest CLC(x). Similarly to fire
design situation, in seismic design situation only one performance objective is considered, namely
the failure of the structure. The performance objective is investigated with the consideration of 475
years return period seismic action, thus it corresponds to significant damage performance level of
EC8-1 [28].
In case of calculation of C0(x) the basic idea is that the initial cost is proportional to the weight
of the structure:
( ) i,l,t,bCcltbnC iiish
n
isiiif
p
∀∈+⋅⋅⋅⋅= ∑=
xx1
0 ρ . (10)
This approach is clearly an approximation; however, it is often used by industrial representatives
in cost calculations and bids. In Eq. (10), nf, np, cs and Csh are the number of frames, the number of
steel plates of a frame, cost rate in €/kg unit and the cost of the sheeting and bracing system,
respectively. The weight of the ith plate is calculated by multiplying bi (width), ti (thickness), li
(length) and ρ (density). The cost of the bracing system can be formulated on the following way in
case of slender steel round bars:
( ) i,l,dcld
C ii
n
ibi
ib
∀∈⋅⋅⋅⋅
=∑=
xx1
2
1 4ρ
π. (11)
In Eq. (11), nb, di and cb are the number of bracing elements, the diameter of ith steel bar and the
cost rate in €/kg unit.
Eq. (10) and (11) express the cost of steel superstructure. Due to the fact that column base
connections are pinned, the dimensions of foundation are not design variables and the cost of
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
26
foundation is not considered in this study. The considered cost factors are further discussed at the
description of the parametric study and it has to be noted that the cost factors have been selected
on the basis of consultation with Hungarian industrial representatives (Table 1-2).
2.4. Genetic algorithm based optimization framework
Due to the above mentioned issues, an advanced and universally applicable optimization
algorithm needed to be invoked that is able to handle the special characteristics and difficulties of
the investigated problem. Due to the fact that the problem is non-convex (large number of local
optima exist), simple gradient based optimization algorithm is clearly not applicable. A feasible
and favourable solution is the application of heuristic algorithms because their applicability is
confirmed by numerous examples from the literature, such as in e.g. [42], [19], [14], [43], [36] and
[5], among others.
In this study, genetic algorithm (GA) [37] [38] is invoked to find the optimal solutions due to
the fact that GA is able to handle highly nonlinear problems, different optimal solutions in parallel
and discrete objective functions, it can scan a very large search space during its operation and its
operation is stable. Its applicability to similar and other nonlinear structural optimization problems
is shown e.g. in [23], in [39], in [24], in [BT3] and in [BT4]. GA literally imitates the biological
evolution; the best individuals survive and transmit their genes for the newer generations; for this
reason, the technical terms often have biological origin (Fig. 2-3). The design variables are stored
in chromosome-like data structures, namely in a series of vectors considering the symmetry of the
frame. Example: n is the number of individuals which is commonly referred as the population size;
ne is the number of elements; hi, bi, tw,i and tf,i are the cross section dimensions of the ith element:
=
n
...
x
x
x
X 2
1
(12)
[ ]eeee n,fn,wnni,fi,wii,f,w ttbh...ttbh...ttbh 1111=x (13)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
27
Fig. 2-3 – Illustrative flowchart from the operation of GA
GA starts seeking optimum from a randomly generated initial set with the help of improvement
of individuals and the search space during its operation. Uniform crossover (Fig. 2-3) is invoked
in the optimization algorithm where the genes of parental individuals are selected randomly with
even chance. Crossover ratio controls the percentage of best individuals participating in the
crossover. After the crossover the chromosomes are varied further within the mutation procedure
(Fig. 2-3). The elite individuals are responsible to preserve the best genomes, thus they are not
allowed to be mutated. Mutation helps to avoid the local optimum in the optimization process.
Mutation ratio gives the number of mutated individuals which are selected randomly excluding the
elites, thus one individual may be mutated more than once.
GA can handle the constraints only with the help of so-called penalty functions [76]. Using
penalty functions the problem can be transformed into unconstrained format:
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
28
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )x
x
xxxxx
iilim,
ilim,i
i
iULSSLSLC g;ggCmin!ηηηη
η <
≤
=⋅⋅ 2
1, (14)
where gULS(x) and gSLS(x) are the penalty functions related to ultimate and serviceability limit states
related conventional design situation (Section 1.3). The ηi and ηlim,i are the calculated and
acceptable D/C ratio (1.0, i.e. 100%) in the investigated limit states.
2.5. Global optimum
Heuristic algorithms (e.g. genetic algorithm) seek the optimum with the development of the
search space during their operation and they evaluate large number of possible solutions (thousands
of possible solutions in this study). With good settings heuristic algorithms can find solutions
situated very close to the global optimum with no difference compared to the global optimum from
practical point-of-view. There may be neighbouring solutions with very slight difference in the
objective function value but both solutions are acceptable for an engineer. In this way, within the
framework of parametric studies the application of heuristic algorithms provides a comprehensive
basis for the definition of new design concepts and recommendations.
The finding of global optimum cannot be guaranteed in this research due to the fact that the
problem is discrete, non-convex and highly nonlinear. Brute-force search technique (evaluate all
of the possible solutions and select the best) could guarantee the global optimum, however,
considering e.g. fire design optimization with 15 variables (Section 7.1) the number of possible
variations is incredibly high (billions) even with some restrictions. For this reason, brute-search
technique can be used only if the complexity of the problem is reduced significantly compared to
the optimization problem presented in this thesis.
Further details about the settings and convergence of the structural optimization framework can
be found in Section 7.2.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
29
3. Reliability analysis
The aim of reliability analysis is mainly to obtain the probability of failure (Pf) of the
investigated structure. The structural failure is modelled with the so-called limit state function,
G(X)=0 in Fig. 3-1 that separates the safe (G(X)>0) and unsafe (G(X)<0) potential solutions.
Fig. 3-1 – Joint distribution function of reliability problem with two random variables
Basically, the ratio of safe solutions to the all possible solutions gives the reliability of the structure
in a given design situation (R=1-Pf). This is theoretically equal with the value of the following
integral if the distribution of the random variables can be approximated with continuous
distribution functions.
( ){ } ( )( )
XXXX
dfGPPG
f ∫<
=<=0
0 , (15)
where the f(X) is the joint density function, which already contains the random variables from the
effect and resistance side. In case of normally distributed and not correlated joint density function,
the integral can be evaluated in the following way:
( )βσµ
−=
−= ΦΦfP , (16)
where β, μ and σ are the so-called reliability index (frequently used in literature as the measure of
structural reliability), mean value and standard deviation, respectively.
The integral is typically calculated numerically, because of the fact that the limit state function
can be often discrete or highly complex in real design cases. For this reason, the exact failure
probability can be rarely calculated; the main difference between the numerical technics is the
degree of approximation. The Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) [45] [46] may give the most accurate
approximation from the available methods, where a series of realizations are simulated and the
9.510
10.511
11.512
12.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
40
0.5
1
1.5
2X1X
( ) 0=XG
( ) 0<XG
( ) 0>XG
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
30
unfeasible solutions are simply counted. The high nonlinearity in the structural response makes
MCS method computationally expensive because it can happen that evaluation of 105 - 106 of
analyses are necessary to get accurate solution especially when the failure probability is low. In
order to eliminate the lack of computational capacity, there are other approximated methods, e.g.
FORM and SORM (second order reliability method), where the limit state function is approximated
with linear and second order terms of the Taylor series [47] in the so-called maximum probability
point (MPP; the closest point of failure surface to the centre in standard normal space). FORM
algorithm, which is based on Hasofer – Lind – Rackwitz – Fiessler (HLRF) iteration method (Fig.
3-2) [47] [77] [78] is adopted in this work. The implied and extended HLRF algorithm can handle
correlated and non-normally distributed random variables with:
• transformation of non-normally distributed variables into normally distributed ones with
normal tail approximation,
• transformation of correlated variables into non-correlated space.
Fig. 3-2 – Adopted Hasofer – Lind – Rackwitz – Fiessler (HLRF) iteration method
The optimized objective function is presented in Section 2.1 in general and more detailed form
in Section 2.2 and 2.3. The objective function expresses the initial costs and the possible risk of
Definition of discrete and random variables
Distribution, parameters, correlation
Design point
i
iii
Xu
σµ−
=
Normal tail approximation
'UTU =
( ) ( )UGUG ∇
( ) ( )
( )2
1
1
∂∂
∂∂
−
=
∑
∑
=
=
n
i
ii
n
i
iii
x
UG
ux
UGUG
σ
σ
β
( )
( )2
1
∂∂
∂∂
=
∑=
n
i
ii
ii
i
x
UG
x
UG
σ
σα
iii*iX σβαµ +=
Convergence?yes
no
failureP
( )( ) 0
21
=
=
UG
UUmin! Tβ
HLRF iteration
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
31
losses caused by a failure due to fire or seismic effects. The risk is calculated as the product of
financial losses and the probability of failure, thus the result of adopted FORM analysis is directly
connected to the optimized function. The following uncertain variables are taken into account as
random variables (Section 4.6 and 5.3): strength of the steel material; stiffness; permanent loads;
meteorological loads (wind and snow); seismic effects; fire effects; effect- and resistance
uncertainty factors. Based on the results of a sensitivity analysis, some uncertain variables have
been merged into uncertainty factors [79].
The coordinates of MPP are calculated on the basis of sensitivity of limit state function that is
approximated with partial derivatives in every substep. Due to the complexity and discrete nature
of the design problem and variables (e.g. thickness of the flange plate, thickness of insulation),
partial derivatives can be calculated e.g. with central difference method, that means that the limit
state function shall be evaluated a lot of times during the iteration. The accuracy and feasibility of
the reliability analysis have been checked with the help of comparison to MCS results for simple
nonlinear problems from [51] and for complex and comprehensive reliability assessment of a
tapered steel frame exposed to fire effects [BT13]. It is found that the adopted reliability algorithm
is characterized by good accuracy.
The failure of a steel frame structure can be caused by several failure mechanisms. In case of
stability failure modes, it can be said that the investigated frame is failed if stability failure occurs,
so failure components compose a series reliability system, where the following simple
approximation can be given for the boundaries of the system failure probability [80]:
{ } ( )∏==
−−≤≤n
ii,fS,fi,f
n..i
PPPmax11
11 , (17)
where Pf,i, n and Pf,S are the failure probability related to the ith failure mode, the number of failure
modes and the failure probability of the system, respectively. Plastic sway mechanism is a failure
mode that composes a parallel reliability system since formation of several plastic hinges is needed
for failure. For a parallel system, simple lower and upper bound can be given as follows:
{ }i,fn..i
S,f
n
ii,f PminPP
11 ==
≤≤∏ . (18)
If the value of the limit state function can be calculated with respect to the all relevant components
(failure modes) within reliability analysis simultaneously then the correlation between failure
modes is already taken into account (as it is the case in this study, see Section 4.3 and 5.1). In case
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
32
of the whole structure, that consists of several frames itself, the reliability system is also series
because in the case of failure of one frame the structure is considered to be failed. If the whole
structure is modelled in the limit state function as a three-dimensional structure with respect for the
random variables (and their correlation) of every individual frame, the correlation between the
frames is already taken into consideration. However, in some cases the three-dimensional
modelling of the system incredibly increases the complexity of the reliability calculation. A
possible approximation is the application of e.g. simple bounds [80], Ditlevsen bounds [81] or
multivariate normal cumulative distribution function to approximate the system reliability with
respect to the correlation between the failures of separated frames:
( ) ( )( )ρβ,P mf,Sf,S ΦΦΦβ −−=−≅ −− 111 , (19)
In Eq. (19), the Φ, Φm, βS,f and PS,f, are the single- and multivariate standard normal cumulative
distribution functions, the reliability index (P = Φ(-β)) of the system and the probability of failure
related to the system, respectively. The β and ρ reliability index vectors containing the reliability
indices of individual frames and correlation matrix are in the following form, where the n is the
number of frames:
jiij
nnn
n
n
n
f,n
f,
f,
......
...
...
;...
ρρ
ρρρρ
ρρρρ
β
ββ
=
=
=
1
1
1
1
321
3
221
112
2
1
ρβ . (20)
This approximation allows the researcher to consider different reliability indices and different
correlation coefficients among the frames representing e.g. different scenarios.
In this study, the system’s reliability index is calculated for seismic effects with the help of
application nonlinear three-dimensional analysis on a spatial model within the evaluation of limit
state function (Section 5.1). In the course of reliability analysis for fire effects, two-dimensional
structural model is applied and multivariate normal cumulative distribution function is used to
calculate system reliability index and consider correlation among the frames’ failure (Section 4.4).
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
33
4. Reliability evaluation of frames under fire
exposure
4.1. Overview from the methodology
The methodology (Fig. 4-1) connects a complex structural reliability analysis to a Bayesian
probabilistic network [80]. Full system failure probability over the reference period (that is selected
equal to the structure’s design lifetime) is calculated as a product of conditional failure probability
given flashover occurrence (PS,f|flashover(X)) and probability of severe fire (Pflashover):
( ) flashoverflashoverf,Sfailure PPP ⋅= X , (21)
While calculation of failure probability and Bayesian networks are straightforward and well
known, the suggestions of the author are concentrated mainly in the composition of the limit state
function and the whole framework [BT13].
Fig. 4-1 – Overview from the proposed methodology and the limit state function.
It is recommended to model fire effects as accurate as possible in the design process. For
example, ISO standard fire curve can be considered only as a non-realistic, comparable effect
which can barely be the basis of realistic reliability calculation, notwithstanding the majority of
verifications against fire are based directly or indirectly on the ISO curve. CFD (computational
fluid dynamics) fire modelling softwares, e.g. FDS v6.0.1 [82], are the best tools for consideration
different fires and scenarios, local fires, spatial distribution of temperature; however, the number
of possible scenarios is considerably high. For this reason, the applicability of complex models in
structural reliability calculation seems difficult because they overcomplicate the investigated
problem and the results depend on the decisions made related to the considered fire scenarios. In
order to reduce the complexity but keep the accuracy, one or two zone model calculations, e.g.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
34
[83], seem to be the best alternatives. They provide the opportunity for consideration important
influencing parameters, such as quantity or quality of combustible material, ventilation. Parametric
fire curves are also able to capture the effect of these influencing parameters, nevertheless, their
applicability is limited (EC1-1-2) since the equations are based on a limited number of
experimental fires considered by their development.
Further issue is that the structural reliability in a lot of cases is ensured through verification of
isolated structural elements without consideration of realistic boundary conditions, interaction
among the elements and the nonlinear system response on elevated temperature; it makes the
calculated safety level more uncertain. In case of complex structural systems, the reliability of a
structure is not equal to the reliability of one of its elements. More accurate information can be
achieved by modelling the whole structure and follow the geometrically and materially nonlinear
structural response in fire.
The following sections provide more information on components of the methodology: event
tree analysis and Bayesian network (Section 4.2); limit state function (Section 4.3); consideration
of fire effects (Section 4.5); structural analysis (Section 4.7). This methodology offers a more
complex and comprehensive basis for the calculation of structural reliability than earlier studies in
the literature: a) the reliability calculation does not focus on one single element but the whole
structure; b) the presented methodology is able to consider any type of fire curve; c) reliability
analysis includes the nonlinear analysis of the whole structure; d) the structural reliability is
assessed on time basis. While these features may be found separately in earlier studies, the main
novelty of this methodology is that it offers the aforementioned features together for complex
structural systems.
The feasibility, accuracy, fast convergence and sensitivity of the algorithm (Fig. 4-2) (Fig. 4-3)
is proven with the help of reliability analysis of example structures protected by intumescent
painting; further details may be found in [BT13] and in [79]. It is found that the FORM
approximation underestimates the failure probability in the investigated case, the difference
between the results of FORM and MCS is observed from -1% to -34%, nevertheless, linear
approximation resulted good approximation of failure probability in the range of interest. The
sensitivity factors (negative normalized gradients of the limit state function at MPP are presented
in Table 4-1. For further details see [BT8] and [BT13].
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
35
Fig. 4-2 – Conditional probabilities related to structural failure from FORM and MCS [BT13]
Random variable Sensitivity factors - α
Value at MPP point
Yield stress [MPa] -0.091 386.81
Equipment load [kN/m2] 0.101 0.201
Wind load [kN/m2] 0.118 0.238
Snow load [kN/m2] 0.563 0.481 Resistance factor for the column-base
connection [-] 0 1.241
Resistance factor for the column-beam connection [-]
0 1.241
Resistance factor for the beam-beam connection [-]
0 1.241
Right column section modulus factor [-] 0 1
Left beam section modulus factor [-] 0 1
Right beam section modulus factor [-] -0.185 0.995
Effect model uncertainty factor [-] 0.429 1.029
Resistance model uncertainty factor [-] -0.431 0.930
Steel temperature uncertainty factor [-] 0.497 1.048
Table 4-1 – The sensitivity factors related to random
variables in fire design problem [BT13]
Fig. 4-3 – The convergence of the reliability analysis
algorithm [BT13]
Based on the literature review (Section 1.1), more research work is needed on developing
consistent basis in order to obtain target reliability levels for different structural systems designed
considering different fire scenarios and design situations. Despite of the fact that the framework is
used for reliability calculation of tapered portal frames the proposed methodology is inherently
applicable for any kind of structure analysed as a system by modelling its nonlinear behaviour and
not only as a totality of separated elements. The methodology gives the opportunity to apply more
realistic and problem dependent fire curves. For the time being, similarly complex and
comprehensive framework (Fig. 4-1) is not available in the literature, for further details see [BT13].
One of its novel features is the complex application of state-of-the-art analysis and evaluation tools
within the evaluation of limit state function.
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 500
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
Time demand [min]
Con
diti
onal
fai
lure
pro
babi
lity
MCS simulation results (1 exposed frame)MCS simulation results (5 exposed frames)FORM results (1 exposed frame)FORM results (5 exposed frames)Fitted lognormal distribution (1 exposed frame)Fitted lognormal distribution (5 exposed frames)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
Iteration
flashoverfailβ
( )0021
2070
.
.G
=
=
βX
2983
9182
5940
.
.
.
fail
flashover
flashoverfail
=
=
=
β
β
β
( )60350
0370
.
.G
=
=
βX ( )
59970
0060
.
.G
=
=
βX
( )59380
0000
.
.G
=
=
βX
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
36
4.2. Event tree and Bayesian probabilistic network
Beside the calculation of the conditional failure probability given flashover, the probability of
occurrence of flashover (simultaneous ignition of most of the flammable material in a
compartment) also has to be taken into account. Bayesian probabilistic network [80] is
implemented in the proposed framework (shown in Fig. 4-4 where F and T refer to false and true
events, respectively) in order to take into account the ignition occurrence, the effect of active safety
measures in the calculation of flashover probability. For more refined net please refer to [84].
Fig. 4-4 – Event tree and Bayesian network
The ignition probability can be assessed using statistical data [85], while the probability of fire
growth can be approximated using event tree analysis. With respect to the effectiveness of active
safety measures (e.g. sprinkler system, detection by heat, etc.) and the possibility of fire growth
from ignition, relevant data can be found in the literatures in [86] [87]. For the current study, the
probability of ignition is assumed equal to P(I)=10·10-6/(m2·year) as [86] recommends for an
IgnitionActivesafety
measure
Flashover
1,flashoverP
Active p.
Ignition T F
F 0 1
T 0.99 0.01
Ignition
T F
Pignition 1-Pignition
Flashover
Active p. Ignition T F
F F 0 1
F T 1 0
T F 0 1
T T PFL|A 1 - PFL|A
Ignition
1.0·10-5
fire/m2/year
4.5·10-6
6.5·10-6
Fire stoppedby occupants
yes - 0.45
no - 0.65
5.53·10-6
0.98·10-6
yes - 0.85
no - 0.15
Fire stopped byfire brigade
50,flashoverP
fire/m2/year
fire/year
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
37
industrial building with no standard public fire brigade. The probability that occupants or
professional fire brigade stop the fire is taken into account in the event tree analysis as illustrated
in Fig. 4-4. The calculation of flashover probability for the whole service life of 50 years is based
on the assumption that the ignitions are independent. A considerably low 0.01 probability is
assigned to the failure of active safety measures.
PFL|A is the probability of fire growth from moderate fire to severe fire if active safety measure
is applied. According to [86], PFL|A is equal to 0.02, 0.0625 and 1.0 in case of fire extinguish system
(sprinkler), smoke detection system and no applied safety measure, respectively. Considering
smoke detection system the calculated flashover probability is then equal to Pflashover≈3.51∙10-6/m2
for 50 years in case of the investigated industrial portal frame. The author emphasize the fact that
structural reliability actually depends on the function of the building as different ignition fire
development parameters are associated to different function. Thus, the usage of equivalent fire
effects (e.g. ISO fire curve) in design may not lead homogeneous reliability level (code conforming
designed buildings, facilities should have approximately the same reliability against failure in fire).
Application of active safety measures (e.g. sprinkler system) may drastically increase the reliability
level and may unnecessitates passive fire protection. The optimal fire protection method can be
selected only on the basis of cost and risk analysis.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
38
4.3. Limit state function
Fig. 4-5 – Limit state function for fire design
The composition of the limit state function (Fig. 4-5) involves the following steps in one
iteration step of reliability analysis: 1) fire effect modelling; 2) calculation of the steel temperature;
3) nonlinear structural analysis; 4) failure mode verification; 5) evaluation of the limit state function
G(X, t) (Annex B).
( )( )X
XRt
tt,G −=1 , (22)
where the t, tR(X) and X are the time (where the time demand shall be substituted), the time capacity
(resistance time) and the vector of discrete design variables, respectively. The calculation of tR(X)
is based on the loss of load bearing capacity of the structure. The point of failure is equal with the
time step where the D/C ratio of the frame exceeds 1.0 or where plastic sway mechanism/global
stability failure occurs. This point gives the fire resistance capacity of the structure in time unit. As
it is shown in Fig. 4-5, the limit state function is formulated on time basis contrary to other studies,
e.g. [59], [60], [61] and [62], where steel or maximum gas temperature, internal force or
displacement is used for this purpose. First of all, it is practical to use the time as a measure of
capacity and demand due to the fact that the interest of the designer is focused on the reliability
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
39
according to the stability of the structure within required time of evacuation that is given by national
or international standards. Another advantage is that it gives the opportunity for consideration
possible failure during the decay phase of the fire in the analysis. Internal forces to calculate the
value of the limit state function can be used solely in case of separated elements not in the case of
a complex structure thus the use of internal forces would overcomplicate the reliability calculation
and separated reliability analysis would be necessary for every failure components with the
consideration of the possible correlation. Further details can be found in [BT13] and in [BT14].
As it can be seen in Fig. 4-5, General Method of EC3-1-1 standard is invoked to evaluate the
resistance the tapered members due to the fact that the EC3-1-2 conforming method for verification
of e.g. columns subjected to compression and bending moment (Appendix B.2) is developed for
uniform elements. Furthermore, a part of the structure is analysed within the framework of GMNI
numerical analysis instead of linear analysis of separated elements. In case of an analysis of part
of the structure, EC3-1-2 recommends the use of advanced analysis methods that are based on
acknowledged principles and methods of the theory of structural mechanics considering the
changes of material properties caused by elevated temperatures (EC3-1-2). The applicability of
General Method for fire design of tapered elements is confirmed in [88].
In this thesis, the failure of main frames (consist of columns, beams and connections) is
considered only by the evaluation of structural reliability of the investigated tapered steel portal
frame structure. The failure of longitudinal elements and the behaviour in longitudinal direction
are not covered due to the computational demand of time step thermal and GMNI analyses of a
three-dimensional model.
4.4. System reliability
The reliability calculation of the structure using HLRF iteration is presented in Section 3.
