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Organizational behaviour aba8 c44

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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR UNIT-I Organisational Behaviour-definition-features of organizational behaviour-various approaches to study of Organisational Behaviour- process of behaviour model of Organisational Behaviour. UNIT-II Group dynamics- definition-types of groups- theories of group formation- problems of informal groups- group norms- types, meaning of group cohesiveness- five stages of group development. Meaning and nature of group decision making types- steps- styles- techniques-advantages and disadvantages in group decision making. UNIT-III Definition of motivation and motive- nature of motivation- importance of motivation- techniques to increase motivation- motivation and behaviour: need cause the human behaviour theories of motivation- Maslow‘s needs hierarchy theory, Alfred‘s ERG theory- Herzberg motivation rtheory. Motivational techniques. Definition of morale- factors affecting moral- cause of low morale- factors improving morale- use of attitude scale and opinion survey- meaning, definition, features and types of conflict situations- causes of conflict- conflict management preventive measures and curative measures. UNIT-IV Stress management- Meaning and definition- nature of stress- sources of stress-extra organizational and group stressors- consequences of stress- coping strategies for stress- individual approachesd and organizational approaches. UNIT-V Meaning of changes- forces-types-managing planned change-planning, assessing and implementing the change- causes of resistance to change- overcoming resistance. Meaning and definition of Organisational Development- characteristics need-benefits- limitations-steps in OD.
Transcript
Page 1: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

UNIT-I

Organisational Behaviour-definition-features of organizational behaviour-various

approaches to study of Organisational Behaviour- process of behaviour ndashmodel of

Organisational Behaviour

UNIT-II

Group dynamics- definition-types of groups- theories of group formation- problems of

informal groups- group norms- types meaning of group cohesiveness- five stages of

group development Meaning and nature of group decision making ndash types- steps- styles-

techniques-advantages and disadvantages in group decision making

UNIT-III

Definition of motivation and motive- nature of motivation- importance of motivation-

techniques to increase motivation- motivation and behaviour need cause the human

behaviour ndashtheories of motivation- Maslowlsquos needs hierarchy theory Alfredlsquos ERG

theory- Herzberg motivation rtheory Motivational techniques Definition of morale-

factors affecting moral- cause of low morale- factors improving morale- use of attitude

scale and opinion survey- meaning definition features and types of conflict situations-

causes of conflict- conflict management ndash preventive measures and curative measures

UNIT-IV

Stress management- Meaning and definition- nature of stress- sources of stress-extra

organizational and group stressors- consequences of stress- coping strategies for stress-

individual approachesd and organizational approaches

UNIT-V

Meaning of changes- forces-types-managing planned change-planning assessing and

implementing the change- causes of resistance to change- overcoming resistance

Meaning and definition of Organisational Development- characteristics ndashneed-benefits-

limitations-steps in OD

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

UNIT-I

Definition

―Organizational behavior is the study and application of knowledge about human

behavior in organizations as it relates to other system elements such as structure

technology and the external social system -Keith Devis

Nature and scope of OB

1A separate field of study and not a discipline only

OB is not based on a specific discipline It is based on multi interdisciplinary

orientation So it is better to call OB as a separate field of study

2 An interdisciplinary approach

OB is essentially an interdisciplinary approach

Because it tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines

like psychology sociology and anthropology to make them applicable and to study OB

3 An applied science

OB applies various researches to solve organizational problems which are related to

human behavior The basic difference between OB and pure science is pure science

concentrates on fundamental research and OB concentrates on applied researches

4A Normative science

OB suggests how the findings of applied science can be applied to socially accepted

organizational goals So it deals with what is accepted be individuals and society

5 A humanistic approach

OB treats people as thinking feeling human beings It is based on the belief the human

beings have desire to be independent creative and productive And if people are given

proper environment it can be fully realized by them

6 A total system approach

In socio-psychological framework man is a complex system So this systems approach

is one which integrates all the variables affecting organizational functioning concerned

with people

Scope of OB

1People

Organization consists of groups and individual And the groups may be large small

formal informal official unofficial Thy are dynamic It may change every day People

thing to set different goals and try to achieve it So the organizations exists to serve

people and not the people exist to serve the organization

2Structure

It defines the sole relationship of people in an organization Different people in an

organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others It

leads to division of labor and people perform and work to accomplish the organizational

goal Thus the structure relates to power and duties

3Technology

People cannot do their work without the assistance of tools buildings machines

processes and resources So it refers to the technology which differs based on

organizations and its nature and affects the work and working conditions in large manner

So technology brings effectiveness and at the same time restricts people in various ways

4 Social system

A single organization cannot exist also It is a part of whole There are many other

organization because one organization cannot give everything All the organizations

influence each other It affects the attitude their working conditions and above all brings

competition for resources and power

Approaches to organizational behaviour

1 Inter-disciplinary approach

It is an integration of all other social sciences and disciplines such as psychology

sociology organizational theories etc Man is studied as a whole so all disciplines

concerning man are integrated

2Human resources or supportive approach

It is just opposite to traditional approach in which the employees were driven by the

managers So this approach is developmental and facilitative which provides a climate

where a worker can develop self control responsibilities and other abilities to achieve the

organizational goal

3 Contingency approach

Certain principles are used in all circumstances otherwise different treatment is required

in different cases after analyzing the various situational variables carefully So it is called

situational approach

4System approach

Organizational is a social system There are so may variables in the system which are

inter-related and independent So the manager must think over the effects of an action on

the whole or part of the system before making a decision

5Productivity approach

It refers to the numerical value of the ratio of output to input If the ratio is higher then it

is meant that the efficiency and the effectiveness

Process of behaviour Based on the analysis of behaviour process over period of time four model of

behaviour process have been developed

1S-R model

2S-O-R model

3 S-O-B-A model

4 S-O-B-C model

1 S-R model

This model of human behaviour suggest that the behaviour is caused by certain

reasons The reasons may be internal feeling(motivation) and external environment

(stimulus) The stimulus may be heat light piece of information etc that directly affect

the activity of organism

2 S-O-R model

This model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O(organism) in the classical

S-R model The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed in the organism and

followed by a behaviour

Here O which is active is doing some functions like scanning the surrounding

monitoring its own action seeking certain conditions and avoiding others ie

maintenance function and adjustment function

3S-O-B-A model

It is acomprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and

human being But O is not active but it is mediating maintenan and adjustive function

between S and R

B refers to the behaviour It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body

movement talking facial expressions emotions sentiments and thinking

A stands for accomplishments and sonsequences When behaviour acts on the

outside world it leads to accomplishments

4S-O-B-C model

It incorporates a more complex mechanism human behaviour which modifies and

extends S-O-R model In this nmodel S stands for the situation which is more

comprehensive than the stimuli of S