System reliability index is evaluated with the help of multivariate normal cumulative distribution
function. In order to characterize the sensitivity of the investigated problem for the issue of spatial
location of fire and different correlation among the components, a short example is presented
covering different correlation among the frames and different fire sizes. Let us assume an industrial
portal frame structure that consists of 7 individual frames and assume that internal frames have
βf|flashover=1.0 conditional structural reliability in fire design situation, respectively. A conditional
reliability index equal to 1.0 well represents an average case based on the experiences of this
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
40
research. As regards to the outer frames, their reliability index is much higher due to the fact that
they may be exposed less severe effects because of their spatial location; thus n may be set to 5.
The sensitivity of conditional system reliability index on the correlation coefficient and on the
number of exposed frames can be seen in Fig. 4-6 for the example frame. The correlation
coefficient refers to the correlation considered among the reliability of exposed inner frames. It has
to be noted that when only 1 or 2 frames are exposed, the fire curve becomes less severe. It can be
accounted in reliability calculation with the usage of different fire curves for different cases.
Fig. 4-6 – The effect of correlation and number of exposed frames on system reliability index(example)
The results of preliminary calculations showed that correlation and spatial distribution of fire
play an important role and have a great influence on the system reliability index (in this case
βS,f|flashover≈0.1-1.0). Some of the random variables are supposed to be highly correlated, such as
strength, section dimensions of the frames and the intensity of meteorological loads. However, due
to the following reasons the correlation among the frames is supposed to be low (namely ρ=0–0.6)
in case of fire design: I) there is a spatial variation in the location of the combustible material; II)
all of the frames may not be exposed to fire at the same time; III) it is very likely that the
temperature varies spatially; IV) there is a certain spatial variation in the equipment load.
In order to cover a wide range of possible outcomes, in this study the system reliability is
calculated by use of Eq. (19) considering a low ρ=0.4 and a considerably high ρ=0.9 correlation
among the failure of the frames. Different fire scenarios are not covered, it is assumed that all of
the frames are exposed to fire.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
41
4.5. Fire effects
Realistic modelling of the fire effects is important in order get realistic structural reliability
from the calculation. The most widely used representation of fire effects in fire resistant design is
the fire curve, which gives the temperature as a function of time as it is illustrated in Fig. 4-7a.
Fig. 4-7 – a) The shape of different fire curves; b) Design gas temperatures and zone interface elevation calculated
in OZone V2.2.6
Different fire curves are used in design practice, among them some represents only a
comparable effect, e.g. ISO standard fire curve in [33], and do not intend to express real and
physical effects. Earlier studies have shown, e.g. in [61] and in [BT10], that the usage of ISO fire
curve for fire resistant design can hardly ensure consistent reliability level, since the structural
reliability depends on the function and properties of the fire compartment and on the amount and
properties of the fire load. Other fire curves that are obtained with advanced methods and models,
e.g. one- and two-zone models [83] can represent fire severity and temperatures closer to the reality.
The fire effects in this study are modelled with fire curves obtained with the help of two-zone
model in OZone V2.2.6 software [83] in order to represent more realistic fire. Two-zone models
may be criticised by some experts from the field of fire engineering because of their shortcomings
(one dimensional calculation, constant temperature within a zone, etc.), however, based on
comparisons in [83] it can be concluded that OZone is characterized by relatively high accuracy in
calculation of compartment or steel element maximum temperature.
OZone is able to consider these influencing parameters, such as the fire load, combustion heat,
fire growth rate, ventilation, geometry of the compartment, etc. An example design fire curve
obtained by OZone can be seen in Fig. 4-7b. It is called design curve (it is assumed that the curve
represents 95th percentile of the effect) because it is calculated using the design value of parameters
of compartment and stored material [58]. 95th percentile is selected because in [87] it is suggested
that the uncertainty in fire load should be followed with the help of Gumbel distribution having 0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 1200
500
1000
1500
2000
t [min]
ISO standard fire curve
OzoneV2 fire curve
Parametric fire curve
20 40 60 80 100 1200
500
1000
1500
2000
t [min]
T [
°C]
0
5
10Heat zone gas temperature
Cold zone gas temperature
Zone interface elevation
Flashover
0
Zone i
nte
rface e
levati
on [
m]a) b)
Design curve ~95th fractile
mean
5th percentile120
1
1
2
T [
°C]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
42
CoV and characteristic value equal to 80th percentile. According to the further instructions in [87]
the design value could be calculated close to 95th percentile. In order to avoid the numerical
instabilities within the reliability analysis, the decaying period of the curves (Fig. 4-7) is neglected
and substituted with the maximum gas temperature.
4.6. Random variables
The random variables, considered in the reliability analysis, are listed in Table 4-2. Due to the
small variation and the fact that their effect on the global behaviour is small, the uncertainty in the
Young’s modulus and global geometry is neglected. Among the loads, the weight of equipment (as
permanent load) and the meteorological loads, namely wind and snow loads, are considered as
random variables. Because of the accuracy in manufacturing and assembly the uncertainty in dead
loads are negligible. The uncertainty of yield strength, section moduli and connection parameters
has been selected according to the Probabilistic Model Code of Joint Committee on Structural
Safety [53]; the CoV (coefficient of variation) values related to section factor moduli are slightly
higher in Table 4-2 than in the JCSS because of the tapered elements. ρ=0.7 correlation is
considered among the section modulus factors.
Random Variable μ CoV Distribution References Yield stress [MPa] 388 0.07 Lognormal [53] Equipment [kN/m2] 0.2/0.5 0.2 Normal
Wind load [kN/m2] 0.06 1.963 Lognormal Calculation, [52],
[53], [94]
Snow load [kN/m2] 0.205 1.03 Weibull Calculation, [52],
[53], [93] Resistance factor for the column-base connection
[-] 1.25 0.15 Lognormal [53]
Resistance factor for the column-beam connection [-]
1.25 0.15 Lognormal [53]
Resistance factor of ridge beam-beam connection [-]
1.25 0.15 Lognormal [53]
Right column section modulus factor [-] 1 0.05 Normal [53] Left beam section modulus factor [-] 1 0.05 Normal [53]
Right beam section modulus factor [-] 1 0.05 Normal [53] Effect model uncertainty factor [-] 1 0.15 Lognormal
Resistance model uncertainty factor [-] 1 0.2 Lognormal Model uncertainty in LTB reduction factor -
LTχ 1.15 0.1 Normal [54]
Model uncertainty in FB reduction factor - Zχ 1.15 0.1 Normal [54]
Steel temperature uncertainty factor [-] 1 0.3 Lognormal [BT13], [61] Table 4-2 – Random variables
The uncertainty in the fire effects is considered through the introduction of a global uncertainty
factor that has been calculated with Monte Carlo simulation. Since OZone is not appropriate for
evaluating numerous simulations, the uncertainty in the gas temperatures is obtained using
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
43
parametric fire curves of EC1-1-2 [58] with a little modification according to [89] in order to
eliminate the discontinuity in the calculation (limits suggested in EC1-1-2) for some parameters to
separate fuel and ventilation controlled fires cause an unreasonable discontinuity in the
compartment temperatures). The investigated compartment can be found in the literature [90],
6.4x3.2x2.6m compartment with 4.4m2 openings; mean fire load 420MJ/m2 with CoV=0.3
according to EC1-1-2. The maximum gas temperature is used as the output parameter of 100,000
simulations and it is found that the uncertainty in the maximum temperature can be approximated
with a lognormal distribution (because the effect of uncertain parameters may be multiplied with
each other) that has a mean equal to 1.0 and a CoV equal to 0.25. For further details, see [BT13].
This uncertainty is considered in the reliability analysis through the uncertainty of the steel
temperatures as it is described in [BT13]. For this reason the fire curve, as input parameter of the
analysis, has to be given as a representation of mean gas temperatures. In order to calculate the
mean fire curve, it is assumed that every point of the design curve is 95th percentile of the above
obtained lognormal distribution (Fig. 4-7b).
The reliability problem is time-variant because the meteorological loads vary in time. In order
to reduce the complexity of reliability analysis, the problem is transformed into a time-invariant
problem with the help of the so-called Turkstra’s rule [53]. Its application is presented for similar
problem in [91]. The leading action, namely the fire effect, is considered with its lifetime (50 years)
maximum, while snow and wind loads are accounted with the distributions of daily maximums
derived from meteorological data (wind speeds and snow water equivalents) which have been
downloaded from CARPATCLIM database [92]. In CARPATCLIM, different meteorological data
sets of Carpathian basin are given for 50 years in 10 km by 10 km grid. Due to the fact that not a
specific frame with a specific location is analysed in this paper, the aim is to obtain distributions
that represent the standardized characteristic load intensities for Hungary according to the notes
and instructions of the EN standards, namely EC0, Eurocode 1 Part 1-3 (EC1-1-3) [93] and
Eurocode 1 Part 1-4 (EC1-1-4) [94].
The determination of distribution function of the wind loads based on statistical data can be
seen in Fig. 4-8. The characteristic value of variable actions on buildings is defined as a value that
has 0.02 exceedance probability within 1 year reference period [52]. Firstly, the yearly maximum
wind velocities are selected for each grid (the data set contained data from 50 years). Using annual
maximums, extreme distribution is fitted on the data in order to find the wind speed which has
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
44
exactly 0.02 annual exceedance probability. The basic wind velocity in Hungary is vb0=23.6 m/s,
so a node is selected which results the same velocity as characteristic value (Fig. 4-8a). Daily
maximum wind velocities of 50 years related to the selected node (Fig. 4-8b) are used in calculation
of the distribution. As the best fit, lognormal distribution is selected to describe the variability in
the daily maximum wind velocities (Fig. 4-8c).
Fig. 4-8 – Evaluation of the distribution of daily maximum wind speeds: a) EN conforming characteristic wind
speeds in Hungary; b) daily maximum wind speeds for 50 years at the selected coordinate; c) fitted distribution.
According to the recommendations of JCSS Probabilistic Model Code [53], uncertainties are
considered in gust (cg), pressure (cp) and roughness coefficients (cr). Further details can be found
in [BT14] and in EC1-1-4.
In case of the snow loads, similar procedure is carried out in order to obtain the distribution of
daily maximum values that fitted to the standardized characteristic load according to EC1-1-3. It
has to be noted that the daily maximums are not independent, however, the application of yearly
maximum’s distribution is clearly too conservative. The representation of meteorological loads as
stochastic processes would be the most accurate solution, but it would overcomplicate the
reliability analysis. Calculations showed that application of daily maximums served internal forces
in better agreement with internal forces calculated using the load combination of EC0 standard for
extreme design situations. For this reason, this method assumed to lead EN conforming design.
The problem should to be further divided into two fundamental cases, since in Hungary there
is no snow in a significant part of the year. Two independent reliability analyses have to be carried
out with and without the consideration of snow load in the analysis. The calculated reliabilities can
be summed easily if we assume that the ignition and the meteorological loads are independent:
( ) ( )
( ) flashoverswflashoverfsw
flashoverwflashoverfwf
PPP
...PPPP
⋅⋅+
+⋅⋅=
++ x
xx, (23)
0 4 8 12 16 20 24Daily maximum wind velocities [m/s]
17.518
18.519
19.520
20.521
21.522
22.523
46
46.5
47
47.5
48
48.5
5
10
15
20
25
30
Days
a)
b)
c)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
45
In Eq. (23), Pw is the probability that only wind load acts on the frame and there is no snow load
because the temperature is too high, while Pw+s is the probability that wind and snow loads act on
the frame at the same time. Pw and Pw+s can be derived from the meteorological data sets.
The given description of derivation and consideration of meteorological loads and their
distribution within the reliability analysis is applied in order to consider representative
meteorological loads which are consistent with standardized reliability level. No correlation is
considered between the snow and wind loads since the data are related to different sites and snow
water equivalents in CARPATCLIM [92] are predicted with numerical models and not measured.
This section does not discuss all of the aspects of selection and consideration of random
variables. More detailed discussion can be found in [79], in [BT13] and in [BT14].
4.7. Structural analysis
Type of structural analysis and numerical model is an important issue from the point-of-view
of reliability analysis of structures subjected to fire effects mainly because of the high nonlinearity
in the thermal effects and in the structural response. The determination of the internal forces using
one simple static analysis and a linear elastic structural model may not be reliable enough.
In parallel with the increasing the steel temperature, the strength and stiffness of steel are
decreasing (EC3-1-2), which causes a complex, nonlinear structural response under fire exposure.
The heating of elements is clearly nonlinear, furthermore due to the differences in heating intensity
and stiffness of different elements the internal forces redistribute during the heating. Time-step
analysis is required to follow load-history-dependent response using a structural model that can
represent the change in the stiffness during the analysis in case of elements, plates and fibres, as
well.
In this research, an open source finite element code, namely OpenSees [95], is used with its
OpenSeesThermal extension [96] analysing the nonlinear structural behaviour on elevated
temperatures (by considering the temperature-dependent properties of steel material and the
connections).
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
46
Fig. 4-9 – Validation of OpenSees model using experimental data of portal frames [98]
A two-dimensional structural model (Fig. 4-10a) is developed in OpenSees using
nonlinearBeamColumn beam elements with fiber sections and Steel01 bilinear material model
[97], considering equivalent geometrical imperfections (that involve the effect of the geometrical
imperfections, structural imperfections, residual stresses, variation of the yield strength) according
to EC3-1-1. Based on the results of an earlier comparison with experimental data from [98], it can
be stated that the developed model is able represent realistically the nonlinear response of a frame
exposed to elevated temperatures (Fig. 4-9). The second frame from the system is modelled only
with its loading conditions assuming that purlins are constructed as continuous beams. In order to
represent well the response of a tapered frame, the column and beam elements are divided in the
analysis into 10 and 20 smaller elements, respectively. Geometrically and Materially Nonlinear
Imperfect (GMNI) analysis is carried out on the developed model. Using the calculated steel
temperature for every sub-element, the analysis can follow the change in the properties of the steel
material according to EC3-1-2 and the development of additional internal forces from the
constrained thermal expansion.
Fig. 4-10 – a) The imperfect 2D structural model in OpenSees; b) Bilinear material models for connections
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.120
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4x 10
8
φ [rad]
My
[Nm
m]
Column base conn. T=20°C
Column base conn. T=500°C
Column-beam conn. T=20°C
Column-beam conn. T=500°C
Ridge connection T=20°C
Ridge connection T=500°C
b)
2D stuctural model in OpenSees: 2 x 10 + 2 x 20 = 60 ForceBeamColumn Elements
ec eb
ϕ
mm.
.h.
hec 92200
5900525900003090
200
52≅
⋅+⋅=+⋅=φ
mm.L
eb 5472002
19000
2002=
⋅=
⋅=
h
a)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
47
The properties of the connections [73] are not design variables in the analysis, their stiffness,
strength and nonlinear behaviour (Fig. 4-10b) is modelled with nonlinear spring elements.
Connection properties are changed dynamically in the finite element analysis according to the
calculated temperature of the connections.
The temperature of the elements is initial parameter for the finite element calculation. Since the
sheeting system is supported by thin-walled purlins, it is assumed that the elements of the frame
are heated from four sides. While an iterative algorithm is given in EC3-1-2 to calculate the steel
temperatures in case of unprotected and protected steel sections, the use of standardized closed
formulae may be difficult because physical properties of intumescent paint is not known. The
everyday practice selects the appropriate thickness from the design sheets only based on the critical
temperature and the section modulus (the data are given based on furnace tests according to [70]).
Thus, no closed formula exists to calculate the temperatures of a steel plate when it is protected by
intumescent coating. In this study, the iterative algorithm of EC3-1-2 is adopted in the algorithm
[BT13] and the necessary so-called equivalent thermal resistant [99] is calculated based on ECCS
(European Conventions for Constructional Steelwork) recommendations [100] and on data given
in the design sheet [69], that gives the required thickness wherewith after 30, 45 or 60 minutes the
steel temperature reaches exactly the given critical temperature. The intumescent coating starts to
expand on cca. Tgas=200C° compartment temperature [60], thus the equivalent thermal resistance
of the coating is negligible until the temperature reaches Tgas=200C°. This issue has been accounted
by the development of the algorithm. Using the suggestion from the ECCS, the following formula
can be derived for equivalent thermal conductivity:
V
A.d..d,
V
A015702121434629 −+=
λ
mK
W, (24)
where λ, d and A/V are the equivalent thermal conductivity, the thickness of intumescent coating
and the section factor of the cross section, respectively. The thickness of the intumescent coating
and the section factor has to be substituted in mm and 1/m unit. For further details, see [BT13] and
[BT10]. In case of the investigated protection material, the applicability of linear approximation,
for the equivalent conductivity is confirmed by [BT13].
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
48
4.8. Verification of the elements
The temperature effects are considered in the analysis and in the verification procedure and
summed with the gravity and meteorological forces. The considered failure modes are the
following according to the regulations of EC3-1-1, EC3-1-2 and EC3-1-5 [101]:
a) strength and stability failure of beam and column elements;
b) shear buckling of the web plates;
c) strength failure of the connections [73];
d) plastic sway mechanism.
In conformity with the fact that the listed failure components composes a series system, failure
mechanism associated with the lowest resistance time is selected for the basis of the evaluation of
the limit state function (Annex B).
The stability verification of beam and column elements is carried using the so-called General
Method (GM) from EC3-1-1 (Fig. 4-5), where the in-plane stability failure is considered using
imperfect structural model (Fig. 4-10), while the out-of-plane stability failure is taken into
consideration with reduction factors.
y,yy
y
y,y fkW
M
fkA
N
⋅⋅+
⋅⋅=
θθ
η , (25)
ηα θ
1=,k,ult , (26)
111
−
+=
θθθ αα
α,LTB,cr,FB,cr
,op,cr , (27)
θ
θθ
αα
λ,op,cr
,k,ult,op = , (28)
2
1
2
1 22θθθ
θθθθ
θ
λλαΦ
λλαΦ ,op,op
,LTB
,op,op
,FB ;++
=++
= , (29)
2222
11
θθθθθθ λΦΦχ
λΦΦχ
,op,LTB,LTB
fi,LTB
,op,FB,FB
fi,FB;
−+=
−+= , (30)
θ
θθ
α
αλ
,op,cr
,k,ult,op = , (31)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
49
( )fi,LTBfi,FBfi,op ;min χχχ = , (32)
01.fi,op
≤χη
, (33)
where ky,θ is the reduction factors related to yield strength, χop,fi and αult,k,θ are the reduction factor
taking into account the out-of-plane stability failure and the minimum load multiplier in order to
reach the characteristic resistance of the critical cross section, respectively. FB and LTB
abbreviations refer to flexural and lateral torsional buckling failure modes. αcr,op,θ is the critical load
amplifier in order to reach the critical intensity of internal forces causing out-of-plane flexural
buckling or lateral torsional buckling, respectively.
The buckling length according to in-plane buckling based on which the equivalent imperfection
has been selected for nonlinear structural model 2.5 times column height (Fig. 4-10) due to the
sway frame behaviour, finite stiffness of the connected beam and the pinned column base
connection. The columns are restrained against torsion and buckling at the middle of the eave
height, thus the reduction factor for out-of-plane lateral buckling and lateral torsional buckling is
selected based on 0.5 times column height buckling length. The critical load amplifiers for different
stability failures are combined with Dunkerley theorem [117], that can be used as an approximate
superposition technic of critical load amplifiers related to different loading conditions. The
decrease of the stiffness and strength has a significant unfavourable effect on resistance of the
elements that has to be considered by the classification of the sections and by the strength and
stability verifications (Appendix B.2) in every evaluation of the cross section resistances.
The failure of the purlins and sheeting is not considered in this study. Although they lose their
load bearing capacity very early because of the thin wall and high section factor, but due to the
relatively low loading and possible catenary action [102], similarly to composite floor slabs [103],
they may not fall down. The serious deformation and damage of sheeting seems unavoidable in
fire design situation.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
50
5. Reliability evaluation of frames under seismic
excitation
5.1. Overview from the methodology and limit state function
In both moderate and high seismicity areas, the seismic resistant design is an important issue
not just because of the life safety requirement, but also in order to avoid significant losses caused
by a seismic excitation. This part of the thesis adopts the earlier introduced concepts and focuses
on seismic reliability calculation of low-rise industrial halls constructed with steel portal frames
(Fig. 1-1). The applied reliability analysis method is FORM similarly to the fire design situation.
Seismic reliability calculation of tapered steel portal frames is not extensively studied. In most
cases the researchers analyse multi-storey MRFs, e.g. in [104] and in [43]. However, it is possible
that the seismic effects become the leading action in higher seismicity areas even in case of a light-
weight structure. The original layout of the model frame (Fig. 1-1) is investigated within the
framework of a parametric study where a comparison had been made between the resultant seismic
and wind forces (Fig. 5-1, where qe is the equipment load and qb is the wind pressure). The results
showed that in case of higher gravitational loads, the seismic forces may become leading action in
some regions of Hungary. This is even true in the surrounding areas (Fig. 5-1) or in case of high
concentrated loading. It does not necessarily mean that seismic design situation becomes the
leading design situation in transversal direction (it depends on the size, the geometry and the
loading conditions of the facility), because significant bending moments may occur in persistent
design situation, as well. Red points in Fig. 5-1 only indicate the possible sites where it is very
likely that seismic action becomes the leading effect. This is more likely when significant
concentrated loads (reaction forces of a slab, crane, etc.) act on the column because these loads
considerably increase the seismic mass and the base shear forces.
The optimal design of tapered portal frame structures subjected to seismic effects has not been
studied earlier, however as it is shown in Fig. 5-1, the seismic effects may become leading effects
compared with wind effects in moderate and high seismicity areas when the seismic mass is high.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
51
Fig. 5-1 – Major results of a parametric study on the dominancy of seismic loads on wind loads in Hungary (seismic
force is dominant: green – in longitudinal direction; red – in transversal direction) based on EFEHR PGA data,
Type I response spectrum of EC8-1 and soil type C
In seismic reliability analysis, similarly to the fire design, the structural reliability is calculated
considering the structure as a system and it is not calculated for separated elements. The structural
response is calculated on 3D model in OpenSees [95] FE software. In this section only the main
concept of the reliability assessment methodology is presented and demonstrated on tapered portal
frames, further problem specific details are discussed in the further sections. The advantage of the
presented formulation and methodology compared to the earlier method in [BT4] is that this
method does not apply unreliable methodology to account the uncertainties (e.g. rotation of
fragility curves that is a common technic among many researchers nowadays); different
uncertainties are directly taken into account within the reliability analysis. The known and
important issue is that the solution is very sensitive for the treatment of uncertainties is concluded
and showed in [BT4] as well.
As a first step, seismic hazard analysis (SHA) is carried out based on EFEHR site specific
hazard curves in order to find the distribution of peak ground acceleration and the uncertainties in
seismicity (Fig. 5-2). Based on the fact that the structure mainly vibrates in the first mode, the
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50a)
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50b)
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50c)
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50d)
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50e)
14 16 18 20 22 2445
46
47
48
49
50f)
Longitude
Lat
itu
de
c) qe=1.5 kN/m2, qb=0.5 kN/m
2
e) qe=1.0 kN/m2, qb=1.0 kN/m
2
b) qe=1.0 kN/m2, qb=0.5 kN/m
2
d) qe=0.2 kN/m2, qb=1.0 kN/m
2
f) qe=1.5 kN/m2, qb=1.0 kN/m
2
a) qe=0.2 kN/m2, qb=0.5 kN/m2
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
52
numerical analysis is carried out in both principal directions with a load distribution according to
the first vibration mode and the distribution of seismic mass. The mass is coming from the weight
of the structure, the sheeting system, the equipment and from the additional reaction forces on the
columns. Due to the relatively precise construction of steel structures in Europe and the type of the
structure, the 5% accidental eccentricity according to EC8-1 is neglected in the analysis.
Fig. 5-2 – Overview from the methodology and the formulation of limit state function
Preliminary results showed (Section 6.3) that significant differences may be observed between
seismic reliability index of elastic and dissipative structural solutions, thus proper selection
between elastic and dissipative models is an important issue. In transversal direction the structure
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
53
is very sensitive to stability failure modes, thus significant energy dissipation may not be realized
even in the case of a site characterized with high seismicity, as it is shown in [79] through analysis
results of the investigated portal frame. However, in order to get realistic reliability indices the fact
that the structure is able to absorb seismic energy through the failure of tension-only braces is need
to be considered. It has to be noted that this assumption can be made only if tension failure of the
braces is ductile and it is the leading failure mode (i.e. connections are full strength). The
connections of the investigated frames in this study are assumed to be full strength and the
structural behaviour in longitudinal direction is assumed to be ductile.
Structure’s regularity in plan (EC8-1) (except that the in-plane stiffness of the roof may not be
sufficiently large in transversal direction) and the fact that the primary seismic elements are
different in transversal- and in longitudinal directions make the behaviour in perpendicular
directions separable. This differentiation can be made because the longitudinal behaviour has
negligible effect on the transversal response and negligible internal forces are developed from
longitudinal excitation in the main frame elements. As it is shown in Fig. 5-2, in the limit state
function (Annex C) linear elastic- and nonlinear static analyses are performed in transversal- and
in longitudinal directions, respectively. The analyses are completed on a 3D imperfect numerical
model (Section 5.4). Internal forces, displacements and deformations calculated in different
directions are combined with square root of the sum- of the squares (SRSS) combination rule of
EC8-1. Limit state function related to tension-only braces is formulated on deformation basis where
the deformation limits are selected on the basis of the provisions of [44] (Section 5.7).
5.2. Seismic effects and hazard curves
Hazard curve (Fig. 5-3) is used to characterize the seismicity of a site, it gives the probability
of exceedance of different PGAs for a given reference period. According to the guidelines of EC8-
1, PGA is selected for ULS design satisfying life safety criterion having 0.1 exceedance probability
for 50 years (Fig. 5-3). Hazard curve is a discrete cumulative distribution function that is calculated
with the help of probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) [105] considering data of historical
earthquakes from area, line and point sources situated around the investigated site.
The estimation of hazard curve is uncertain due the fact that there are many possible attenuation
and ground motion prediction models in the literature. In EFEHR database [106] one can select
hazard curves representing different percentiles (5%, mean, 95%, etc.) (Fig. 5-3). This type of
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
54
uncertainty is not covered in the present design procedure, since engineers typically use mean
hazard curve (e.g. in Hungarian National Annex of EC8-1 offers peak ground acceleration values
read from mean curves) or hazard curves that are obtained using a given set of logic tree weights
within PSHA. This uncertainty is considered in the present research (Fig. 5-2) as it is described in
Section 5.3.
Fig. 5-3 – Different hazard curves [106]
The surroundings of Komárom city is characterized by the highest seismicity in our country
(Fig. 5-4), thus this site is one of the two investigated sites in this thesis. The second site is the city
of Râmnicu Sărat (situated in Romania, east from Transylvania) characterized by the highest
seismicity in our neighbourhood (the middle of the red zone in Romania). In this research, Type I
response spectrum of EC8-1 with soil type C is considered.
Fig. 5-4 – Mean seismic hazard
map of Europe [106]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
55
5.3. Random variables
Table 5-1 summarizes the random variables considered in the reliability calculation. Most of
the random variables are associated with distribution types and distribution parameters derived
from literature review. The global geometry is not considered uncertain since it has only negligible
effect on the global seismic response and the internal forces. Due to the fact that seismic action is
very rare and the intensive part of the excitation is short, according to the regulations of EC0 by
combination of loads the meteorological loads are neglected in the reliability analysis in seismic
design situation. The uncertainties in the global stiffness are summarized into three random
variables. In transverse direction the uncertainty in the stiffness of bracing system and sheeting and
the uncertainty caused by connections, frames and foundations are separated. The effect of the
spatial variation in stiffness of bracing elements, sheeting and frames has been analysed. The results
confirmed that the applied uncertainty factors covered this issue [79]. ρ=0.7 correlation is
considered among the section modulus factors.
The sensitivity of the reliability problem on different random variables is investigated for
Komárom site with the help of three different example structures, in order to have the sensitivity
factors for a problem where the beam failure, the side bracing failure and the column failure is the
leading failure mode, respectively. The sensitivity factors of the most influential random variables
are marked with thick black frame in Table 5-1. Not surprisingly, the uncertainty in seismic effects
governs the reliability problem.
Uncertainties in the seismic action are given by two random variables. In order to determine
the distribution parameters, seismic hazard analysis is completed for the given sites, using the
database of European Facility for Earthquake Hazard and Risk (EFEHR). The uncertainty in peak
ground acceleration is obtained by fitting a continuous cumulative distribution function on discrete
points of mean EFEHR hazard curve. Lognormal distribution seemed to be the best fit [79], its
parameters can be found in Table 5-1 for both sites.
It can be seen from the calculated parameters that the seismic action is characterized by high
degree of uncertainty. In case of the Hungarian site the uncertainty is higher due to the fact that
historical seismic data are available for many but less dominant sources, while in case areas with
high seismicity typically there are dominant sources. This high uncertainty becomes dominant in
the reliability analysis and increases the deviation of the joint probability distribution, for this
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
56
reason, it is difficult to design a structure with high reliability against structural failure in seismic
design situation [53].
Random variable μ CoV Distribution Reference Sens. fact. (α)†
Sens. fact. (α)††
Sens. fact.
(α)††† Yield strength [MPa] 388 0.07 Lognormal [53] 0.025 0 0.047
ag [g] Komárom 0.092 1.333
Lognormal Calculation, [106] -0.813 -0.823 -0.808 Râmnicu Sărat
0.168 0.682
Equipment [kN/m2] 0.2/1.0 0.2 Normal -0.038 -0.045 -0.058 Beam section modulus factor 1 0.05 Normal [53] 0.043 0 0
Column section modulus factor 1 0.05 Normal [53] 0 0 0.046 Model uncertainty in LTB reduction fact. -
LTχ 1.15 0.1 Normal [54] 0.076 0 0.080
Model uncertainty in FB reduction factor - Zχ 1.15 0.1 Normal [54] 0 0 0
Global stiffness factor in transverse direction – sheeting and bracing
1 0.2 Normal [79] 0 0 0
Global stiffness factor in transverse direction – other
1 0.1 Normal [79] -0.032 0 -0.02
Global stiffness factor in longitudinal direction 1 0.25 Normal [79] 0 -0.063 0 Effect model uncertainty 1 0.1 Lognormal [79] [53] -0.090 0 -0.095
Resistance model uncertainty 1 0.2 Lognormal 0.161 0 0.169 Model uncertainty – connection resistance 1.25 0.15 Lognormal [53] 0 0 0 Model uncertainty – wind (roof) bracing
resistance 1.2 0.1 Lognormal [54] 0 0 0
Model uncertainty – side (wall) bracing resistance 1.2 0.1 Lognormal [54] 0 0.079 0
Intensity and record-to-record uncertainty
Komárom 1 0.762 Lognormal
Calculation, [106], [107]
-0.542 -0.552 -0.542 Râmnicu Sărat
1 0.492
Deformation capacity factor for side braces 1 0.1 Lognormal 0 0.074 0
Sensitivity factor: negative normalized gradients of the limit state function at MPP; † Beam failure is the leading failure mode; †† Side bracing failure is the leading failure mode; ††† Column failure is the leading failure mode.
Table 5-1 – Random variables in seismic design situation
The variation among the hazard curves and the so-called record-to-record uncertainty have to
be also considered in the reliability analysis. Regarding to record-to-record uncertainty, its source
is the high variation among the dynamical actions which have different amplitudes, frequency
contents and dominant periods. FEMA-P695 [107] gives recommendations to consider this type of
uncertainty as values for lognormal standard deviation parameter (βRTR=0.2...0.4 based on the
ductility). Regarding to the calculation of variation in the intensity, hazard curves with different
percentile (5%, 15%, mean, 85% and 95%) are obtained from EFEHR for the same site and
lognormal distribution is fitted on the data. The record-to-record uncertainty and the intensity
uncertainty are summed analytically since both are followed by lognormal distributions, the
resulted uncertainty factor can be found in Table 5-1.
Based on the regulations of EC3-1-8 the beam-to-column connections of the investigated
structure (Fig. 1-1) may be considered as rigid and the column base connection can be considered
as pinned, thus uncertainty is considered only according to the capacity of the connections.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
57
Despite the fact that 3D structural model is applied, in order to reduce the complexity of
reliability analysis the correlation among the frames’ self-weight, the yield strength and stiffness
of frames’ material is neglected. It means, that a full correlation is supposed to be among the
properties of frames. There is no doubt that the correlation among the frames’ response is much
higher in case of seismic excitation than in case of fire exposure. There is no spatial variation in
the effect, the frames are subjected to the load at the same time with almost the same intensity.
However, this restriction is clearly an approximation which cannot be examined accurately on the
present level of this research because it would extremely overcomplicate the reliability problem.
5.4. Structural model and analysis
For the calculation of seismic response and internal forces a 3D frame model (Fig. 5-5) is built
in OpenSees [95] FE environment using 12 DOF nonlinear beam-column finite elements
(nonlinearBeamColumn elements), 12 DOF contact spring elements with zero length (connections
– ZeroLength elements), 12 DOF contact spring elements (sheeting – twoNodeLink elements) and
6 DOF linear and nonlinear truss elements (end-wall, solid circular tension-only wind and side
braces) [97].
Fig. 5-5 – 3D structural model in OpenSees
The internal forces in the primary and secondary elements are calculated on imperfect model
with Geometrically Nonlinear Imperfect Analysis (GNIA) in case of elastic and Geometrically and
Y
Z
X
end wall (linear truss)
sheeting (linear twoNodeLink) bracing (nonlinear truss)
columns & beams (nonlinearBeamColumn)
connections (nonlinear ZeroLength)
x
y
z
Kx, Ky
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
58
Materially Nonlinear Imperfect Analysis (GMNIA) in case of dissipative structure, respectively.
The imperfections are obtained according to EC3-1-1. The analysis is carried out in both principal
directions, the internal forces are combined with SRSS according to EC8-1. Detailed explanation
can be found in [79].
In order to represent well the stiffness of tapered frames, the column and beam elements are
divided into 8 and 4 smaller elements, respectively, based on average of second moment of area.
The properties of the connections are selected on the basis of [79]. In case of the tension-only
elements, three different material models are connected in parallel in order to ensure the
consideration of prestressing and buckling when the bars become compressed elements. The
stiffness of the end wall is represented in the model with the help of truss elements. The shear
stiffness of the wall is calculated using Stressed Skin Design of EC3-1-3 [108].
Side braces are modelled with nonlinear material models with 0.1% post yielding hardening,
while non-dissipative parts that are checked in terms of load bearing capacity are modelled with
materially linear elements. The local z vector of 12 DOF contact spring elements representing the
sheeting system is selected parallel to the normal vector of sheeting panels. Only Kx and Ky elastic
stiffness are taken into consideration in the analysis (Fig. 5-5), Kx is calculated on the basis of the
sum of purlins’ and panels’ cross section area. Nonlinear behaviour is not considered due to the
high uncertainties in the nonlinear cyclic response of thin walled purlins and trapezoidal panels and
due to the lack of reliable and appropriate models related to nonlinear cyclic response.
The investigated frame structure mainly vibrates in the first vibration mode in both principal
directions. For this reason, LFM can be used in transversal direction, where the design spectral
acceleration of EC8-1 [28] related to the first vibration period and the whole mass are used to
calculate the seismic forces. These forces are distributed among the nodes proportionally to the
first vibration shape and to the distribution of seismic masses. The first vibration period and
vibration shape are obtained in transversal and longitudinal directions with eigenvalue analyses
before every seismic analysis within the objective function (Fig. 5-2). In longitudinal direction PA
is appropriate for nonlinear seismic analysis, since the first vibration mode is dominant.
5.5. Verification of structural model
There is lack of available experimental results on test of whole frame structures in the literature.
For this reason, the verification of the tapered frame model is completed using a full scale
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
59
experimental test of two tapered steel frames from the US [109]. As it is shown in Fig. 5-6, the
developed FE model is able to represent adequately the initial stiffness of a tapered steel portal
frame and the developed plastic hinge at the beginning of the tapered element. The lateral torsional
buckling phenomena is not considered in the structural analysis, since 12 DOF beam elements are
used instead of 14 DOF elements. For this reason, the effect of occurrence of inelastic LTB at cca.
25 cm top displacement cannot be seen in the presented results. LTB is checked with the help of
reduction factor method according to EC3-1-1.
Fig. 5-6 – Site photo from the specimen [109] and frame model’s verification results
In order to check the capability of 3D OpenSees model to represent the stiffness of the global
structural system including sheeting system, a comparison has been made using full scale test
results from HighPerFrame RDI project [79]. The full scale test was completed in the depot of
Rutin Ltd. using two tapered frames [110] with different layouts related to the purlins and sheeting
system. From the large number of test results, three layouts (F-RW: pure frames without sheeting
and bracing; PE-R: frames with sheeting system in roof level with LTP20 and LTP45 trapezoidal
sheeting, respectively) have been selected for comparison and validation purposes. After the
calibration of zeroLength element stiffness parameters, which represent the stiffness of the sheeting
system, 0.5 – 2.5% difference is found between the simulated and measured/calculated global
structural stiffness [79]. The results of this investigation and calibration showed that the developed
model is able to represent accurately the global structural response and stiffness with or without
trapezoidal sheeting system.
5.6. Calculation of target displacements
Tension-only bracing elements are able to dissipate seismic energy, thus in longitudinal
direction nonlinear static analysis (Pushover, PA) is carried out in order to evaluate the nonlinear
structural response. EC8-1 proposes the so-called N2 method [111], evaluating the acting seismic
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
60
forces based on the capacity curve (it characterizes the connection between the control
displacement and base shear force; Fig. 5-6), elastic spectra and equal displacement rule. The result
of the calculation is the target displacement related to the control node. In this research, the eave
node of the middle frame is selected for control node.
The implemented N2 method is slightly modified and improved comparing to the original
method from the point-of-view of calculation equivalent bilinear representation on the basis of
equal energy concept. In the modified N2 method, the equivalent bilinear approximation is defined
by the modification of yielding plateau and not by the modification of initial stiffness. Recent
research work on Department of Structural Engineering [BT6] pointed out that this approximation
gives better results comparing to nonlinear time-history analysis results.
5.7. Verification of the elements
The following failure modes are considered and checked by the calculation of the objective
function within the reliability analysis:
a) strength and stability failure of beam and column elements;
b) shear buckling of the web plates;
c) strength failure of the connections [73];
d) strength check of tension-only wind bracing elements;
e) deformation check of side braces.
The verification procedure related to the listed failure modes is completed with respect to the
requirements of EC3-1-1 and EC8-1 standards (Annex C). The algorithm is able to calculate the
D/C ratio of the members based on the class of the cross sections [75] considering the effective
width of the plate elements of a Class 4 cross section. Strength and stability verification of column
and beam elements are completed in accordance to General Method of EC3-1-1 [75]. According
to the method, in-plane stability failures are considered via geometrically nonlinear analysis on
imperfect model considering local and global imperfections according to EC3-1-1, while out-of-
plane stability modes are handled by the reduction factor method (Fig. 5-2a):
( )( )
( )( ) yy
y
y fW
M
fA
N
⋅+
⋅=
x
x
x
xη , (34)
ηα
1=k,ult ;
111
−
+=
LTB,crFB,cr
op,cr ααα , (35)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
61
op,cr
k,ultop
αα
λ = , (36)
( ) ( )2
201
2
201 22opopLTB
LTB
opopFBFB
.;
. λλαΦ
λλαΦ
+−+=
+−+= , (37)
2222
11
opLTBLTB
LTB
opFBFB
FB ;λΦΦ
χλΦΦ
χ−+
=−+
= , (38)
( )LTBFBop ;min χχχ = , (39)
01.op
≤χη
, (40)
where χop and αult,k are the reduction factor taking into account the out-of-plane stability failure and
the minimum load multiplier in order to reach the characteristic resistance of the critical cross
section, respectively. αcr,op is the critical load amplifier in order to reach the critical intensity of
internal forces causing out-of-plane flexural buckling or lateral torsional buckling, respectively.
The buckling length of the column is selected equal to the half of the column length related to
FB (flexural buckling) for minor axis and related to LTB (lateral torsional buckling) due to the
longitudinal bracing member at the half of the eave height (Fig. 1-1) that restrains the displacement
and torsion of the cross section. The buckling length related to FB for major axis is set 2.5 times
of the column length because of the sway frame construction and the pinned column base
connections. The shape and amplitude of local and global imperfections are selected on the basis
of the discussed buckling lengths. According to the beams, their buckling length is equal to the
distance between the purlins supposing that the sheeting system has enough stiffness to restrain the
out-of-plane displacement of the cross sections connected to the purlins.
The dissipative zones are verified in terms of deformation capacity (ductility). Plastic hinges
are considered in the side bracing elements. The deformation capacity of plastic hinges is selected
on the basis of the provisions of [44]. According to FEMA-356, the deformation limit for brace in
compression is 4Δc (Δc – axial deformation at expected buckling load), while for brace in tension
is 7Δy (Δy – axial deformation at expected tensile yielding load).
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
62
6. Target reliability in case of extreme effects
6.1. Minor, moderate and large consequences of failure
The consequence of possible failure is the key issue by making a decision on target reliability
level. Different safety levels lead economical design e.g. in case of an agricultural silo, in case of
an office building or in case of a power plant. The referred standards and recommendations (Table
1-1) differentiate the acceptable reliability level based on the consequence that is typically divided
into 3 main classes, namely minor, moderate and large according to JCSS. Related to low
consequence class, quite low reliability indices may be found in Table 1-1 because some buildings
do not worth to be strengthened rather to be rebuilt. The Probabilistic Model Code of Joint
Committee on Structural Safety provides some information (Table 6-1) in order to help the designer
by the selection among consequence classes.
Class ρ† Examples
Class 1 – Minor Consequences
<2 Low or negligible risk; economic consequences are low or
negligible (e.g. agricultural structures, silos, masts)
Class 2 – Moderate Consequences
2 – 5 Medium risk; economic consequences are considerable (e.g.
office buildings, industrial buildings, apartment buildings)
Class 3 – Large Consequences
5 – 10 High risk; economic consequences are significant (e.g. bridges,
theatres, hospitals, high rise buildings)
† the ratio ρ is defined as the ratio between total costs (construction costs including non-structural costs + failure costs) and construction costs
Table 6-1 – Consequence classes [53]
Despite the fact that EC0 and JCSS mainly differentiate based on the function of the building
(which has significant effect on the possible consequences) the investigated structure may be
classified in each classes based on the value of the stored material and the direct/indirect economic
consequences. The classification can be made after the evaluation the possible ratio ρ related to
analysed frame structure (because ρ also depends on the initial cost of the building that may be
significantly higher than the cost of a lightweight frame).
A cost evaluation is made in order to calculate the total cost of the investigated structure based
on the recommendations and cost breakdowns (Fig. 6-1) of (www.steelconstruction.info) and
[112]. The structural and fire protection costs are calculated with the help of the presented formulae
in Section 2.2. The estimated initial cost of the superstructure may vary between Ctot=75,000 € and
Ctot=100,000 € using cost components in Table 1-2. Considering the cost breakdown in Fig. 6-1
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
63
and other structural but not included cost components, such as foundation, concrete floor, podiums
and platforms, the total constructional cost may reach 150,000 €. Furthermore, without including
contents the cost of non-structural elements may govern the total cost of the facility (Fig. 6-1), thus
the total cost of the structure can certainly reach 150,000 – 300,000 €.
Fig. 6-1 – Cost breakdown of structural steelwork (www.steelconstruction.info) and cost breakdown of office
buildings, hotels and hospitals [112]
Assuming that multi-storey office buildings (Class 2) and bridges (Class 3) are more expensive
(may be 5 – 10 and 10 – 100 times more expensive, respectively) than a lightweight storage
building, the following ρ ratios (Table 6-2) may be evaluated for the investigated structure based
on Table 6-1.
Class ρ† Failure cost range
Class 1 – Minor Consequences 1 – 4 Cf = 0 – 300,000 €
Class 2 – Moderate Consequences 10 – 100 Cf = 1,500,000 – 15,000,000 €
Class 3 – Large Consequences 100 – Cf = 15,000,000 – † the ratio ρ is defined as the ratio between total costs (Ctot + Cf) and construction cost
Table 6-2 – Consequence classes for the investigated structure based on failure cost value
It is important to note that selection of boundaries of consequence classes is clearly based on
assumptions decided by the author and it may be valid only for industrial steel portal frame
structures with similar size and with similar function to the investigated frame. Further
investigation is necessary for better understanding the possible components (and their weights) of
failure cost function and deriving the boundaries more precisely. For the parametric study in case
of both optimal fire and optimal seismic design (Section 7.3 and Section 7.4), optimal solutions are
derived for three different Cf failure cost values, representing large, moderate and minor
consequences, namely for Cf,1= 30 m€, Cf,2 = 3 m€ and Cf,3= 0.3 m€, respectively.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
64
6.2. Target reliability estimation in case of fire design situation
The appropriate reliability level of structures exposed to fire can be ensured on different ways,
using active and/or passive fire safety measures. First of all, as the most obvious case, the structure
can be strengthened in order to avoid the failure on high temperature when the strength and stiffness
of the material is considered on a reduced value. Passive protection measures, such as intumescent
coating, can reduce the temperature of the protected elements. The active protection tools (e.g.
alarm and water extinguish system) result safer solutions by decreasing the possibility of ignition
and flashover.
Holickỳ in [64] showed a method for the calculation of optimum reliability on a general
example with a few random variables. In [84] a Bayes belief network is presented related to fire
design, a simple example and the effectiveness of different safety measures are presented. Within
the framework of this research, an investigation defining the target/optimum reliability levels of a
tapered steel frame structure is presented where the cost function is formulated similarly to Eq. (6),
based on [64]:
( ) ( ) fignitionfffLC C.PC.yCxCCy,xPCy,xC 050010210 +⋅+⋅+⋅++⋅= . (41)
Cf, C1 and C2 vary, however reference values are assumed to be as 3 million €, 4,200 € and 27,400
€ (Fig. 6-2, Table 1-2), respectively, for the reference structure. Cf contains direct (e.g. value of
stored material or the construction of a new storage hall) and indirect cost components (e.g. missing
income or malfunction in production). The typical shape of the function is presented in Fig. 2-2.
The analysed structure is the earlier presented (Fig. 1-1) tapered portal frame structure which
is used as a warehouse. The dimensions are selected to be equal to a structure that has been designed
by practicing engineers considering 0.2 kN/m2 equipment load. The cost of the superstructure
(including the sheeting, purlins and bracing elements) is approximated as C0≈57,000 € (using Table
1-2). The frame is protected by intumescent coating; the appropriate thickness of this passive safety
measure is designed on the basis of the section factor and the critical temperature of the element
(Fig. 6-2). The intumescent paint of a Hungarian producer [69] is considered in the design process,
the thicknesses in Fig. 6-2 are calculated for 30 minutes fire resistance.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
65
Fig. 6-2 – Calculation details related to
prescriptive fire design [BT11]
The considered three fire design
cases are the same as the considered
design cases within the parametric study
(Fig. 7-6): 1) extreme (the combustible
material is rubber tire); 2) severe (the
combustible material is rubber tire and
wood); 3) moderate (the combustible
material is wood). With different time
demands, namely R30, R45 and R60,
altogether 9 cases are investigated. The probability of failure under fire exposure contains the
probability of occurrence of two independent events, namely the probability of severe fire and the
conditional probability of failure if the severe fire is occurred. Thus the effect of passive and active
safety measures can be easily separated in the calculation since the first probability is dependent
on the active safety measures (Fig. 6-3), while the second probability depends on the amount of
applied passive protection.
Demand\Severity Extreme fire Severe fire Moderate fire
R30 case #1 case #2 case #3
R45 case #4 case #5 case #6
R60 case #7 case #8 case #9
Table 6-3 – Investigated cases
In this investigation the thicknesses of intumescent coating are varied with one amplifier from
zero to tenfold value. The conditional probabilities of structural failure have been calculated using
developed reliability analysis framework (FORM, Fig. 4-1), a small chance of malfunction of
active measures is considered in the network (Fig. 4-4). It has to be noted that in this section,
according to Hungarian regulations [71] [72] a minimum active safety measure, namely automatic
smoke detection system, is selected.
1
b)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
66
Fig. 6-3 – Cost and efficiency of different active safety measures including the installation, construction and
maintenance for the service life [BT11]
I investigated in an earlier study [BT11] the problem more deeply, regarding to different active
safety measures using different assumptions regarding to the consideration of meteorological loads
in the reliability analysis, see details in [BT8]. The main conclusions of these studies are the
following: a) active safety measures and passive protection have to be applied in order to satisfy
the criteria of EC0 (Table 1-1) (Fig. 6-4); b) passive protection without active safety measures is
not effective enough when the target reliability is greater than 3.2 – 3.3 (Fig. 6-4); c) the suggested
target reliability indices of JCSS seemed to be more appropriate for practically expectable cases.
Fig. 6-4 – Optimal reliability indices for various consequences [BT11]
The resulted target reliability indices of this investigation are presented in Fig. 6-5 for 9
considered cases and for different Cf/Ctot ratios. This ratio for the reference structure is around 30
considering normal design conditions. Because R60 and R45 time demands are more demanding
than R30; R60, R45 and R30 demand levels are associated with high, moderate and low relative
cost of safety measures, respectively. Using these differentiations, the reliability indices are
0 0.5 1 1.5 210
−3
10−2
10−1
100
Active safety measures [−]
Con
ditio
nal p
roba
bilit
y of
flas
hove
r [−
]
Active safety measure a b c d b+d c+d
Cost [€/m2] 0 25 40 50 75 90Relative cost of safety
measure0 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.5 1.8
1 0.25 0.0625 0.02 0.005 0.00125
ignitionignitionflashover
ignitionflashover
PP
P
⋅
=∩
ignitionflashoverP
Scenario:• a: None of active safety measure is applied• b: Automatic fire detection and alarm by heat• c:Automatic fire detection and alarm by smoke• d: Sprinkler system• b+d: Sprinkler system + detection by heat• c+d: Sprinkler system + detection by smoke
( ) y.IFL e.yP 755317651 −=
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Cf/(C1+C2)
Tar
get r
elia
bilit
y in
dex
EN 0 low consequences
JCSS 0 moderate consequences
JCSS 0 minor consequences
JCSS 0 large consequences
EN 0 high consequences
EN 0 medium consequences
Only passive protection Passive protection + active safety measures
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
67
presented in Table 6-4 (without considering case #3 where the fire is not the leading action)
similarly to Table 1-1 using the boundaries of Table 6-2 to differentiate the consequence classes.
However, more accurate values can be read from Fig. 6-5 for a specific design situation. The
calculated reliability indices are lower than the suggested values in EC0, they are closer to the
recommendations of Joint Committee on Structural Safety [53]. Despite the fact that this
conclusion is derived based on analysis of a single storey portal frame structure, the results may be
also valid for other type of steel structures because wide range of correlation coefficient and wide
range of possible failure consequences are covered. The higher correlation (Fig. 6-5) among the
frames may represent the case of a smaller structure with fewer frames or a structure with smaller
compartments. In case of higher correlation among the frames the failure probability of the system
is lower and higher target indices can be calculated.
Fig. 6-5 – Target reliability indices for various consequences for fire design of example portal frame
The reliability depends on the severity of the fire effect, thus it depends on the function of the
building, the quality and the quantity of the combustible material. It has to be noted that β=2.82
reliability index implies that the structure has almost 1.0 conditional failure probability in fire. In
these cases the fire effect is too severe and the protection and strengthening of the structure may
not be economical. β=2.82 reliability index is a lower bound because the occurrence of flashover
is quite rare in the investigated cases [BT11]. For high Cf/Ctot ratios, the curves are flatter than in
the case of lower Cf/Ctot ratios because the effectiveness of the intumescent painting is not in linear
connection with the layer thickness [BT11]. In Fig. 6-5, from the point where the curves change to
horizontal lines, the curves only indicate the values because the optimum thickness amplifiers are
out of the investigated range in these cases. The proper target reliability index value should be
selected considering the severity of a possible fire event. The application of comparable design
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
3,6
1 10 100 1000
β-
targ
et r
elia
bil
ity
ind
ex
(ρ=
0.4)
Cf /Ctot
1 2 34 5 67 8 9
2,8
3
3,2
3,4
3,6
3,8
1 10 100 1000
β-
targ
et r
elia
bil
ity
ind
ex
(ρ=
0.9)
Cf /Ctot
1 2 34 5 67 8 9
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
68
curves (e.g. ISO standard fire curve) may lead inconsistent structural reliability. In case of the
investigated example considering both ρ=0.4 and 0.9 correlation coefficients, reliability index
β=2.9 – 3.3 may be achieved based on the time demand R45, R30 and R15, respectively, using
EC3-1-2 conforming prescriptive design and ISO standard fire curve [BT10]. It means that design
based on ISO standard curve is too conservative in case of structures with low failure consequences
and it may be unsafe when a possible failure has considerable consequences. The target reliability
index may be selected between 2.8 and 3.7 based on the possible failure consequences for industrial
steel tapered portal frames with storage function. The presented values are calculated on the basis
of Hungarian circumstances, considering the regulations of OTSZ 5.0 and TvMI 5.1.
The presented values may be used later in performance based design, however, further research
work is needed in order to extend and validate the suggested numbers and in order to understand
better the components of failure costs (Cf). The target reliability indices may be also influenced by
the acceptance ability of the society and global economy of the country, so in some cases minimum
limits may be used in order to ensure the minimum desired safety.
50 years service life: calculated
Relative cost of safety measure Minor
consequences Moderate
consequences Large
consequences High – Severe fire 2.8 (2.8 – 2.9) 2.8 – 3.0 (2.8– 3.1) 2.8 – 3.2 (2.8 – 3.4)
Moderate – Medium fire 2.8 (2.8 – 3.0) 2.8 – 3.2 (2.8 – 3.3) 2.8 – 3.5 (3.0 – 3.6) Low – Minor fire 2.8 (2.8 – 3.0) 2.8 – 3.3 (2.8 – 3.4) 3.2 – 3.5 (3.2 – 3.7)
Table 6-4 – Calculated target reliability indices for industrial steel tapered portal frame considering ρ=0.4 and
ρ=0.9 correlation among the frames
6.3. Target reliability estimation in case of seismic design situation
Since earlier and recent studies showed that the reliability level is much lower in seismic design
situation than in conventional design situation the question arose that what would be proper target
reliability index in seismic design situation. This thesis provides information about possible target
reliability indices for tapered portal frame structures that are calculated using the presented
reliability analysis algorithm for three reference structures (Table 6-5). C0 and C1 cost values have
been calculated based on values from Table 1-2. The presented structures are verified in persistent
and seismic design situations without considering the stiffness of sheeting system in the calculation.
It has to be noted that ~0.2g peak ground acceleration is considered for Komárom site with C soil
type from EFEHR hazard curve related to 10% exceedance probability in 50 years instead of 0.15g
that is given in the National Annex of EC8-1.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
69
# hc1 - hc2 x tw,c + bc x tf,c hb1 - hb2 x tw,b + bb x tf,b db Equipment
load C0 C1
1 300-700x6+200x11 380-700x6+180x8 16 mm 0.2 kN/m2 47,750 € 860 € 2 300-750x6+220x14 380-770x6+180x12 24 mm 1.0 kN/m2 51,370 € 1,940 € 3 400-750x6+260x14 400-770x6+220x14 28 mm 2.0 kN/m2 55,260 € 2,640 €
Table 6-5 – Reference structural configurations
For sake of simplicity, the reliability indices are calculated only in longitudinal direction related
to the failure of side diagonal braces without considering the sheeting system’s stiffness in the
analysis. For dissipative design, the limit state function expresses a deformation check of tension
braces where the allowable deformation is set 7Δy (Δy – axial deformation at expected tensile
yielding load). The nonlinear structural response is obtained with pushover analysis considering
0.01Einit post yielding stiffness and considering second order (also known as P-Δ) effects of the
gravity loads on the columns. N2 method [111] is invoked in order to find the target displacement.
In elastic design case, the limit state function expresses tension verification of braces in tension
supposing full strength connection at the ends.
The calculated probabilities are not conditional values, they contain the occurrence of seismic
action via the hazard curve. The diameter of side bracing is varied from 4 to 84 mm altogether in
six investigations, since the reliability is calculated using both elastic and dissipative limit state
functions (Fig. 6-6). Due the design criteria related to persistent design, tension-only braces with
diameter db<16mm cannot be used since 16mm is minimum that is able to resist the resultant wind
force.
Fig. 6-6 – Failure probabilities and reliability indices of investigated structures for Komárom site as a function of
the bracings’ diameter
Regarding to the tension-only braces, db=16mm, 24mm and 28 mm diameters would be
sufficient according to elastic design rules of EC8-1 in the first, second and third case, respectively.
The presented reliability indices in Fig. 6-6 imply that the EC8-1 conforming elastic design rules
4 12 20 28 36 44 52 60 68 76 840
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Diameter [mm]
β −
rel
iabi
lity
inde
x
4 12 20 28 36 44 52 60 68 76 840
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Diameter [mm]
P f − fa
ilure
pro
babi
lity
#1 dissipative#2 dissipative#3 dissipative#1 elastic#2 elastic#3 elastic
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
70
provided β ≈ 1.5 reliability index for ~1.0 D/C ratio in the investigated cases due to the high
uncertainty in the seismic effects (Table 5-1 and Fig. 5-3). It does not necessarily mean that all of
the structures designed according to the prescriptive design rules of EC8-1 standard have similarly
low reliability. The presented values may be not generalized easily due to the following issues: a)
the indices are valid for the investigated structural configuration considering that the dead loads
are dominant; b) the structure is investigated in longitudinal direction thus its behaviour can be
represented well with a simple SDOF system; c) the failure probabilities are calculated for an
elastic structure neglecting the possibility of energy dissipation by plastic deformation except the
fact that q=1.5 behaviour factor (also known as seismic response modification factor, R, in ASCE7-
10 [115]) is used for the calculation of EC8-1 design spectra. In case of structures where higher
vibration modes become dominant, higher reliability index may be calculated, however, the results
imply the fact that the desired reliability level may not be achieved in some cases using the
prescriptive rules of EC8-1. In case of brittle failure modes, dashed lines (Fig. 6-6) may describe
better the achievable reliability level for seismic design situation. Reinforced concrete structures
are not incorporated in this study, other researchers published low reliability values for shear failure
of reinforced concrete sections, e.g. [113], thus this issue also needs to be further investigated.
In case of dissipative structural configurations where significant plastic deformations are
allowed and the failure mechanism of the structure is controlled and designed, significantly higher
reliability indices may be achieved using EC8-1 conforming design. For example, Zsarnóczay in
[67] presented reliability indices between 2.9 and 3.6 for a large set of BRB frames (designed with
q=7 behaviour factor). The investigated structure may also be capable to absorb energy during
seismic excitation, tension failure of bracing elements with full strength connections can be
considered as a dissipative failure mode. For this reason, the considerable structural reliability
achieved with the help of prescriptive rules of EC8-1 is higher than β ≈ 1.5. Considering tension-
only braces with db=16mm, 24mm and 28 mm diameters, respectively, the resulted reliability
indices vary between 2.3 and 2.5. These reliability indices satisfy the criteria of JCSS (Table 1-1)
suggested for seismic design (high relative cost of safety measure) of a structure having moderate
consequences in case of failure, however, the target indices of EC0 (Table 1-1) may be hardly
achieved.
The above discussed reliability index values (Fig. 6-6) and the following life cycle cost
function, Eq. (42), are applied in order to investigate the optimal safety level in seismic design
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
71
situation for Komárom site considering structures loaded with low, moderate and high gravitational
and seismic loads (Table 6-5). The cost function is formulated similarly to Eq. (9) but here with
only one variable that refers to a diameter for the braces:
( ) ( ) 210 xCCxPCxC ffLC ⋅++⋅= , (42)
where C1 is the cost factor related to the braces. Different sites are not incorporated in this
investigation, thus for sites having hazard curve characterized with different mean or different
variation the calculated optimal reliability indices may be slightly different than the presented
values in Section 7.4.2. The minimum of the presented life cycle function is found using direct
search algorithm. Some increase or decrease in the seismicity have similar effect on failure
probability than some increase or decrease in the gravitational loads. For this reason, the presented
results may be extended for wider set of possible cases.
The calculated target reliability indices for seismic design are presented in Fig. 6-7 for 6
considered cases (Table 6-5) and with different Cf/Ctot ratios (this ratio for the reference structure
is around 50 considering normal design conditions). It has to be noted that the presented values
may be only valid for steel portal frame structures with similar configuration (tension-only braces
for wind- and side bracing) and size analysed in longitudinal direction.
Fig. 6-7 – Target reliability indices for various consequences for seismic design of example portal frames
The results are summarized in Table 6-6; however, more accurate values can be read from Fig.
6-7 in a specific design situation. It can be concluded that the possible target reliability indices
depend not only on the consequence but also on the seismicity or the severity of the seismic effect
and on the required strengthening cost. In Fig. 6-5, from the point where the curves change to
horizontal lines, they only indicate the values because the optimal diameter amplifiers are out of
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
1 10 100 1000 10000
β-
targ
et r
elia
bil
ity
ind
ex
Cf /Ctot
elastic 0.2kN/m2
elastic 1.0kN/m2
elastic 2.0kN/m2
dissipative 0.2kN/m2
dissipative 1.0kN/m2
dissipative 2.0kN/m2
JCSS (high relative cost)
JCSS (moderate relative cost)
JCSS (low relative cost)
EC0 recommended limits
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
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the investigated range (4-84! mm). The presented indices in this section will be compared and
evaluated later together with results of Section 7.4.
Table 6-6 – Calculated target reliability indices in longitudinal direction for industrial steel tapered portal frame
situated next to Komárom - brittle and dissipative failure mechanism
The calculated reliability indices are lower than the suggested values in EC0 and they are closer
to the recommendations of JCSS. Recommended values of Joint Committee on Structural Safety
for low and moderate cost of safety measure seem to be appropriate for low and medium seismic
mass, respectively. If significant concentrated loads act on the columns, higher seismic mass have
to be considered during the design. In these cases target indices may be lower than the calculated
ones and JCSS recommended values for high relative cost of safety measure may be used. Due to
the fact that a wide range of possible consequences, different intensity of gravitational loads, elastic
and dissipative structural configurations have been taken into account by the derivation of
reliability index values; these conclusions may be extended to other type of steel structures, as well.
The EC8-1 standard defines importance classes in order to differentiate structures having
different failure consequences (similarly to the consequence classes in EC0). EC8-1 uses the so-
called importance factor (γI) multiplying the considered PGA in the analysis (it can be interpreted
as the return period of considered seismic event changes). The examples given in the code are
mainly related to structures with different functions, however, higher or lower consequence class
may be selected during the design if the failure causes more or less significant economic losses,
respectively. This differentiation (in better agreement with the discussion in the code) is made and
possible target indices are presented in Table 6-6 based on assumptions made by the author related
to Cf/Ctot boundaries. Importance classes III and IV represent extraordinary cases, importance
classes I and II cover most of the cases in practice for industrial steel portal frames.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
73
The investigated configurations having tension-only braces with db=16mm, 24mm and 28 mm
diameters, respectively, have been designed considered importance class II (ordinary structure,
γI=1.0) and elastic design rules of EC8-1. In case of brittle failure modes, where no plastic
behaviour may be developed, the resulted reliability indices varied between 1.2 and 1.8 considering
all the importance classes for each configuration (marked as light red zone in Fig. 6-7). These
values are rather low (lower than the lowest limit of JCSS) and may be not acceptable. In case of
dissipative failure mode the indices varied from 2.3 to 2.7 (marked as light blue zone in Fig. 6-7).
Higher values (β>3) may be reached with design of DCH [28] structures (e.g. BRBF) [BT7]. These
results point another advantage of dissipative design (it is well known that using dissipative design
the cost of bracing system can be significantly reduced), namely that seismic structural reliability
can be remarkably increased. Even in the case of a simple industrial portal frame designed
elastically against seismic effects, it is favourable to give the opportunity to development of plastic
deformations in order to avoid brittle failure modes (e.g. design full strength brace’s connections
in order to let yield tension failure being the leading failure mode and avoid shear failure of bolts
with some overstrength).
It seems that the target indices suggested by EC0 [52] are too high and not appropriate in
seismic design situation in case of industrial portal frames having similar function and geometry
to the investigated frame. Although this conclusion has been drawn based on results in longitudinal
direction (for Komárom site); similar or lower eliability indices may be calculated in transversal
direction since the cost of improving structural capacity is higher. Further investigation is necessary
concentrating on target reliability indices for seismic design in order to extend the validity of
conclusions for different kinds of structures, failure modes and sites. Parametric study results will
help to extend the conclusions for wider range in Section 7.4.2. For the time being, β=2.0-3.5 seems
to be economical and optimal for most of the practical cases. This target value may be satisfied
without any problems if the designer makes an effort on overstrength brittle failure components
and ensure dissipative failure modes.
The resulted reliability index considering elastic limit state (brittle) are too low for a structure
designed elastically according to the recent regulation, namely EC8-1. It seems that the rules need
to be revised in the future. At the moment, from the point of view of the seismic effects EC8-1
introduces a safety factor in the design procedure since the considerable peak ground acceleration
has 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years (0.9 fractile of 50 years mean hazard curve, as it
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
74
can be seen in Fig. 5-3). However, this 10% exceedance probability results only β ≈ 1.3 reliability
index for 50 years and the fact that resistance is accounted on design value by the verification
cannot increase the structural reliability significantly in case of the investigated steel structure since
the limit state function is dominantly sensitive for seismic uncertainties (Table 5-1). In spite of the
fact that the review of the rules in the code is not one of the scopes of this study, one possible issue
may be the neglecting the uncertainty of hazard level (Fig. 6-8) in code conforming design (the
input parameter related to seismic effect intensity is typically the 0.9 fractile of 50 years mean
hazard curve). It is found that if the desired safety level were β ≈ 2.0 reliability index considering
elastic limit state function, the 0.95 fractile hazard curve should be used for design purposes in
order to cover the uncertainty in the intensity because there is a considerable uncertainty related to
the usage of different attenuation and ground motion prediction models.
Fig. 6-8 –Hazard curves with different fractiles for Komárom site [106]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
75
7. Reliability based structural optimization results
The aim of this research is to define new and valuable concepts for seismic and fire design of
tapered portal frame structures based on the results of structural optimization procedure. In order
to give comprehensive and useful concepts, it is important to characterize the sensitivity of the
design problem and the optimum on different design parameters, conditions and cost components.
For this reason, the achievable optimal solutions are derived in several cases, within the framework
of parametric studies.
7.1. Optimized variables
Similarly to a design problem in practice, the selected optimization variables are discrete thus
the value of the presented objective functions (Section 2.2 and 2.3) are evaluated only in discrete
points of the search domain. In case of fire design optimization, the variables are the dimensions
of the main frame elements and the thicknesses of intumescent coating (Table 7-1), while the
dimensions of the main frame elements and the diameter of tension-only bracing elements (Table
7-2) are selected as optimized variables in seismic design optimization.
Column Beam tw,c column web thickness tw,b beam web thickness tf,c column flange thickness tf,b beam flange thickness bc column flange width bb beam flange width hc1 column height at the base hb1 the height of non-tapered beam hc2 column height at eave hb2 beam height at the end of the tapered part tp,c1 intumescent coating thickness on the lower part tp,b1 on the non-tapered part of the beam tp,c2 intumescent coating thickness on the upper part tp,b2 on the tapered part of the beam tp,c intumescent coating thickness in the connection zone
Table 7-1 – Optimization variables in fire design situation
Column Beam tw,c column web thickness tw,b beam web thickness tf,c column flange thickness tf,b beam flange thickness bc column flange width bb beam flange width hc1 column height at the base hb1 the height of non-tapered beam hc2 column height at the eave hb2 beam height at the end of the tapered part Bracing db diameter of tension-only side and wind bracing
elements
Table 7-2 – Optimization variables in seismic design situation
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
76
7.2. Convergence and performance of the optimization algorithm
7.2.1. Settings of the algorithm
The convergence and capability to find the optimal solution of heuristic algorithms is highly
influenced by proper selection of their parameters. In case of GA these parameters are the mutation
ratio, crossover ratio, number of mutated genes and elite ratio. An investigation on adjustment of
GA parameters for building structure optimization is presented in [BT2] where various
combinations of parameters are evaluated with respect to convergence rate, stability and
computational demands. The parametric study was completed on an example four-storey building,
with fixed bracing layout.
In order to find the best settings with reasonable resource needs (an evaluation of the objective
function takes cca. 50-60 seconds by fire- and 90-100 seconds by seismic design optimization that
makes the optimization procedure very demanding), the developed algorithm is further tested
within the framework of a sensitivity analysis. Due to the similarity in degree of
nonlinearity/complexity, in the objective functions and in the number and type of design variables,
the sensitivity analysis is carried out only using structural fire design optimization algorithm. The
best settings is used in case of seismic design optimization, as well.
The convergence of the best set is shown in Fig. 7-1 and in Table 7-3, where the results of
altogether 11 optimization processes are presented. The algorithm serves consistent results from
engineering point-of-view, little scatter appears in the results due to the fact that the problem is
extremely nonlinear and the applied population size need to be limited (with the last settings within
an optimization process altogether 4900 structures are investigated that increases the computation
time to 70-80 hours). In case of hc2, hb1, hb2, bc, and bb the observed standard deviation is 2.8-6.7%,
which is acceptable from practical reasons and does not mean any difference from designer point
of view between the solutions. The column base connection can be considered pinned, thus in case
of hc1 12.5% standard deviation is obtained because this parameter does not have significant
influence on the internal forces and stiffness.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
77
Fig. 7-1 – Convergence of the developed reliability based optimization algorithm
As the final setting, crossover ratio, mutation ratio, number of mutated genes and elite ratio are
set to 0.4, 1.0, 2 and 0.2, respectively. In order to reduce the computational time, the population
size is changed dynamically where this parameter set to 200, 40, 20 and 10 in 0-20, 21-30, 31-40
and 41-50 iteration steps, respectively. When the population size is reduced, the best 40, 20 or 10
candidates are kept for further analysis.
[mm] hc1 hc2 hb1 hb2 bc bb tf,c tf,b tw,c tw,b tp,c1 tp,c2 tp,b2 tp,b1 tp,c
ME
AN
=979
1933
ST
D=
0.48
5%
235 665 230 680 195 180 10 9 6 6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 195 670 230 670 195 185 10 9 6 6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0 235 640 230 700 200 190 10 8 6 6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4 0 240 700 250 725 185 170 11 9 6 6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0 300 595 245 715 200 175 11 9 6 6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0 245 620 225 640 195 175 11 10 6 6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.3 0 195 625 225 665 190 180 11 9 6 6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0 215 590 225 705 190 175 12 9 6 6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0 220 605 240 675 205 180 10 9 6 6 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.1 255 665 215 740 195 170 10 9 6 6 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4 0 245 725 200 695 195 165 9 10 6 6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.1
Table 7-3 – Results of the sensitivity analysis
The performance and convergence of the developed optimization framework is compared to
the performance of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) heuristic algorithm [32]. The optimization
is performed considering only conventional effects (dead loads and meteorological loads). This
optimization problem with the same number of variables is also characterized discrete and highly
nonlinear nature. Matlab [119] PSO algorithm is selected for comparison with default settings, no
preliminary sensitivity analysis has been made.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 500.9
1
1.1
1.2x 10
7
Iteration
Life
cyc
le c
ost [
HU
F]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
78
Fig. 7-2 – Comparison of performance with MATLAB PSO algorithm
The results of the comparative study are shown in Fig. 7-2 where objective function is the
penalized (Section 2.4) cost of steel superstructure without the cost of passive or active fire
protection measures. It can be seen that both optimization algorithm is characterized with good
convergence rate, the difference in objective function value is lower than 0.5%, GA based
optimization framework achieved slightly better solution, however, from practical point-of-view,
there is no difference between the structural configurations obtained with GA (critical column
section: 710x6+185x10; beam section at the middle: 210x6+185x8) and PSO (critical column
section: 715x7+200x8; beam section at the middle: 200x6+185x8).
7.2.2. Shape of the objective function
GA seeks the optimum with the development of the search space during its operation and it
evaluates large number of possible solutions. The operation of GA and the presented objective
function is illustratively shown in cost-risk coordinate system in Fig. 7-3.
Fig. 7-3 – Illustration of operation of GA and the shape of objective function
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
79
Fig. 7-4 – Objective function values for different column flange thickness, protection thickness and column flange
width
In fact, the objective function can be hardly illustrated due to the number of optimization
variables. Only sections of the objective function can be illustrated for one or two selected
variables. Fig. 7-4 shows the shape of the objective function close to the optimal solution for fire
design situation. Case #10 (column: 130-720x6+195x11; beam: 285-730x6+170x10; tp,c1 = 0.5
mm; tp,c2 = 0.6 mm; tp,b1 = 0.8 mm; tp,b2 = 0.4 mm; tp,c = 0.2 mm) is selected as reference case from
Table A-2; the thickness of column flange (tf,c = 8 – 13 mm), the width of column flange (bc = 180
– 240 mm) and the thickness of intumescent coating (tp,c2 = 0.3 – 1.2 mm) are varied due to the fact
that stability failure of column governs the failure of the frame in the reliability analysis.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
80
Fig. 7-5 – Objective function values as a function of column flange thickness (with constant protection thickness
tp,c2= 0.6 mm) and protection thickness (with constant column flange thickness tf,c= 11mm)
In Fig. 7-5, the objective function values are illustrated for different column flange thicknesses
and protection thicknesses. It can be seen that the original optimized configuration results the
lowest objective function value with ~92889 EUR. The figures show well the shape of objective
function and the fact that the developed optimization framework is able to find optimal solution
with regard to many parameters. Despite the fact that the global optimum cannot be proven due to
the huge search space, with good settings the developed optimization framework can find solutions
with no difference compared to the global optimum from practical point-of-view.
7.3. Optimal solutions in fire design situation
7.3.1. Parametric study
Table A-1 (in Appendix A) summarizes the investigated cases. Altogether, the optimal
solutions have been successfully obtained in 33 different cases from 36 which cover a wide range
of possible design cases. The cost components are essential issue of the solution, the listed costs
have been obtained with the consideration of Hungarian circumstances based on consultations with
practicing engineers. The cost of sheeting and bracings Csh (Eq. (6)) is generally set to 25 €/m2
(except group F where Csh is set to 50 €/m2). The time demand, the value of cost components, the
application of active fire protection, the severity of fire effect and equipment load are varied in this
study. Some other parameters like the meteorological loads, the type and the weight of sheeting
system and the main geometry remained to be unchanged. It has to be noted that in case of industrial
8 9 10 11 12 13flange thickness [mm]
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2105
bc = 180mm
bc = 195mm
bc = 210mm
bc = 225mm
bc = 240mm
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
81
frame structures, according to Hungarian regulations [71], a minimum active safety measure,
namely automatic smoke detection system, is selected for most of the cases.
Fig. 7-6 – Ozone fire curves on design and on mean value
Within the framework of the presented parametric study the optimal solutions are investigated:
I) in case of different demand levels (A case group – reference cases); II) in case of different
constructional costs and losses (see D, E and F case groups); III) with different active safety
measures (see G and H case groups); IV) without passive fire protection (see C case group); V)
with different gravity load intensities (see B case group). As the most common fire protection in
Hungary, smoke detection device is assumed in most cases as active safety measure. However, the
optimal solutions with only passive protection are also analysed.
From the point-of-view of the severity of fire effect, altogether three different cases are
considered. The fire effect is represented by fire curves (Fig. 7-6) that have been obtained with the
help of two-zone fire model in Ozone software [83]. In Fig. 7-6 the design and mean fire curves
are presented and the ISO standard fire curve is also shown as a reference. The uncertainties in the
steel temperature are considered in the analysis with the help of a global uncertainty factor (Table
4-2) whose parameters and distribution type is obtained in [BT13]. For this reason, the temperature
input shall be the mean fire curve in case of which it was assumed that every point of the design
curve is the 95th percentile of a lognormal distribution with CoV=0.25.
The considered three fire design cases (Fig. 7-6 and Table A-1): 1) extreme (the combustible
material is rubber tyre with qf,d≈470 MJ/m2 design fire load, with 30 MJ/kg combustion heat from
EC1-1-2 and tα=150s fast fire growth rate from EC1-1-2); 2) severe (the combustible material is
rubber tyre and wood with qf,d≈670 MJ/m2 design fire load, with ~24 MJ/kg combustion heat on
average and tα=200 fast fire growth rate); 3) moderate (the combustible material is wood with
0 20 40 60 80 100 1200
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
t [min]
T [
C°]
fire curve #1 (design)
fire curve #1 (mean)
fire curve #2 (design)
fire curve #2 (mean)
fire curve #3 (design)
fire curve #3 (mean)
ISO curve (design)
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
82
qf,d≈1070 MJ/m2 design fire load, with 17.5 MJ/kg combustion heat and tα=300 fast fire growth
rate).
The gas temperatures calculated with Ozone seem very high, however, there is a physical limit
for maximum compartment gas temperature e.g. because of fracture of openings or sheeting. It has
to be noted that these temperatures have been obtained considering design values of influencing
parameters thus these curve can be considered as design curves (Section 4.5) that represent a highly
unlikely event. The maximum measured gas temperatures in compartment fires in the literature are
between 1300 and 1400C°, for example, similar values are measured [114] during Cardington test
where the combustible materials are mainly wood or combination of wood and plastic. The
assumed combustible material in my example is rubber tyre that has considerably higher
combustible heat than wood has. Thus, the possible peak temperature may be higher than 1400C°
and the applied distribution related to the fire curve should be truncated close to that value. In order
to avoid numerical instabilities during HLRF iteration, the truncation is neglected. However, due
to the fact that conditional probabilities in fire calculated with FORM are considerably higher than
failure probabilities e.g. for persistent design situation, the value of random variables (coordinates
in design space) at MPP are much closer to the mean value than in case of reliability calculation in
persistent design situation. For this reason, neglect of truncation does not affect the calculated
reliabilities.
The considered failure costs (Cf = 0.3, 3 and 30 m€) are selected based on the investigation
presented in Section 6.1. The main aim of the standards is the protection of human life. The
consideration of human life in the failure cost is inherently questionable, the target safety level is
highly influenced by the acceptance ability of the society and global economy of the country, thus
in some cases minimum limits may be used in order to ensure the minimum desired safety. In this
investigation, due to the industrial storage function and due to the limited size of the building, the
possible loss of human life is not accounted by the estimation of failure costs, thus the applied Cf
values may express only economic losses.
In order to characterize the importance of proper fire design, the initial cost of optimal solutions
for the above listed 36 cases are also obtained without considering fire design situation during the
design. The life cycle cost and fire risk related to these solutions are obtained thereafter with passive
fire protection selected for Tcr=500-550 °C critical temperature according to the common
Hungarian fire protection design practice.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
83
7.3.2. Parametric study results
The optimization results are summarized in Table A-2 (in Appendix A) according to cases of
the parametric study (Table A-1). In the first and second columns, the dimensions of cross sections
can be seen for both column and beam elements, while in the following columns the thicknesses
of intumescent coating fire protection have been presented. The D/C column shows the demand-
to-capacity ratio in ULS of persistent design situation related to the critical failure mode. βopt is the
reliability index related to the optimum safety level that results minimum life cycle cost value (CLC
in Fig. 2-1). Structural cost C0 (Eq. (6)) contains the cost of the purlins, the sheeting system and the
bracing system, as well. In order to take into account the whole frame’s cost in the calculation the
outer frames have been considered with the following dimensions: 300-300x6+200x8 (columns)
and 300-300x6+200x8 (beams).
The calculated reliability indices, initial and life cycle cost components of cases #1 - #9 show
that fire curve #1 is the most demanding from the considered cases, while fire curve #3 represents
much less severe fire. Not surprisingly, in case of 45 and 60 minutes time demand levels, the
optimized solutions requires more investments regarding to the initial cost of the steel structure and
the initial cost of passive protection. Furthermore for R45 and R60, passive protection with thick
layers has to be used for good performance and safety. However in case of fire curve #3, when the
design aim is to satisfy R30 criterion, there is no need for passive fire protection (see the results of
case #7 and #16). Nevertheless, this is not the case for fire curves #1 and #2. By case #19 and #20,
because the fire effect is too demanding the algorithm cannot find good and stable solution. For
this reason, it is not safe and economical to ensure the fire safety without passive fire protection,
as it is also shown in [BT8], because the steel plates are very heat conductive and they loss their
stiffness and strength very quickly in severe fire.
Generally, the D/C ratio of the frames in persistent design situation is high (Table A-2, cases
#1 - #36), thus the presented solutions are possible design alternatives also for conventional loading
conditions.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
84
Fig. 7-7 – Differences in the width-to-thickness ratio (slenderness) of the plate elements comparing to the optimized
reference cases (Table A-2, Table A-3)
The optimized solutions are compared with solutions designed by practicing engineers with
C0≈57,000€ (column: 300-700x6+180x10, beam: 380-700x6+165x8) considering 0.2 kN/m2
equipment load, and optimized by the developed algorithm with C0≈55,700€ (column: 185-
665x6+205x9, beam: 215-700x6+185x8) and with C0≈56,260€ (column: 130-855x6+210x8,
beam: 230-815x6+190x8) considering only serviceability and ULS constraints in persistent design
situation for 0.2 kN/m2 and 0.5 kN/m2 equipment load, respectively. The solutions provided in
Table A-2 have larger C0 cost in most of the cases, however, they have lower C1 cost and they have
lower CLC cost in fire design situation (Table A-3 in Appendix A).
It can be seen from the results that the flanges and webs are less slender (Fig. 7-7) compared to
the width-to-thickness ratio of plates of the optimized reference frames. Probably, the most
economical solution cannot be achieved only with protection elements with more slender sections
(with higher plate width-to-thickness ratio), which may be optimal and adequate in persistent
design situation, using thick passive protection. From the point-of-view of conceptual design
stockier sections combined with less passive protection ensure better performance during fire. Less
slender sections also give lower A/V value, thus the heating of these sections are slower comparing
to sections which have higher A/V section ratio. Due to the fact that structural fire design is
generally new for the structural designer society in Hungary, the issue of structural fire design is
often assigned to fire safety engineers, who may be not well educated from the point-of-view of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18−40
−30
−20
−10
0
10Column web slenderness (ref. h/t=110.8 and h/t=142.5)
Cases
Diff
eren
ce [%
]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18−60
−40
−20
0
20Beam web slenderness (ref. h/t=116.7 and h/t=135.8)
Cases
Diff
eren
ce [%
]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18−50
−40
−30
−20
−10
0Beam flange slenderness (ref. b/2t=11.6 and b/2t=11.9)
Cases
Diff
eren
ce [%
]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18−60
−50
−40
−30
−20
−10
0Column flange slenderness (ref. b/2t=11.4 and b/2t=13.1)
Cases
Diff
eren
ce [%
]
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structural engineering, and select the amount of fire protection based only the section factor (A/V
– ratio of perimeter and surface) supposing that the critical temperature of the element is e.g. 550
°C. It will be shown later in this section that this method is not reliable and not safe in some cases
and the most economical solution cannot be achieved only with protection of slender elements that
would be optimal in persistent design situation using thick passive protection. It is important to
consider the fire design situation during structural design (and not after it) in order to achieve
economical and well performing solutions.
The calculated optimum/target reliability indices are listed in Table A-2. Comparing to the
standardized target indices (in Table 1-1), it can be seen that the calculated values for cases #1 - #9
(β=2.82-3.45) are lower than the suggested values of EC0. It has to be noted that β=2.82 reliability
index implies that the structure has almost 1.0 conditional failure probability in fire. In these cases
the fire effect is too severe and the protection and strengthening of the structure may not be
economical. β=2.82 reliability index is a lower bound because the occurrence of flashover is quite
rare in the investigated case (Fig. 4-1). Due to the highly nonlinear, uncertain and extreme nature
of the fire effect (especially when this nature is combined with extreme intensity, e.g. see fire curve
#1 and #2 for R45 and R60 demand levels), ensuring of high reliability is too expensive (relative
cost of safety measure is moderate or high), thus, the resulted reliability indices are low comparing
to other cases. It has to be noted that some conservative assumptions have been made by the
formulation of reliability analysis due to the lack of knowledge. By reducing this uncertainty and
conservative assumptions, the calculated target reliability indices may be increased. The
optimization procedures have been performed considering ρ=0.4 correlation coefficient (as a more
likely value for the investigated structure) in Eq. (20), however, the reliability indices are presented
for ρ=0.9 as well in Table A-2, in order to characterize the effect of low and high correlation. With
the consideration of higher correlation among the frames, higher reliability indices are calculated
(β=2.84-3.51). These values better characterize smaller structures with smaller fire compartment.
The difference between the probabilities of failure varied from 0% to -50%, thus the correlation
has a significant effect on the reliability of the structure.
As it can be seen by comparing Table 1-1 and Table A-2 and as it is pointed out in [BT11], the
target values of JCSS Probabilistic Model Code and ISO 2394 standard are more applicable for fire
design of industrial steel tapered portal frames. Further issue is that the EC0 does not give different
groups according to the relative cost of safety measures, in this way, it recommends the same target
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
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reliability for persistent, seismic and fire design situation. This method may does not seem proper
for providing solutions with consistent reliability which is one of the bases of safe and economic
design.
It is a very important conclusion that the reliability indices related to optimum solutions vary
in a wide range when different fire curves and different time demands are considered during the
design. This observation implies that the optimum safety level depends on the heating rate and the
maximum temperature in the compartment. Furthermore, the safety level significantly depends on
the occurrence of severe fire and flashover, thus it is dependent on the function of the building and
the amount of active safety measures. For this reason, the safety of two identical frame structures
is different when the function of the buildings is different. These conclusions predict the fact that
comparable effects, such as ISO standard fire, cannot be the basis for consistent and reliable
structural fire design. In order to achieve consistent reliability level, safe and economical solutions,
it is important to model the fire effect as accurately as possible.
Fig. 7-8 – Optimal safety levels as a function of additional costs comparing to the configurations #1 - #18 in Table
8: a) ρ=0.4; b) ρ=0.9 correlation coefficient.
Based on the results of 36 optimized cases, a table with possible values for target reliability
indices is constructed (Table 7-4), similarly to Table 1-1. The presented target indices may be also
valid for other type of steel structures and not only for industrial steel portal frame structures;
because of the consideration of low and high correlation (smaller structure/compartment) among
the frames, because of various failure consequences and various initial design conditions the
presented results cover a wide range of possible cases. Further investigation is necessary in order
to define target indices for different type of structural configurations. Optimized cases with high
initial cost components (Table A-1, Fig. 7-8) or demanding fire curve are categorized in high
relative cost of safety measure row, while cases optimized considering fire curve #3 resulted low
additional costs (Fig. 7-8) are categorized in the last row. In Fig. 7-8 the initial costs of the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 182.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
(C0,opt
+ C1,opt
)/C0,ref
- C0,ref
[%]
β
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 182.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
(C0,opt
+ C1,opt
)/C0,ref
- C0,ref
[%]
β
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optimized cases are compared with reference structures (Table A-3), optimized in persistent design
situation for 0.2 kN/m2 (column: 185-665x6+205x9, beam: 215-700x6+185x8) and 0.5 kN/m2
(column: 130-855x6+210x8, beam: 230-815x6+190x8) equipment load using the developed
algorithm. Solutions with β=2.82 are not accounted because the fire effect and time demand are
too severe in these cases. It can be seen that this table is in better agreement with the
recommendations of JCSS and ISO 2394 than with EC0. Due to the limited number investigated
cases, there is no defined range in columns related to minor and large consequences, thus further
investigation is needed later in order to extend and validate the suggested numbers. Further
investigation is necessary for better understanding the possible components (and their weights) of
failure cost function. The target values are also influenced by the acceptance ability of the society
and global economy of the country, so in some cases minimum limits may be used in order to
ensure the minimum desired safety.
50 years service life: calculated target reliability indices Relative cost of safety measure
Fire effect severity
Minor consequences
Moderate consequences
Large consequences
High High 2.8 (2.8)* 2.8 – 3.2 (2.8 – 3.3) 3.6 (3.7)* Moderate Medium 2.8 (2.9)*† 2.9 – 3.4 (3.0 – 3.5) 3.6 (3.8)*
Low Low 2.9 (3.0)* 3.1 – 3.5 (3.3 – 3.6) 3.7 (3.8)* * based on limited number of cases, further investigation is necessary; † interpolated
Table 7-4 – Calculated target reliability indices for tapered portal frames with storage function (with ρ=0.4 and
ρ=0.9 correlation coefficient)
Comparing the results of cases #2, #5 and #8 to results of cases #34, #35 and #36, it can be seen
that the application of more active safety measures can result cheaper structure in terms of initial
cost of steel superstructure and passive fire protection, however, active safety measures are
generally expensive. It can be also concluded that life cycle cost values are lower with only alarm
system, thus in the investigated case the application of both alarm and extinguish systems may not
lead to economical design. Comparing to the results of cases #2, #5 and #8 to results of cases #31,
#32 and #33, it can be concluded that the initial costs are much higher, nevertheless, they result the
lowest life cycle costs (considering cases where the equipment load is 0.2 kN/m2 and where the
cost components are the same). In case of the investigated and similar structural configurations
with storage function, optimal solution may be achieved with less active safety measure (if the
presented safety level meets the allowable minimum safety limit), but with more passive fire
protection and stronger structure. This conclusion is in good agreement with the results of an earlier
study [BT11].
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In order to investigate the achievable performance using common practice in structural fire
engineering, the passive protection of the above mentioned reference frames (which have been
optimized considering only constraints related to persistent design situation) is selected based only
on the section factor of the sections and according to the producer’s manual [69], assuming that the
critical temperature is 550 °C. The A/V factor in case of the columns is between 250 and 303 1/m,
while in case of the beams it vary from 280 to 305 1/m. The calculated reliability indices and life
cycle costs can be seen in Table A-3 (Appendix A).
The calculated reliability indices vary in a wide range and they rarely achieve the EC0
recommended β target indices because of several reasons: a) the structural fire design is
characterized by high degree of uncertainty, the EC0 recommended target indices may not refer
well to extreme situations; b) the design of intumescent coating is based and generally the fire
design is often based on ISO standard fire curve which is not able to represent real fire thus cannot
be used as the basis for consistent, safe and economical structural fire design; the reliability depends
on the quantity and quality of the combustible materials and depends on the function of the
building; c) the reliability of a structural system is generally lower than the reliability of separated
elements (structural reliability is often calculated for separated elements in the literature, e.g. in
[87], in [55] and in [54]); d) the structural fire design should be completed by the structural designer
and should be included in the design process from the beginning of searching possible economic
solutions; e) the persistent design situation and fire design situation may be contradictory objectives
in some cases, the cross section (see Table A-2 and Table A-3; compare e.g. cases #1 - #3 or cases
#10 - #12) which is close to optimum for conventional loads is not optimum for fire design; f) the
common practice that the passive protection is selected after the persistent design assuming the
critical temperature of the element may be unreliable (Fig. 7-9) and unsafe.
Fig. 7-9 – The life cycle costs of optimized (blue) and reference cases (red)
The life cycle cost values are higher than values in Table A-2 for optimized cases (Fig. 7-9);
the achievable saving for life cycle with the presented method varies from -0.1 to +76% comparing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 366080
100
120140
160180200
Case No.
CL
C [
1000
EU
R]
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to the common design practice. The difference in probability of failure varies between -85 and
+1290%, the highest negative values have been calculated for fire curve #3. In most of the cases
the difference is positive and significant positive differences can be observed for R45 and R60 time
demands, especially when the fire effect is severe or extreme (fire curves #1 and #2 , respectively).
It shows that the common practice and the application of ISO standard curve are unsafe in lot of
cases.
Related to the protection of connections, it is observed that the protection thicknesses at the
beam-to-column connections are much lower in case of the optimized cases than in cases presented
in Table A-3, where the thicknesses are selected based on the thicknesses of connected elements
which would be a reasonable engineering decision if it was a real design situation. Due to the
generally slender structural configuration and due to the fact that the Young’s modulus decreases
at high temperature, the leading failure mode in fire design situation is loss of stability of main
elements. Furthermore the heating of connection zones is slower than the heating of connected
elements. Thus, the beam-to-column connections are not fully utilized in fire design situation and
there is no need for thick protection in the connection zones. However, the heating of the
connections is generally more uncertain and thicker protection does not mean significant additive
cost, for this reason, an engineering practice according to which the connection is protected as the
connected elements can be considered safe and good in the case of the investigated structure and
structural configuration.
7.4. Optimal solutions in seismic design situation
7.4.1. Parametric study
Similarly to the case of fire design, optimal solutions are obtained for several design cases
within the framework of a parametric study. The investigated cases (Table A-4) cover a wide range
of possible design situations. The effect of different loading conditions, different load intensities,
different sites with higher and lower seismic intensities and sheeting system rigidity on the optimal
solutions are investigated.
As regards to the cost components in Eq. (9), (10) and (11), the initial cost rate of the main
frame elements (cs), the initial cost rate of the bracing elements (cb) and the cost rate of the sheeting
system (Csh) are set to 2.25 €/kg, 2.25 €/kg and 25 €/m2, respectively. The failure cost is varied in
order to obtain results related to design cases where the risk is higher and lower. The selected
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failure costs have been obtained based on Section 6.1 and may represent minor, moderate and large
consequences.
The consideration of different loading conditions means that optimal configurations are derived
for frames both with and without additional concentrated forces on the columns at 2/3 of the eave
height (Fig. 7-10a). These concentrated forces may represent the reaction force of an internal slab
or a crane; their intensity is set to 100kN. These forces increase the seismic vibration mass of the
building and they cause significant torsional moment if the pattern is asymmetrical (Fig. 7-10c).
S1, S2 and S3 load cases (Table A-4) represent cases where there are no additional concentrate
forces on the columns, there are concentrated forces on half of the columns (Fig. 7-10c) and there
are concentrate forces on all of the columns (Fig. 7-10b).
Fig. 7-10 – a) Additional concentrated forces on columns; b) symmetrical pattern; c) asymmetrical pattern
7.4.2. Parametric study results
Optimization results are summarized in Table A-5. In the first and second columns, the
dimensions of cross sections can be found for both column and beam elements, respectively, while
the D/C column shows the demand-to-capacity ratio in ULS of persistent design situation related
to the critical failure mode. βopt is the reliability index related to the optimum safety level that
results minimum life cycle cost value (CLC in Fig. 2-1). C0 contains the cost of purlins, sheeting-
and bracing system, as well. In order to take into account the whole frame’s cost in the calculation
the outer frames have been considered with the following dimensions: 300-300x6+200x8
(columns) and 300-300x6+200x8 (beams).
First of all, general conclusions can be drawn related to data presented in Table A-5. Not
surprisingly, in case of design situations where the considerable gravity load is high the resulted
optimal solutions have thicker elements and they are more expensive because the seismic forces
are higher (e.g. compare case #1 to #3 or case #4 to #6, etc.). Due to the increase in the level of
a) b) c)
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seismic forces, the resulted optimal reliability indices are lower because the strengthening of the
structure becomes more expensive and it may become not economical.
It can be seen from the parameters of the fitted lognormal distributions (Table 5-1) that the
seismic effect is characterized by high degree of uncertainty irrespectively to the seismicity of the
investigated site. During the consideration of historical earthquakes in PSHA high uncertainty is
partly coming from the evaluation of statistical data set containing from a number of sites. In case
of low and moderate seismicity (e.g. Hungary) typically there is no dominant site in investigated
set and large number of different sources influence the site’s hazard curve contrary to sites
characterized by high seismicity where few sources may affect dominantly the uncertainty in the
hazard curve. For this reason, significant difference may be realized between hazard curves of
Komárom and Râmnicu Sărat; the hazard curve related to Komárom site is much more uncertain
(Table 5-1) than the curve that characterizes the seismicity of Râmnicu Sărat. This uncertainty
highly influences the results of reliability analysis. It might be surprising and interesting for the
reader that a certain configuration is characterized by similar reliability indices for the both sites
(only slight differences can be observed). The 90th percentiles are very close to each other,
nonetheless, the mean of PGA distributions are significantly different.
Contrary to the optimized solutions for fire effects, the results (Table A-5) of seismic design
optimization show that the D/C ratio in persistent design situation is very low by a number of cases.
It shows that seismic design situation may be the leading design situation when the seismic mass
or/and the target reliability index is high regardless to the moderate seismicity of the site. Regarding
to cross section dimensions, strong conclusions cannot be drawn compared to the original structural
configuration; both stockier but smaller and thinner but higher sections may be appropriate in order
to find optimal configurations.
According to the opinion of many designers, sheeting system decreases the structure’s safety
because its stiffness increases the global structural stiffness; therefor it increases the seismic forces
acting on the building. Nevertheless, based on the results of this study sheeting system has
beneficial effect on the structural safety and the cost of resulted configurations by the industrial
frames with similar function, size and configuration to the investigated frame. This statement is
confirmed (Table A-5, Fig. 7-11) for high and moderate seismicity, for low and high vertical forces,
as well. The tendency is clear in the results; the same structural safety can be achieved beside 0-
15% less superstructure’s cost with the consideration of sheeting system in the structural analysis
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depending on the consequence class, on the severity of seismic action and on the intensity of
vertical loading; the saving is higher in case of higher intensity of horizontal actions. It is important
to note that sheeting system has to be designed and checked against seismic effects in order to
ensure its contribution to the global behaviour during the earthquake.
Fig. 7-11 – The cost of the superstructure and the resulted reliability indices for high seismicity,
In fact, the contribution of sheeting system decreases the vibration period of the building thus
it increases the base shear force (as the results of HighPerFrame RDI project showed) (Table 7-5).
It seems that the contribution of sheeting system is not beneficial and it may decrease the structural
safety through increasing the seismic load on the building. Nonetheless, different beneficial effects
may be developed during seismic excitation due to the sheeting system. These beneficial effects
decrease the level of internal forces in the main elements; resulting cheaper and safer solutions.
Considered sheeting LTP45+Z200 LTP20+Z200 none Transversal period 0,5932 s 0,6371 s 0,7462 s
Longitudinal period 0,2912 s 0,3102 s 0,3660 s Design acceleration in transversal direction 5,6407 m/s2 5,3119 m/s2 4,5356 m/s2
Design acceleration in longitudinal direction 5,6407 m/s2 5,6407 m/s2 5,6407 m/s2 Transversal base shear force 225,89 kN 212,72 kN 181,63 kN
Longitudinal base shear force 225,89 kN 225,89 kN 225,89 kN Table 7-5 – The effect of sheeting system’s stiffness on the base shear force; case RLTP4502 for ~ 0.3g PGA [BT9]
According to previous results [79] [BT9] [BT12], the sheeting system decreases the value of
internal forces in the main frame elements (Fig. 7-12) through developing a spatial contribution
together with the wind and side braces. These parts compose a box-like structure; a part of the
horizontal forces is transferred to the ground through the braces at the end of structure similarly to
a simple supported beam (Fig. 7-13). Furthermore, it helps a global response being developed
where adjacent frames help to each other in resisting the seismic forces. Another advantage is that
the sheeting behaves as a chord of main frame elements thus it increases their bending stiffness and
it contributes in resisting the bending moments. As the results of the example in [BT9] showed the
bending moments in the structure may be decreased by cca. 5-25% (Fig. 7-12).
40
60
80
100
2 2,5 3 3,5
C0
+ C
1[1
000€
]
β
without sheetingwith sheeting
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Fig. 7-12 – Bending moment diagram of the main frames after SRSS sum (0.3g PGA; continuous blue – outer frames,
continuous red – inner frames, dashed blue – second and fifth frames): a) LTP45+Z200; b) no sheeting system is considered [BT9]
Fig. 7-13 – Base shear forces [N] of the frames after SRSS sum (0.3g PGA): a) LTP45+Z200; b) no sheeting system
is considered [BT9]
In order to consider the contribution of sheeting system in the global behaviour, spatial 3D
structural model need to be applied together with realistic modelling of the stiffness and the
properties of connections of trapezoidal sheeting and purlins in the analysis. This model need to
able to describe the internal forces and stresses in the main elements, in the braces and in the
sheeting system as well. The beneficial effect of the sheeting system can be utilized only if the
sheeting’s and connections’ failure is avoided. By many of the investigated cases the base shear
forces are higher than possible resultant horizontal forces coming from wind actions. If the D/C
ratio related to the failure of sheeting, purlins or connections is not significant due to wind forces,
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
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the contribution of sheeting system in seismic design situation may be utilized without additional
costs.
Panels between frames that subjected to significantly different horizontal actions due to their
different loading conditions may be designed against higher internal forces. In case of the
investigated structure, panels that are subjected to high seismic forces are the second and the fourth
panels. By longer industrial halls that consist of large number of frames the contribution of sheeting
system may be lower because the braced bays are situated far from the middle and the panels are
not capable to transfer the loads to the braces.
Based on the results of 28 optimized cases, a table with possible values for target reliability
indices is presented in Table 7-6, similarly to Table 7-4 that shows possible target reliability indices
for fire design. It can be seen that this table is in better agreement with the recommendations of
JCSS and ISO 2394 than with EC0. The target values are also influenced by the acceptance ability
of the society and global economy of the country.
50 years service life: calculated target reliability indices
Seismic mass Seismic effect
severity Minor
consequences Moderate
consequences Large consequences
High High 2.2* 2.5 – 2.7 2.8 – 3.0* Moderate Medium 2.3* 2.6 – 2.8 2.8 – 3.0†*
Low Low 2.6* 2.8 – 3.0 3.0 – 3.5* * based on limited number of cases, further investigation is necessary; † assumed value, there is problem with the convergence
Table 7-6 – Calculated possible target reliability indices in seismic design situation for tapered portal frames with
storage function
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8. Summary and conclusions
Seismic and fire effects are considered extreme due to their highly nonlinear and severe nature
and also due to their generally extreme consequences. Protection against these severe loading
conditions often require expensive solutions, protection and strengthening compared to the design
against conventional effects such as dead and live loads. For this reason, conceptual design of
optimal structural configurations and solutions came to the fore, however, to find these solutions
by trial-and-error method for a designer in everyday practice can be difficult and highly time-
consuming. New and valuable design concepts may help designers in conceptual design phase in
order to develop economical structural solutions characterized by lower initial costs or considerably
better performance and safety.
The global aims of this study are: a) finding optimal solutions for tapered portal frame structures
subjected to seismic or fire effects; b) analyzing optimal structural safety under extreme loading
conditions that leads cost effective structures; c) introducing new design concepts based the results
of a parametric study covering a wide range of possible design situations. The applicability,
efficiency and convergence of the proposed methodology and numerical algorithm are confirmed
by optimization results presented in this thesis. The results are discussed regarding structural initial
costs, strength, stiffness and possible/acceptable risks of significant losses under severe fire or
seismic loading conditions. Wide range of possible design situations is covered in this research,
namely fire effects with different intensity and duration; seismic effects in seismically less and
more intensive areas; structures with low and high gravity loads. Main observations and outcomes
are summarized in Section 10; the new design concepts and suggestions connected to design of
tapered steel frames subjected to extreme effects.
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9. Future research
In this thesis, a comprehensive reliability calculation methodology is presented for steel frame
structures subjected to fire effects. The limit state function is formulated on time basis as a practical
measure that shows how much time the structure is able to sustain under fire exposure. The required
time values for evacuation, namely 15, 30, 45, etc. minutes, are prescribed in national regulations
[71], however, no study is available in the literature that investigates many issues that would be
important to evaluate more accurately fire safety of structures in Hungarian circumstances:
• statistical data related to elapsed time from fire ignition till fire detection;
• statistical data related to elapsed time from fire detection till extinguishment the fire;
• statistical data related to required time for fire growth into fully developed fire;
• statistical data related to the required time to extinguish different fires.
For this reason, the uncertainties of required time level are not taken into account in the reliability
analysis. R values should be considered in the reliability based structural optimization procedure
as a variable based on firefighting statistics and based on acceptable risk of society and economy
in order to evaluate values for optimal fire safety related to different structural configurations and
consequence classes. Furthermore, based on firefighting and ignition statistics flashover
occurrence could be taken into consideration with probability distributions resulting more
comprehensive results related to optimal fire reliability of different structures.
Related to the consideration of fire effects and system reliability in reliability analysis for fire,
it would be necessary to consider different fire scenarios where the size of exposed part of the
structure is different and further research should be made on evaluation system reliability index.
In this study, column base-, beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections were considered
with fixed parameters as boundary conditions in each design cases. In the course of a future
research work, it would be interesting to consider semi-rigid connections to analyse how the
connection stiffness affect the target reliability index and optimal solutions.
This research was part of the HighPerFrame RDI project where the aim was study of optimal
fire and seismic design of steel tapered portal frame structures in cooperation with Rutin Ltd. The
reference structure investigated in this research (Fig. 1-1) is a storage building and it is situated in
Hungary. The applied cost factors are partly provided by Rutin Ltd. As regards to target reliability
indices and optimal configurations, the effect of different cost factors is partly covered in the
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presented parametric studies, nevertheless further research is needed to extend the conclusions with
the consideration of different cost factors for steel superstructure and for the fire protection.
Optimal structural configurations and possible target reliability indices are presented for fire
and seismic effects, respectively, based on comprehensive analyses of steel tapered portal frames.
Further research is important to strengthen these conclusions, to develop more accurate target
reliability index values and to analyse different structural configurations.
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10. New scientific results
This section presents a summary of new scientific results achieved within the framework of this
research and presented in this dissertation.
10.1. Thesis I.
I solved two highly nonlinear and non-convex reliability based optimization problem of steel
tapered portal frame structures exposed to seismic or fire effects. I developed and verified a
reliability based heuristic optimization framework in order to perform the structural optimization.
I/a. I connected a genetic algorithm based optimization algorithm to an advanced reliability
assessment framework that is based on first order reliability method. The application of first
order reliability method reduces the computational demand, thus it increases the
performance of the optimization framework. I reduced the level of approximation compared
to earlier studies by adoption of state-of-the-art analysis and evaluation tools, analysis of
the whole structural system, nonlinear numerical analysis on imperfect model to evaluate
the nonlinear structural response and General Method of Eurocode 3 for stability
verification of tapered steel elements subjected to compression and bending.
I/b. I analysed the convergence and stability of the developed optimization framework in a
sensitivity analysis. I showed a proper settings for the algorithm, wherewith the
optimization is stable and characterized by good accuracy from engineering point-of-view.
I proved that the developed optimization framework is applicable to find optimal solutions
in the course of reliability based optimization of tapered portal frames exposed to extreme
effects.
Connected publications: [BT1], [BT2], [BT3], [BT4]
10.2. Thesis II.
In this thesis, I presented the development and essential parts of a complex and effective
methodology for reliability evaluation of complex structural systems subjected to fire. Its
application is illustrated for tapered portal frame structures.
II/a. I developed a comprehensive limit state function evaluation methodology for complex
structural systems with the consideration of complex structural response through nonlinear
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analysis on imperfect model. The methodology is able to consider any type of fire curve
and a limit state function formulated on time basis. While these features may be found
separately in earlier studies, the main novelty of this methodology is that it offers the
aforementioned features together for complex structural systems.
II/b. I verified the calculated reliability indices and convergence of the framework through a
comparison with Monte Carlo simulation results of a tapered steel storage hall
prescriptively designed according to Eurocode. I found that the first order approximation
underestimates the failure probability of the investigated problem. The difference between
the resulted failure probabilities of first order reliability method and Monte Carlo simulation
is observed from -1% to -34% in case of low and high probabilities, nevertheless, first order
approximation resulted good approximation of failure probability in the range of interest.
Connected publications: [BT8], [BT13]
10.3. Thesis III.
In this thesis, I investigated the optimal fire design concept of steel tapered portal frame
structures. I calculated target reliability indices using the presented reliability analysis framework
and I performed a parametric study for a reference tapered storage hall structure with the help of
developed structural optimization framework in order to derive new and valuable design concepts.
III/a. I confirmed that the optimum reliability and the optimal configuration depends on the
quantity and quality of the combustible materials and it depends on the function of the
building. It is stated, that the application of comparable effects, such as ISO standard fire,
often leads to either conservative or unsafe solutions. β=2.9 – 3.5 reliability index may be
achieved using Eurocode 3 conforming prescriptive design and ISO standard fire curve in
case of the reference structure. In order to achieve consistent reliability level as well as safe
and economical solutions, it is important to model the fire effect as accurately as possible.
III/b. I presented target reliability indices for the reference structure considering three different
consequence classes and three different fire curves representing fires with different
intensities. I showed that in case of the reference structure active safety measures and
passive protection have to be applied together in order to satisfy the criteria of Eurocode 0,
passive protection without active safety measures is not effective enough when the target
reliability is greater than 3.2 – 3.3. I pointed out that the suggested target reliability indices
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proposed by Joint Committee of Structural Safety seem to be more appropriate and the
target reliability index may be selected between 2.8 and 3.7 for industrial steel tapered portal
frames.
III/c. I pointed out the problem that Eurocode 0 standard does not differentiate groups according
to the relative cost of safety measures, in this way, it recommends the same target reliability
for persistent and fire design situations. However, the calculated reliability indices for fire
effects are lower than the suggested values in Eurocode 0; they are closer to the
recommendations of Joint Committee of Structural Safety and ISO 2394 standard. Different
target safety levels need to be developed for fire effects in Eurocode 0.
III/d. Through optimization results I showed for steel tapered portal frame structures similar to
the reference configuration that less slender, stockier sections (with lower plate width-to-
thickness ratio: -10% to -20% for webs and -20% to -40% for flanges on average) are more
appropriate in case of severe fire effect (especially with high time demand) due to the fact
that the structure is sensitive for stability failure. These sections, combined with less passive
fire protection ensure better performance and safety in fire. I pointed out that the
conventional fire design practice that fire design is not incorporated directly in conceptual
design phase and dimensioning and that structural fire safety is ensured by selection of
passive fire protection for slender elements adequate in persistent design situation is often
unreliable and not economical.
Connected publications: [BT8], [BT10], [BT11], [BT14]
10.4. Thesis IV.
In this research, I investigated the optimal seismic design of steel tapered portal frame
structures. I calculated target reliability indices using the presented reliability analysis framework
and I performed a parametric study for a reference tapered storage hall structure with the help of
developed structural optimization framework in order to derive new and valuable design concepts.
IV/a. I presented target reliability indices for the reference structure considering two sites
characterized with moderate and high seismicity (Komárom and Râmnicu Sărat,
respectively), three different consequence classes and both elastic and dissipative design. I
showed that Eurocode 8 conforming dissipative design leads significantly higher structural
reliability compared to elastic design even in the case of a single storey steel tapered portal
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
101
frame structure. For structures similar to the reference building β=2.0 – 3.5 seems to be
economical and optimal for most of the practical cases notwithstanding that it is lower than
the required level in Eurocode 0.
IV/b. I pointed out the problem that Eurocode 0 does not differentiate groups according to the
relative cost of safety measures, in this way, it recommends the same target reliability for
persistent and seismic design situations. However, the calculated reliability indices for
seismic effects are lower than the suggested values in Eurocode 0; they are closer to the
recommendations of Joint Committee of Structural Safety and ISO 2394 standard. Different
target safety levels need to be developed for seismic effects in Eurocode 0.
IV/c. I investigated the effect of sheeting system on the global structural safety of reference
structure. I showed that although the sheeting system increases the structural rigidity and
the intensity of seismic forces acting on the structure but it helps to distribute the horizontal
forces among the frames and to transfer the forces to the ground in contribution with the
bracing elements (the bending moments in the structure may be decreased by cca. 5-25%).
On the whole it has a beneficial effect on the structural safety and the cost of industrial
frames with similar function size and configuration to the investigated frame (3% to 16%
savings in superstructure’s cost and 1% to 13% in life cycle costs considering the results of
optimized structures).
IV/d. Regarding to optimal seismic design of single storey steel tapered portal frame structures
I showed that even though elastic design is applied it is favourable to provide ductile
behaviour for the structure because plastic failure modes lead significantly higher structural
reliability under seismic excitation. It may be also favourable and result cheaper and more
reliable structure to model the sheeting system and to consider its rigidity in seismic design
situation if the sheeting panels and the connections of sheeting system are verified against
seismic forces.
Connected publications: [BT9], [BT10], [BT12]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
102
References
Publications of the author related to the theses
[BT1] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2012) Genetic Algorithm based optimization of regular steel
building structures subjected to seismic effects. In Proc. 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 4975, Lisbon, Portugal.
[BT2] Balogh T. (2013) Adjustment of genetic algorithm parameters for building structure
optimization. In Proc. Second Conference of Junior Researchers in Civil Engineering. June 17-18, 2013, Budapest, Hungary.
[BT3] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2013) Cost Optimization of Concentric Braced Steel Building
Structures. WORLD ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY: INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE INDEX 78, International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering, 7(6), 469 - 478.
[BT4] Balogh T., D’Aniello M., Vigh L. G. and Landolfo R. (2014) Performance Based Design
Optimization of Steel Concentric Braced Structures. In Proc. the 7th European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, Eurosteel 2014. September 10-12, 2014, Naples, Italy.
[BT5] Zsarnóczay Á., Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2014) Design of frames with Buckling Restrained
Braces – FEMA P695 based evaluation of an Eurocode 8 conforming design procedure. In Proc. the 7th European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, Eurosteel 2014. September 10-12, 2014, Naples, Italy.
[BT6] Vigh L. G., Balogh T., Zsarnóczay Á. and Castro J. M. (2015) Eurocode 8 Part 1 – research report. Prepared for ECCS Technical Committee TC13 – Seismic Design and CEN SC8/WG2 Committee.
[BT7] Zsarnóczay Á., Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015) On the European Norms of design of
Buckling Restrained Braced Frames – European Norms of design of BRBF. The Open Civil Engineering Journal, Bentham Science Publisher. 11, pp. 3-15. ISSN 1874-1495
[BT8] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015a) Optimal design of tapered steel portal frame structures subjected to fire effects (in Hungarian). MAGESZ Steel Structures, 1st special issue, 84-94.
[BT9] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015b) Optimal design of tapered steel portal frame structures subjected to seismic effects (in Hungarian). MAGESZ Steel Structures, 1st special issue, 95-106.
[BT10] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015c) The calculation of structural reliability of portal frame
structures with First Order Reliability Method. In Proc. of 12th Hungarian Conference on Mechanics (XII. MAMEK), Miskolc, Hungary.
[BT11] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015d) Optimum reliability of a steel tapered portal frame
structure exposed to fire. In Proc. ASFE 2015 International Conference in Dubrovnik, 15-16 October 2015, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
[BT12] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2015e) Seismic reliability based optimization of steel portal frame structures. In Proc. SECED 2015: Earthquake Risk and Engineering towards a Resilient World Conference. July 9-10, 2015, Cambridge, UK.
[BT13] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2016a) Complex and comprehensive method for reliability
calculation of structures under fire exposure. Fire Safety Journal. 86. p. 41-52. [BT14] Balogh T. and Vigh L. G. (2016b) Optimal fire design of steel tapered portal frames.
Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering. Accepted, Online First, p. 8985.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
103
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Appendix A – Parametric study tables and results
#
Demand (resistance)
cs [€/kg]
see Eq. (4)
cp
[€/ (mm·m2)] see Eq. (5)
C2 [€/m2]
see Eq.(3)
Active safety measure
Cf
[m €] see Eq. (3)
Fire curve
Equipment [kN/m2]
A –
ref
eren
ce c
ase
gro
up
1 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.2
2 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.2
3 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.2
4 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.2
5 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.2
6 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.2
7 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.2
8 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.2
9 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.2
B
10 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.5
11 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.5
12 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.5
13 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.5
14 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.5
15 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.5
16 R30 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.5
17 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.5
18 R60 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.5
C
19 R30 2.25 - 40 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.2
20 R30 2.25 - 40 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.2
21 R30 2.25 - 40 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.2
D
22 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 30.0 1 0.2
23 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 30.0 2 0.2
24 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 30.0 3 0.2
E
25 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 0.3 1 0.2
26 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 0.3 2 0.2
27 R45 2.25 24 40 smoke detection 0.3 3 0.2
F†
28 R45 4.50 48 80 smoke detection 3.0 1 0.2
29 R45 4.50 48 80 smoke detection 3.0 2 0.2
30 R45 4.50 48 80 smoke detection 3.0 3 0.2
G
31 R45 2.25 24 - - 3.0 1 0.2
32 R45 2.25 24 - - 3.0 2 0.2
33 R45 2.25 24 - - 3.0 3 0.2
H
34 R45 2.25 24 75 sprinkler system 3.0 1 0.2
35 R45 2.25 24 75 sprinkler system 3.0 2 0.2
36 R45 2.25 24 75 sprinkler system 3.0 3 0.2 R30, R45 and R60 refer to 30, 45 and 60 minutes time demand, respectively; m EUR refers to million euros. †A fix cost component, namely the cost of sheeting and bracings, Csh, is generally set to 25 €/m2, however, in case of group F Csh is set to 50 €/m2
Table A-1 – Investigated fire design cases within parametric study
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
110
# hc1 - hc2 x tw,c* +
bc x tf,c
hb1 - hb2 x tw,b* +
bb x tf,b t p,c
1
t p,c
2
t p,b
2
t p,b
1
t p,c D/C
[%] βopt
0.4 β
0.9 C0 C1 C2
CLC
††
1 215-630x6+190x11 210-765x6+155x10 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 100 3.15 3.32 56.4 4.2 27.4 90.5
2 260-555x8+185x12 245-625x9+150x11 0.7 0.9 1.3 0.6 0.2 99 2.97 3.12 59.3 5.9 27.4 97.1
3 235-645x6+165x14 225-560x8+165x12 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.5 99 2.82 2.84 59.1 1.3 27.4 95.0
4 225-690x6+190x10 220-725x6+170x9 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.0 99 3.27 3.44 56.3 2.8 27.4 88.1
5 205-635x6+180x12 215-645x6+175x10 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.3 99 3.02 3.19 57.1 5.5 27.4 93.8
6†
7 220-685x6+200x9 225-760x6+180x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 3.45 3.51 55.8 0.0 27.4 84.1
8 190-650x6+195x10 235-775x6+175x8 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.0 100 3.21 3.38 55.9 3.1 27.4 88.4
9 165-575x6+195x12 230-635x6+175x10 0.5 0.5 1.3 0.4 0.0 100 3.11 3.28 57.3 4.9 27.4 92.4
10 130-720x6+195x11 285-730x6+170x10 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 100 3.04 3.21 57.7 4.3 27.4 93.0
11 130-750x6+180x12 330-550x8+165x12 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.2 100 2.85 2.94 60.1 4.5 27.4 98.5
12 150-755x6+165x14 300-560x8+155x13 0.1 0.2 1.0 0.1 0.4 100 2.82 2.83 60.2 2.9 27.4 97.7
13 180-735x6+180x12 340-685x6+175x10 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.0 100 3.28 3.38 58.5 3.1 27.4 90.6
14 145-820x6+185x11 235-710x6+165x11 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.2 100 2.92 3.06 57.8 5.0 27.4 95.4
15 205-760x6+190x11 340-490x7+185x12 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 100 2.82 2.82 60.4 0.7 27.4 95.7
16 160-805x6+200x9 250-800x6+185x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 3.41 3.57 56.5 0.0 27.4 84.8
17 115-745x6+200x10 270-735x6+170x10 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.0 100 3.16 3.33 57.3 3.4 27.4 90.5
18 120-740x6+185x12 315-640x6+175x11 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.1 99 2.95 3.11 58.8 4.2 27.4 95.1
19†
20 175-705x6+185x10 210-715x6+185x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 2.82 2.87 55.8 0.0 27.4 90.4
21 195-650x6+215x9 215-710x6+185x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 3.43 3.60 55.9 0.0 27.4 84.2
22 170-535x9+170x22 200-595x12+135x20 1.4 1.7 2.3 1.3 0.6 98 3.59 3.73 66.1 10.1 27.4 104.1
23 250-540x8+200x15 215-595x10+170x13 1.1 1.5 1.9 1.2 0.4 99 3.61 3.76 62.7 9.7 27.4 100.2
24 155-745x6+210x13 235-765x8+175x11 0.6 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.4 89 3.70 3.82 60.5 5.4 27.4 93.6
25 225-555x6+195x12 240-630x6+190x9 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 2.82 2.82 57.4 0.1 27.4 92.1
26†
27 170-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 2.85 2.95 55.7 0.0 27.4 89.6
28 250-605x6+185x12 230-600x6+200x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 100 2.82 2.82 115.1 0.8 54.7 177.8
29 210-550x6+190x13 245-595x6+185x10 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 99 2.82 2.85 116.1 0.6 54.7 178.6
30 190-635x6+210x9 225-740x6+180x8 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.0 100 3.08 3.25 111.5 4.5 54.7 173.8
31 190-525x10+175x20 195-600x12+145x19 1.6 1.9 2.5 1.5 0.5 99 2.89 3.06 66.2 11.5 0.0 83.5
32 230-585x10+250x15 230-525x8+200x16 1.0 1.6 1.7 1.1 0.0 90 2.95 3.11 67.7 9.8 0.0 82.2
33 230-580x7+230x13 245-490x7+180x13 0.7 0.8 1.3 0.6 0.4 97 3.07 3.24 61.3 6.1 0.0 70.7
34 215-630x6+180x12 225-685x6+190x8 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 100 3.09 3.09 56.5 0.6 51.3 111.4
35 225-635x6+190x11 215-700x6+165x10 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 99 3.09 3.10 56.8 0.0 51.3 111.1
36 205-655x6+195x10 230-765x6+175x8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 3.12 3.22 55.9 0.0 51.3 109.9
The dimensions (hc1, bc, tf,c, etc.) are given in mm unit; C0, C1 and CLC are given in 1000€ unit. C2 is equal to 27400, 54700, 0 and 51300 € for cases #1 - #27, cases #28 - #30, cases #31 - #33 and cases #34 - #36, respectively * There is an additional constraint related to the minimum thickness of the web; the minimum considered plate thickness is 6mm in order to avoid problems related to corrosion and welding † There were numerical problems during the optimization procedure; the algorithm did not find stable solutions. †† The presented CLC values are calculated with ρ=0.4 correlation coefficients but without damage cost by moderate fire and damage cost by intervention.
Table A-2 – Optimized structural configurations in considered fire design cases
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111
# hc1 - hc2 x tw,c +
bc x tf,c hb1 - hb2 x tw,b +
bb x tf,b tp,c1 tp,c2 tp,b2 tp,b1 tp,c
β
0.4 β
0.9 C0 C1 C2
CLC
†† ΔCLC [%]†
1 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 0.54 0.58 0.61 0.58 0.6 2.97 3.12 55.7 4.2 27.4 91.8 1.4
2 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.89 3.02 55.7 10.8 27.4 99.7 2.7
3 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 2.15 2.30 2.47 2.30 2.4 2.84 2.92 55.7 16.9 27.4 106.8 12.3
4 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 0.54 0.58 0.61 0.58 0.6 3.13 3.24 55.7 4.2 27.4 89.9 2.1
5 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.01 3.18 55.7 10.8 27.4 97.8 4.3
6 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 2.15 2.30 2.47 2.30 2.4 2.89 3.02 55.7 16.9 27.4 78.4
7 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 0.54 0.58 0.61 0.58 0.6 3.52 3.67 55.7 4.2 27.4 88.0 4.6
8 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.40 3.56 55.7 10.8 27.4 94.9 7.4
9 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 2.15 2.30 2.47 2.30 2.4 3.16 3.33 55.7 16.9 27.4 102.4 10.8
10 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 0.68 0.72 0.72 0.67 0.7 2.95 3.10 56.3 5.5 27.4 93.9 1.0
11 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 1.80 1.90 1.90 1.77 1.9 2.86 2.97 56.3 14.5 27.4 104.5 6.1
12 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 2.35 2.50 2.50 2.30 2.5 2.83 2.88 56.3 18.9 27.4 109.5 12.1
13 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 0.68 0.72 0.72 0.67 0.7 3.24 3.41 56.3 5.5 27.4 91.0 0.4
14 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 1.80 1.90 1.90 1.77 1.9 2.96 3.11 56.3 14.5 27.4 102.8 7.7
15 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 2.35 2.50 2.50 2.30 2.5 2.85 2.95 56.3 18.9 27.4 109.1 14.0
16 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 0.68 0.72 0.72 0.67 0.7 3.46 3.62 56.3 5.5 27.4 90.0 6.1
17 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 1.80 1.90 1.90 1.77 1.9 3.35 3.51 56.3 14.5 27.4 99.4 9.8
18 130-855x6+210x8 230-815x6+190x8 2.35 2.50 2.50 2.30 2.5 3.08 3.25 56.3 18.9 27.4 105.7 11.1
19 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 - - - - - 2.82 2.83 55.7 0.0 27.4 90.3
20 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 - - - - - 2.82 2.87 55.7 0.0 27.4 90.3 -0.1
21 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 - - - - - 3.34 3.50 55.7 0.0 27.4 84.4 0.2
22 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.89 3.02 55.7 10.8 27.4 151.7 39.7
23 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.01 3.18 55.7 10.8 27.4 133.1 27.5
24 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.40 3.56 55.7 10.8 27.4 104.0 7.8
25 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.89 3.02 55.7 10.8 27.4 94.5 10.4
26 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.01 3.18 55.7 10.8 27.4 94.3
27 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.40 3.56 55.7 10.8 27.4 94.0 12.3
28 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.89 3.02 111.4 22.5 54.7 194.4 9.3
29 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.01 3.18 111.4 22.5 54.7 192.5 7.8
30 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.40 3.56 111.4 22.5 54.7 189.6 9.1
31 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 1.93 2.11 55.7 10.8 0.0 146.9 76.0
32 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.10 2.32 55.7 10.8 0.0 120.1 46.0
33 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 2.61 2.80 55.7 10.8 0.0 80.1 8.2
34 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.15 3.27 55.7 10.8 51.3 120.3 7.9
35 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.27 3.42 55.7 10.8 51.3 119.4 7.5
36 185-665x6+205x9 215-700x6+185x8 1.38 1.48 1.57 1.48 1.5 3.64 3.79 55.7 10.8 51.3 118.2 7.5
The dimensions (hc1, bc, tf,c, etc.) are given in mm unit; C0, C1, C2 and CLC are given in 1000€ unit. The last column shows the difference in CLC. The structures have been optimized considering only dead, equipment and meteorological loads, thus the D/C ratio of every configuration is 100% in persistent design situation. † Compared to Table A-2; positive value means that cases optimized in persistent design situation resulted higher life cycle cost. †† The presented CLC values are calculated with ρ=0.4 correlation coefficients but without damage cost by moderate fire and damage cost by intervention.
Table A-3 – Persistent design situation optimized structural configurations in fire design situation
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112
# Site
Soil type (EC8-1)
Sheeting Cf
[m €] Load case
Equipment [kN/m2]
A –
ref
eren
ce c
ase
g
rou
p
1 Komárom C - 3.0 S1 0.2
2 Komárom C - 3.0 S2 0.2
3 Komárom C - 3.0 S3 0.2
4 Râmnicu S. C - 3.0 S1 0.2
5 Râmnicu S. C - 3.0 S2 0.2
6 Râmnicu S. C - 3.0 S3 0.2
B
7 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S1 0.2
8 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S2 0.2
9 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S3 0.2
10 Râmnicu S. C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S1 0.2
11 Râmnicu S. C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S2 0.2
12 Râmnicu S. C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S3 0.2
C
13 Komárom C - 3.0 S1 1.0
14 Komárom C - 3.0 S2 1.0
15 Komárom C - 3.0 S3 1.0
D
16 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S1 1.0
17 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S2 1.0
18 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 3.0 S3 1.0
E
19 Komárom C - 30.0 S1 0.2
20 Komárom C - 30.0 S2 0.2
21 Komárom C - 30.0 S3 0.2
22 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 30.0 S1 0.2
23 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 30.0 S2 0.2
24 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 30.0 S3 0.2
F
25 Komárom C - 0.3 S1 0.2
26 Komárom C - 0.3 S2 0.2
27 Komárom C - 0.3 S3 0.2
28 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 0.3 S1 0.2
29 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 0.3 S2 0.2
30 Komárom C LTP45+Z200 0.3 S3 0.2 m EUR refers to million euros.
Table A-4 – Investigated seismic design cases within parametric study
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# hc1 - hc2 x tw,c+bc x
tf,c [mm] hb1 - hb2 x tw,b+bb x
tf,b [mm] db
[mm] βopt
D/C [%]
C0
[1000 €] C1
[1000 €] CLC
[1000 €]
1 245-570x6+245x11 180-790x6+210x14 24 2.86 75.2 50.9 1.9 59.2
2 250-535x6+280x14 215-785x6+250x18 28 2.52 62.1 57.4 2.6 77.7
3 300-800x6+320x17 430-715x7+295x19 36 2.53 41.3 65.9 4.4 87.4
4 215-465x6+250x12 260-410x6+215x15 24 2.86 81.0 51.9 1.9 60.2
5 205-640x6+310x15 215-785x8+300x19 30 2.74 48.3 62.9 3.0 75.2
6 295-750x6+295x14 210-795x7+315x20 36 2.68 47.0 63.9 4.4 79.3
7 215-450x7+195x13 305-500x6+190x13 24 2.82 90.3 49.7 1.9 58.9
8 260-400x6+265x13 255-460x6+220x14 30 2.67 76.2 52.3 3.0 66.7
9 245-495x6+280x15 260-445x7+270x17 38 2.59 57.1 58.3 4.9 77.6
10 210-415x7+185x14 270-440x6+185x14 22 3.03 96.9 49.7 1.6 55.0
11 220-400x6+210x17 235-420x6+220x16 30 2.77 73.4 53.4 3.0 64.8
12 215-580x6+285x12 185-775x6+240x16 38 2.72 57.0 54.6 4.9 69.3
13 235-425x7+280x18 195-820x6+205x19 28 2.76 75.8 57.4 2.6 68.7
14 255-620x6+320x21 360-600x6+335x22 30 2.40 49.3 71.1 3.0 98.7
15 345-750x6+350x17 335x560x6+360x23 40 2.42 47.0 72.7 5.4 101.4
16 215-450x7+230x16 190-810x6+215x19 30 2.71 87.4 55.7 3.0 68.8
17 220-490x6+265x17 275-490x6+230x20 32 2.43 75.6 58.5 3.5 84.6
18 285-505x6+315x16 280-525x6+270x19 38 2.47 67.7 61.2 4.9 86.3
19 255-770x6+335x20 410-815x7+300x20 38 3.48 35.1 68.9 4.9 81.3
20†
21 430-770x6+405x25 440-810x8+390x25 58 2.99 26.8 86.3 11.3 139.5
22†
23 240-690x7+310x20 260-800x6+345x22 44 2.84 36.6 70.9 6.5 145.1
24 310-640x6+370x19 260-775x6+375x24 52 2.84 34.2 75.9 9.1 152.7
25 240-575x6+210x9 210-480x6+190x12 20 2.58 99.6 47.6 1.3 50.4
26 265-440x6+225x11 185-720x6+165x12 20 2.22 99.6 47.6 1.3 52.9
27 265-505x6+230x11 220-590x6+200x13 26 2.19 95.9 49.6 2.3 56.2
28 265-610x6+200x9 240-570x6+170x11 20 2.60 93.5 46.8 1.3 49.5
29 250-435x6+225x10 220-400x6+220x10 22 2.27 99.7 47.6 1.6 52.7
30 280-465x6+225x10 190-610x6+215x10 26 2.18 99.3 47.7 2.3 54.4
The dimensions (hc1, bc, tf,c, etc.) are given in mm unit; C0, C1 and CLC are given in 1000€ unit. † There were numerical problems during the optimization procedure; the algorithm did not find stable solutions.
Table A-5 – Optimized structural configurations in considered seismic design cases
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Appendix B – EC design of steel frames for extreme
effects
B.1. Prescriptive seismic design
The seismic resistant design of EC8-1 is based on the structural response of structure subjected
to seismic excitation. The response and the seismic forces are mainly dependent on the ground
acceleration, the structural stiffness, the seismic mass and the structural ductility. This seismic mass
may be calculated using combination of actions for seismic design situation according to EC0 and
EC8-1 standards:
∑∑ ⋅⋅++ ikiEdjk QAG ,,2, """" ϕψ ,
where Gk, Qk and AEd represent characteristic value of dead loads, characteristic value of variable
effects and design value of seismic action, respectively. ψ2 is the so-called quasi-permanent
combination coefficient and φ considers the correlation among the storeys’ occupancy.
Fig. B-1 – Determination of internal forces
The seismic forces may be obtained with the help of different methods, namely with lateral
force method (LFM; linear static analysis), modal response spectrum analysis (MRSA; linear
dynamic analysis), pushover analysis (PA; nonlinear static analysis) or time history analysis (THA;
nonlinear dynamic analysis); depending on the regularity, the importance and the behaviour of the
investigated structure. In this section, the seismic design of the frame is illustrated with the help of
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115
MRSA since it may be the most common method applied by practicing designers. The steps of
determination of internal forces is broadly illustrated in Fig. B-1.
After calculation of seismic masses, the next step is the vibration analysis where the vibration
periods of the structure are calculated. Finite element method (FEA) is the most common way to
solve the following system of differential equations (damping is neglected) for multiple-degree-of-
freedom (MDOF) systems in order to find the vibration periods:
( ) ( ) 0KUUM =+ tt&& ,
where M, K and U are the mass matrix, the stiffness matrix and the displacement vector
respectively. The number of rows is equal to the sum of masses’ degree of freedoms. The vibration
periods are nonlinearly dependent on the structural stiffness (k) and the seismic mass (m), e.g. in
case of a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) structure:
k
mT π2= .
The design seismic forces related to the nth vibration period are the product of modal masses
(EC8-1) of nth vibration shape and design spectral acceleration read from the so-called response
spectrum EC8-1 (Fig. B-1). Based on the Hungarian National Annex of EC8-1, I considered Type
I response spectrum in this research given by the following formulae:
( )
−+=
3
252
3
2
q
,
T
TSaTS
B
gd if 0 ≤ T ≤TB,
( )q
,SaTS gd
52= if TB ≤ T ≤TC,
( )
= gC
gd a,;T
T
q
,SamaxTS 20
52 if TC ≤ T ≤TD,
( )
= gDC
gd a,;T
TT
q
,SamaxTS 20
522
if TD ≤ T.
In the equations above ag, q, S and T are the peak ground acceleration (PGA) on rock, the
behaviour factor (EC8-1), the soil factor (EC8-1) and the vibration period, respectively. The
response spectrum is linearly dependent on the peak ground acceleration that is selected with the
help of hazard curve (Section 5.2.) for a specific site.
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The next step is to perform linear static analyses in order to calculate the displacements, internal
forces, etc. from seismic forces. Calculated effects in each vibration shape may be combined with
square root of the sum- of the squares (SRSS) combination rule of EC8-1 (equation below).
Resultant seismic effects calculated from seismic excitation related to different directions may be
combined with SRSS or 30% (EC8-1) combination rules.
∑= 2i,EE EE .
In case of elastic elements (no energy dissipation is allowed via plasticity), seismic verification
may be performed according to the rules of EC3-1-1 while the adequacy of dissipative elements
may be checked according to material specific rules of EC8-1. The stability verification of beam
and column elements may be carried using the so-called General Method (GM) (EC3-1-1), where
the in-plane stability failure is considered using imperfect structural model (Fig. 4-10), while the
out-of-plane stability failure is taken into consideration with reduction factors:
( )( )
( )( ) yy
y
y fW
M
fA
N
⋅+
⋅=
x
x
x
xη ,
ηα
1=k,ult ,
111
−
+=
LTB,crFB,cr
op,cr ααα ,
op,cr
k,ultop
α
αλ = ,
( ) ( )2
201
2
201 22opopLTB
LTB
opopFB
FB
.;
. λλαΦ
λλαΦ
+−+=
+−+= ,
2222
11
opLTBLTB
LTB
opFBFB
FB ;λΦΦ
χλΦΦ
χ−+
=−+
= ,
( )LTBFBop ;min χχχ = ,
011 .op
M ≤⋅
χηγ
.
The steps of checking stability failure are presented above, where χop and αult,k are the reduction
factor taking into account the out-of-plane stability failure and the minimum load multiplier in
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
117
order to reach the characteristic resistance of the critical cross section, respectively. FB and LTB
abbreviations refer to flexural and lateral torsional buckling failure modes. αcr,op is the critical load
amplifier in order to reach the critical intensity of internal forces causing out-of-plane flexural
buckling or lateral torsional buckling, respectively. In this study, the critical bending moment for
tapered steel members is calculated using an approximation from the literature [116], the
calculation is based on an equivalent non-tapered element. The critical load amplifiers for different
stability failures are combined with Dunkerley theorem [117], that can be used as an approximate
superposition technic of critical load amplifiers related to different loading conditions. χop is
calculated as the minimum of reduction factors related both of the flexural and lateral torsional
buckling failure modes, because the interpolation is considered unsafe [118]. Both of these
reduction factors are obtained using the global relative slenderness.
As can be seen in this section, prescriptive seismic verification of steel structures according to
ENs is highly nonlinear and non-convex problem. In order to find adequate configuration that is
safe in both persistent and seismic design situations, the above described steps may be carried out
at least several times. Optimal design is even more difficult and time-consuming.
B.2. Prescriptive fire design
According to EC0, fire design of structures is performed considering accidental combination of
effects in the following form:
∑∑ ⋅+⋅++≥ 1
21111 >i
i,ki,,k,dj
j,k Q""Q""A""G ψψ ,
where ψ1 is the combination factor for variable action on frequent value (EC0), while Ad represents
the design value of indirect effects of thermal action in fire. The verification may be carried out via
member analysis, analysis of a part of the structure or analysis the whole structure. Due to the fact
that analysis of a part of the structure or analysis of the whole structure require complex imperfect
models, nonlinear analysis and better characterization of fire effect, member analysis based on
prescriptive rules is the most common fire design method among structural engineers. For this
reason, main steps (Fig. B-2a) of prescriptive fire design according to ENs is presented based on
member analysis.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
118
a)
b) Fig. B-2 – a) Main steps of prescriptive fire design based on member analysis; b) reduction factors related to
strength and stiffness of steel material (EC3-1-2)
As a first step and as the basis of the calculation of structural temperatures, the gas temperatures
in the compartment need to be calculated. EC1-1-2 standard gives nominal temperature curves to
represent the temperatures in the fire compartment. Mostly the so-called standard temperature-time
curve (Fig. B-2a) is used:
( )1834520 10 ++= tloggθ ,
where t is the time in minutes. The steel temperature for protected and unprotected section can be
calculated with incremental, time step formulae from EC3-1-2 standard. In case of protected
sections, the steel temperature may be evaluated as follows:
( )( ) ( ), , 1 10
, ,11 3
p p g t s t
s t g t
p s s
A Vt e
d c
ϕλ θ θ
θ θρ ϕ
−−∆ = ∆ − − ∆
+ p p
p p
s s
cd A V
c
ρϕ
ρ= ,
where t, λp, dp, cp, ρp, cs, ρs and Ap/V are the time, thermal conductivity, thickness, specific heat,
unit mass of insulation material, specific heat, unit mass of protected steel and section factor of the
protected section, respectively. Δθg,t and Δθs,t stand for the gas and steel temperature at time step t,
respectively. According to Hungarian fire safety regulation [71], the safety of the structure need to
be confirmed within a time interval, thus steel temperature need to be evaluated considering 15,
30, 60, etc. minutes exposition in fire. Knowing the maximum steel temperature within the
examined time interval is essential since significant reduction in strength and stiffness of steel
material need to be considered according to EC3-1-2 (Fig. B-2b) on elevated temperatures.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
119
For example, the stability verification of uniform beam or column elements subjected to
bending and compression may be carried using member analysis based on the rules of EC3-1-2. In
case of member analysis, the internal forces in the element may be determined for t=0 time without
considering thermal elongation during the linear structural analysis. The boundary conditions may
also be considered unchanged (EC3-1-2).
1≤++
fi,M
y
,yz
Ed,fi,zz
fi,M
y
,yy
Ed,fi,yy
fi,M
y
,yfimin,
Ed,fi
fkW
Mk
fkW
Mk
fAk
N
γγγχ θθθ
,
1≤++
fi,M
y
,yz
Ed,fi,zz
fi,M
y
,yyfi,LT
Ed,fi,yLT
fi,M
y
,yfi,z
Ed,fi
fkW
Mk
fkW
Mk
fAk
N
γγχ
γχ θθθ
,
θ
θθ λλ
,E
,y
k
k= ,
2
1 2θθ
θ
λλαΦ
++= ,
22
1
θθθ λΦΦχ
−+=fi
,
where ky,θ and kE,θ are the reduction factors related to yield strength and Young’s modulus, while
ky, kz and kLT are interaction coefficients considering the interaction between flexural buckling and
lateral torsional buckling failure modes (EC3-1-2). The calculation of relative slenderness is based
on the value of relative slenderness on normal temperature, however, different buckling length may
be considered.
The fact that the steel temperature is dependent on steel section dimensions and material
properties are sensitive to the steel temperature makes the design highly iterative and nonlinear.
This complexity is increased by nonlinearity of verification procedure. Similarly to seismic design,
fire design of steel structures is iterative, non-convex and time-consuming.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
120
Appendix C – Evaluation of limit state function in
case of fire design
Determination of gas temperatures in the compartment (fire curve)
Fig. C-1 – Fire curve (compartment gas temperature as a function of the time)
Determination of steel temperatures in every time step
Fig. C-2 – Calculation of steel temperatures
The steel temperatures related to each cross section are determined with taking into
consideration of steel temperature uncertainty factor (Section 4.6).
( )( ) ( ), , 1 10
, ,11 3
p p g t s t
s t g t
p s s
A Vt e
d c
ϕλ θ θ
θ θρ ϕ
−−∆ = ∆ − − ∆
+
p p
p p
s s
cd A V
c
ρϕ
ρ=
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
121
Determination of internal forces in every time step
Fig. C-3 – Calculation of internal forces
The internal forces are calculated with OpenSeesThermal FE software in every time step. Since
the analysis considers the steel temperatures, thermal extension and the degradation of steel
material’s properties, the calculated internal forces vary in time.
Resistance time related to stability failure of column and beam elements
y,yy
y
y,y fkW
M
fkA
N
⋅⋅+
⋅⋅=
θθ
η
ηα θ
1=,k,ult
111
−
+=
θθθ αα
α,LTB,cr,FB,cr
,op,cr
θ
θθ
αα
λ,op,cr
,k,ult,op =
2
1
2
1 22θθθ
θθθθ
θ
λλαΦ
λλαΦ ,op,op
,LTB
,op,op
,FB ;++
=++
=
2222
11
θθθθθθ λΦΦχ
λΦΦχ
,op,LTB,LTB
fi,LTB
,op,FB,FB
fi,FB ;−+
=−+
=
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
122
( )fi,LTBfi,FBfi,op
;min χχχ =
01.fi,op
=χη
→ [ ]mint ,R 1
The D/C ratio related to the stability failure of beams and columns is evaluated in every time
step. Where D/C ratio exceeds 1.0, the current time step is considered the resistance time. Every
beam and column is characterized with different resistance time, the minimum of these values is
selected.
Resistance time related to shear web buckling failure of columns and beams
3
thfkV
wy,yfi,w
fi,R,bw,z
⋅⋅⋅⋅= θχ
τ
θε
λkt.
hw,w
⋅⋅⋅=
437 →
fi,wχ
yf.
235850=ε
01.V
V
fi,R,bw,z
= → [ ]mint ,R 2
The D/C ratio related to the shear web buckling failure of beams and columns is evaluated in
every time step. Where D/C ratio exceeds 1.0, the current time step is considered the resistance
time. Every beam and column is characterized with different resistance time, the minimum of these
values is selected.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
123
Resistance time related to strength failure of connections
Fig. C-4 – The properties of the connections [73]
0.1,,
=fiRy
y
M
M → [ ]mint ,R 3
The D/C ratio related to the strength failure of connections is evaluated in every time step.
Where D/C ratio exceeds 1.0, the current time step is considered the resistance time. Every
connection is characterized with different resistance time, the minimum of these values is selected.
Resistance time related to plastic sway mechanism
Fig. C-5 – Plastic sway mechanism
( )( ) ∞→tTu s → [ ]mint ,R 4
Value of limit state function
[ ] ( )4321 ,R,R,R,RR t;t;t;tminmint =
RtG
301−= is the value of limit state function in case of R30 demand level.
0 0.�� 0.�� 0.�� 0.�� 0.� 0.��0
0.�
1
1.�
2
2.�
3
3.�
4x 10
8
φ [rad]
M� N��
]
Colmn a�� onn. T��0°C
Colmn a�� onn. T��00°C
Colmn-�a� onn. T��0°C
Colmn-�a� onn. T��00°C
Ridg� onn� e�on T��0°C
Ridg� onn� e�on T��00°C
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
124
Appendix D – Evaluation of limit state function in
case of seismic design
Vibration analysis
Fig. D-1 – Vibration analysis
Vibration analysis considering both principal directions is performed in OpenSess FE
environment. Seismic masses are determined according to the regulations of EC0 standard in
seismic load combination.
Seismic analysis in transversal direction
Fig. D-2 – Determination of design spectral accelerations
In transversal direction, the structure is very sensitive to stability failure modes thus
considerably seismic energy cannot be absorbed. For this reason, linear structural analysis is
performed in transversal direction. The seismic forces are determined as the product of design
spectral acceleration (Fig. D-2) and the seismic mass. According to EC8-1, q=1.5 behaviour factor
is applied considering some energy dissipation due to e.g. stir of the connections. Internal forces
and deformations are calculated in linear static analysis using OpenSees FE environment.
Sa
T
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
125
Fig. D-3 – Calculation of internal forces and displacements based on linear static analysis in OpenSees
Seismic analysis in longitudinal direction
Fig. D-4 – Calculation of target displacement
In case of dissipative design, the global response of the structure is calculated by geometrical
and material non-linear static analysis (pushover analysis) in OpenSeses and the seismic
verification is completed at the target displacement level (Fig. D-4). Seismic forces are distributed
among the nodes proportionally to the first vibration shape and to the distribution of seismic
masses.
Combination of seismic analysis results
Internal forces, displacements and deformations calculated in different directions are combined
with square root of the sum- of the squares (SRSS) combination rule of EC8-1:
22y,Ex,EE EEE +=
Check stability failure of column and beam elements
( )( )
( )( ) yy
y
y fW
M
fA
N
⋅+
⋅=
x
x
x
xη ,
ηα
1=k,ult
,
u [mm]
F [kN]
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
126
111
−
+=
LTB,crFB,cr
op,cr ααα ,
op,cr
k,ultop
α
αλ = ,
( ) ( )2
201
2
201 22opopLTB
LTB
opopFB
FB
.;
. λλαΦ
λλαΦ
+−+=
+−+= ,
2222
11
opLTBLTB
LTB
opFBFB
FB ;λΦΦ
χλΦΦ
χ−+
=−+
= ,
( )LTBFBop ;min χχχ = ,
op
CDχη
=1
The D/C ratio is evaluated related to the stability failure of every beam and column of the
structure. The highest value is selected and compared to the D/C ratios related to other failure
modes.
Check shear web buckling failure of column and beam elements
3
thfV
wyw
R,bw,z
⋅⋅⋅=χ
τελ
kt.
hww
⋅⋅⋅=
437 → wχ
R,bw,zV
VCD =2
The D/C ratio is evaluated related to the shear web buckling failure of every beam and column
of the structure. The highest value is selected and compared to the D/C ratios related to other failure
modes.
Check strength failure of connections
R,y
y
M
MCD =3
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
127
The resistance of connections is selected based on [73]. The highest D/C ratio is selected and
compared to the D/C ratios related to other failure modes.
Check strength failure of tension-only wind bracing
yfA
NCD
⋅=4
Tension-only wind bracing elements are checked in terms of tension load bearing capacity
assuming full strength connections. Every bracing element is subjected to different tension force;
the highest D/C ratio is selected and compared to the D/C ratios related to other failure modes.
Deformation check of plastic hinges in the side bracings
According to FEMA-356, the deformation limit for brace in compression is 4Δc (Δc – axial
deformation at expected buckling load), while for brace in tension is 7Δy (Δy – axial deformation at
expected tensile yielding load). D/C5 ratio is calculated as the ratio of calculated deformations in
the elements and the deformation limits; the highest D/C ratio is selected and compared to the D/C
ratios related to other failure modes.
Value of limit state function
( )54321 CD;CD;CD;CD;CDmaxCD =
CDG −= 1 is the value of limit state function.
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
128
Appendix E – Fire optimization framework
Start
Initialization
yes
noi < niter
Crossover
Mutation
i=i+1
Selection
Replacement
Maximum number of iteration reached
Print the results
Objective function evaluation, penalization
Ranking
Objective function evaluation, penalization
Ranking
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )
444444444 3444444444 21444 3444 21xx
xxxx
R
erventionintignitionfignitionfff
C
LCPC.PC.PCCCCC +⋅+⋅+⋅+++= 050010210
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )x
x
xxxxx
ii
ii
i
iULSSLSLCgggC
ηη
ηη
η <
≤
=⋅⋅lim,
lim,
2
1;min!
Objective function evaluation, penalization
( ) j,tctlAnC j,p
n
j
pj,pjjf
e
∀∈⋅⋅⋅= ∑=
xx1
1
( )2
01 1
, , , , ,4
p bn n
if i i i s i s sh i i i i i
i i
dC n b t l c l c C b t l d l i
πρ ρ
= =
⋅= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + ∈ ∀∑ ∑x x
Reliability analysis (FORM)
Bayesian probabilisticnetwork
Limit state function
9.510
10.511
11.512
12.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
40
0.5
1
1.5
2X1X
( ) 0=XG
( ) 0<XG
( ) 0>XG
( )failureP X
ignitionP
Event tree analysis
fla sh overP
( ),S fai lure flashoverP X
Thermal and mechanical analysis of complex model
T [C°]
t [min]
( )( )
01, <−=X
XRt
ttG
Evaluation of failure probability
( ) flashoverflashoverf,Sfailure PPP ⋅= X
Definition of discrete and random variables
Distribution, parameters, correlation
Design point
i
iii
Xu
σµ−
=
Normal tail approximation
'UTU =
( ) ( )UGUG ∇
( ) ( )
( )2
1
1
∂∂
∂∂−
=
∑
∑
=
=
n
i
ii
n
i
iii
x
UG
ux
UGUG
σ
σ
β
( )
( )2
1
∂∂
∂∂
=
∑=
n
i
ii
ii
i
x
UG
x
UG
σ
σα
iii*iX σβαµ +=
Convergence?yes
no
failureP
( )( ) 0
21
=
=
UG
UUmin!Tβ
HLRF iteration
IgnitionActivesafety
measure
Flashover
1,flashoverP
Active p.
Ignition T F
F 0 1
T 0.99 0.01
Ignition
T F
P ignition 1-Pignition
Flashover
Active p. Ignition T F
F F 0 1
F T 1 0
T F 0 1
T T PFL|A 1 - PFL|A
Ignition
1.0·10-5
fire/m2/year
4.5·10-6
6.5·10-6
Fire stoppedby occupants
yes - 0.45
no - 0.65
5.53·10-6
0.98·10-6
yes - 0.85
no - 0.15
Fire stopped byfire brigade
50,flashoverP
fire/m2/year
fire/year
Event tree analysis and Bayesian probabilistic network
T [C°]
t [min]
u [mm]
T [C°]
( )xcrM
( )xz,crN
op,crαop,cr
k,ultop
αα
λ = ( )LTzop ,min χχχ =
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
yyy
y
yyfTkW
M
fTkA
N,T
⋅⋅+
⋅⋅=
θθ
η,,
x
x
x
xx opχ
η
k,ultα
t [min]tR
01.
Fire resistance
( )( )X
XRt
ttG −=1,
1
5 frames are exposed to fire
( ) ( ) ( )flashoverswflashoverfswflashoverwflashoverfwf
PPPPPPP ⋅⋅+⋅⋅=++ xxx
( ) ( )( )ρβ,P mf,Sf,S ΦΦΦβ −−=−≅ −− 111
=
=
1
1
1
1
321
3
221
112
2
1
nnn
n
n
n
f,n
f,
f,
......
...
...
;...
ρρρ
ρρρ
ρρ
β
β
β
ρβ
Reliability analysis – failure probability of single frame
System reliability
Evaluation of the limit state function
Appendix E –Fire optimization framework
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
129
Appendix F – Seismic optimization framework
Start
Initialization
yes
noi < niter
Crossover
Mutation
i=i+1
Selection
Replacement
Maximum number of iteration reached
Print the results
Objective function evaluation, penalization
Ranking
Objective function evaluation, penalization
Ranking
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )x
x
xxxxx
ii
ii
i
iULSSLSLCgggC
ηη
ηη
η <
≤
=⋅⋅lim,
lim,
2
1;min!
Objective function evaluation, penalization
Evaluation of the failure probability
Appendix F – Seismic optimization framework
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )( )434214434421
xx
xxxx
R
ff
C
LC PCCCC ⋅++= 10
( ) iltbCcltbnC iiish
n
i
siiif
p
∀∈+⋅⋅⋅⋅= ∑=
,,,1
0 xx ρ
( ) ildcld
C ii
n
i
bi
ib
∀∈⋅⋅⋅⋅
=∑=
,,41
2
1 xx ρπ
Definition of discrete and random variables
Distribution, parameters, correlation
Design point
i
iii
Xu
σµ−
=
Normal tail approximation
'UTU =
( ) ( )UGUG ∇
( ) ( )
( )2
1
1
∂
∂
∂∂
−
=
∑
∑
=
=
n
i
ii
n
i
iii
x
UG
ux
UGUG
σ
σ
β
( )
( )2
1
∂
∂
∂∂
=
∑=
n
i
ii
ii
i
x
UG
x
UG
σ
σα
iii*iX σβαµ +=
Convergence?yes
no
failureP
( )( ) 0
21
=
=
UG
UUmin! Tβ
HLRF iteration
Reliability Analysis
9.510
10.511
11.512
12.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
40
0.5
1
1.5
2X1X
( ) 0=XG
( ) 0<XG
( ) 0>XG
Seismic Hazard Analysis
Limit state function
Sa·m, V[kN]
Sd, d[mm]
Sa
T
d [mm]
F [kN]
1. Linear analysis in transversal direction 2. Nonlinear analysis in longitudinal direction
( )xcr
M
( )xz,cr
N
op,crαop,cr
k,ultop
α
αλ = ( )
LTzop ,min χχχ =
k,ultα
( ) 01 <−=op
gχη
x
( )( )
( )( ) yy
y
y fW
M
fA
N
⋅+
⋅=
x
x
x
xη3. Combination of seismic analyses’ results
4. Calculation of limit state function value
εσ ,,,,,2
,
2
, dMVNEEE yExEE ⇒+=( ) 01 <−=
op
Gχη
x
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
130
Appendix G – New scientific results in Hungarian
G 1. I. Tézis
Dolgozatomban megoldottam két nagymértékben nemlineáris és nem konvex
szerkezetoptimálási problémát, változó keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek megbízhatósági
alapú optimálását tűz-, illetve szeizmikus hatásokra. Kidolgoztam és verifikáltam egy
megbízhatóság alapú heurisztikus optimáló keretrendszert a szerkezetoptimálás végrehajtására.
I/a. Összekötöttem egy genetikus algoritmus alapú optimáló algoritmust egy fejlett
megbízhatósági analízis keretrendszerrel, amely elsőrendű megbízhatósági analízisen
alapul. Az elsőrendű megbízhatósági analízis alkalmazása csökkenti a számítási igényt és
így növeli az optimáló keretrendszer hatékonyságát. Korábbi kutatásokkal összehasonlítva
a szerkezet megbízhatóságát pontosabban tudtam meghatározni a fejlett analízis és
kiértékelő módszereknek, összetett szerkezeti rendszer analízisének (nem különálló elemek
analízise), nemlineáris analízisnek imperfekt modellen és az Eurocode 3 szabvány általános
stabilitásvizsgálati eljárásának köszönhetően.
I/b. Vizsgáltam az általam kifejlesztett szerkezetoptimáló keretrendszer konvergenciáját és
stabilitását érzékenységi vizsgálat keretein belül. Megmutattam, hogy a kifejlesztett
algoritmus stabil és mérnöki szempontból megfelelő pontossággal rendelkezik.
Bemutattam, hogy az általam kifejlesztett optimáló keretrendszer alkalmas optimális
megoldások meghatározására tűz-, illetve szeizmikus hatásoknak kitett acél portálkereteket
esetében.
Kapcsolódó publikációk: [BT1], [BT2], [BT3], [BT4]
G 2. II. Tézis
A disszertációmban bemutattam egy átfogó és hatékony módszertant komplex szerkezetek
tűzhatás alatti megbízhatóságának kiértékelésére. Alkalmazását változó keresztmetszetű keretek
megbízhatóságának kiértékelésére mutattam be.
II/a. Kidolgoztam egy átfogó módszertant a határállapot függvény kiértékelésére tűzhatás
esetén, amely az egész szerkezet viselkedését figyelembe veszi a szerkezet nemlineáris
analízisének beépítésén keresztül, továbbá lehetővé teszi bármely típusú és lefutású
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
131
tűzgörbe alkalmazását, illetve amelyben a határállapot függvény idő alapon van felírva. A
módszertan újszerűségét az adja korábbi vizsgálatokhoz képest, hogy a felsorolt előnyöket
egyszerre nyújtja komplex szerkezetek vizsgálata során.
II/b. A számított tönkremeneteli valószínűségeket és az algoritmus stabilitását Monte Carlo
megbízhatósági analízis eredményekkel ellenőriztem egy acél keretszerkezet esetén. Az
eredmények alapján az elsőrendű megbízhatósági analízis segítségével alacsonyabb
tönkremeneteli valószínűség adódott. A határállapot függvény lineáris közelítése
jelentősebb hibát (maximum 34%) csak alacsony és magas feltételes tönkremeneteli
valószínűségek esetén szolgáltatott, a vizsgálat szempontjából releváns tartományban a
közelítés pontosabb.
Kapcsolódó publikációk: [BT8], [BT13]
G 3. III. Tézis
Dolgozatomban vizsgáltam változó keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek optimális tervezését
tűzhatásra. A bemutatott megbízhatósági analízis keretrendszer segítségével meghatároztam
lehetséges megbízhatósági index célértékeket egy vizsgált példaszerkezetre és új tervezési
koncepciók kidolgozása céljából végrehajtottam egy paraméteres vizsgálatot egy mintaszerkezetre
a kifejlesztett optimáló keretrendszer segítségével.
III/a. Igazoltam, hogy az optimális megbízhatósági szint és az optimális konfiguráció függ az
éghető anyagok mennyiségétől és minőségétől, illetve a létesítmény funkciójától. Ennek
megfelelően összehasonlító tűzhatások (pl. ISO szabványos tűzgörbe) használata gyakran
vezethet túl konzervatív, vagy alulméretezett szerkezeti kialakításokhoz. A vizsgálatok
szerint β=2,9 – 3,5 megbízhatósági index érhető el az Eurocode 3 szabvány előíró jellegű
méretezési szabályaival és ISO szabványos tűzgörbe alkalmazásával. A problémára
megoldást jelent a tűzhatás minél pontosabb figyelembevétele a méretezés során.
III/b. Megbízhatósági index célértékeket meghatároztam három különböző intenzitású
tűzgörbére és három különböző következmény-osztályra. Megmutattam, hogy a
referenciaszerkezet esetén aktív és passzív védelmi eszközök együttes alkalmazásával
érhető el β>3,2-3,3 megbízhatósági index célérték, amely már az Eurocode 0 szabványban
megadott határértékeket is teljesíti. Rámutattam, hogy az optimális szerkezeti
megbízhatósági szintek közelebb állnak a Joint Committee of Structural Safety által javasolt
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
132
követelményszintekhez és a megbízhatósági index célértékére 2,8 és 3,7 közötti érték
veendő fel raktár jellegű acél portálkeret szerkezetek esetén a kockázat függvényében.
III/c. Rámutattam, hogy az Eurocode 0 nem különbözteti meg a hagyományos-, illetve a
tűzhatásokkal szembeni méretezés során alkalmazandó megbízhatósági célértékeket.
Tűzhatás esetében alacsonyabb célértékek adódnak, amelyek közelebb helyezkednek el a
Joint Committee of Structural Safety ajánlásban és ISO 2394 szabványban javasolt
célértékekhez. Rámutattam, hogy különböző megbízhatósági szintek definiálására van
szükség az Eurocode 0 szabványban tűzhatással szembeni tervezés esetében.
III/d. A példaszerkezet esetén rámutattam, hogy zömökebb (kisebb b/t aránnyal rendelkező:
átlagosan -10% - -20% gerinc és -20% - -40% öv esetén) szelvények hatékonyabbak
tűzhatás esetén, mivel a szerkezet rendkívül érzékeny különböző stabilitásvesztési
tönkremenetelekre. Zömök szelvények, kisebb mértékű passzív tűzvédelem alkalmazásával
jobb teljesítményt nyújtanak, mint a karcsúbb szelvények vastagabb tűzvédelemmel.
Rámutattam, hogy gyakran nem gazdaságos és nem megbízható az az elterjedt tűzhatással
szembeni méretezési gyakorlat, mely során a tűzhatást nem vesszük figyelembe a
koncepcionális tervezés és a szerkezeti elemek méreteinek megválasztása során, illetve
amikor a tűzhatással szembeni megbízhatóságot tartós tervezési helyzetre méretezett karcsú
szelvények passzív tűzvédelmével biztosítjuk.
Kapcsolódó publikációk: [BT8], [BT10], [BT11], [BT14]
G 4. IV. Tézis
Kutatásom során vizsgáltam változó keresztmetszetű acél keretszerkezetek optimális tervezését
szeizmikus hatásra. Bemutatott megbízhatósági analízis keretrendszer segítségével meghatároztam
lehetséges megbízhatósági index célértékeket egy vizsgált példaszerkezetre és új tervezési
koncepciók kidolgozása céljából végrehajtottam egy paraméteres vizsgálatot egy mintaszerkezetre
a kifejlesztett optimáló keretrendszer segítségével.
IV/a. Lehetséges megbízhatósági index célértékeket mutattam be moderált és magas
szeizmicitású területekre (Komárom és Râmnicu Sărat), három különböző következmény-
osztályra, mind rugalmas-, mind disszipatív tervezés esetén. Megmutattam, hogy acél
portálkeretek esetében is az Eurocode 8 szerinti disszipatív tervezéssel jelentősen magasabb
megbízhatósági szint érhető el, mint rugalmas tervezéssel. Rámutattam, hogy az Eurocode
Tamás Balogh – PhD Dissertation
133
8 szabályai szerint elérhető és az optimális szerkezeti megbízhatósági szintek is elmaradnak
az Eurocode 0 szabványban megkívánt szinttől és gazdaságos szerkezetkialakítás
érdekében a megbízhatósági index célértékére 2,0 és 3,5 közötti érték veendő fel egyszintes
acél portálszerkezetek esetén.
IV/b. Rámutattam, hogy az Eurocode 0 nem különbözteti meg a hagyományos-, illetve a
szeizmikus hatásokkal szembeni méretezés során alkalmazandó megbízhatósági
célértékeket. Szeizmikus hatások esetében alacsonyabb célértékek adódnak, amelyek
közelebb helyezkednek el a Joint Committee of Structural Safety ajánlásban és ISO 2394
szabványban javasolt célértékekhez. Rámutattam, hogy különböző megbízhatósági szintek
definiálására van szükség az Eurocode 0 szabványban szeizmikus hatások esetében.
IV/c. Megvizsgáltam a burkolati rendszer hatását a globális szerkezeti biztonság szempontjából.
Megmutattam, hogy a burkolati rendszer növeli a szerkezet globális merevségét és segít
elosztani a terheket a keretek között, illetve továbbítani a vízszintes erőket az alapozásra a
merevítőrendszerrel együttdolgozva. Ezáltal a burkolati rendszernek a vizsgált szerkezet
esetében kedvező hatása van a szerkezeti megbízhatóságra és a szerkezet költségére nézve
(3% - 16% megtakarítás az acélszerkezet költségében és 1% - 13% életciklus költségben az
optimált szerkezetkialakítások eredményei alapján).
IV/d. Földrengési terhekkel szembeni optimális méretezéssel kapcsolatban rámutattam, hogy
rugalmasan méretezett egyszintes acél keretszerkezetek esetén is érdemes a szerkezetet úgy
konstruálni és megtervezni, hogy lehetőséget adjunk a földrengési energia elnyelésére
koncentrált képlékenyedés révén, ugyanis ezáltal jelentősen magasabb szerkezeti
megbízhatóság érhető el. Szintén kedvező hatása lehet a szerkezet költségére és
megbízhatóságára nézve, ha modellezzük és figyelembe vesszük a burkolati rendszer
merevségét a fölrengési terhekkel szembeni méretezés során, amennyiben a burkolati
paneleket és a burkolati rendszer kapcsolatait szeizmikus hatásokból származó erőkre is
méretezzük.
Kapcsolódó publikációk: [BT9], [BT10], [BT12]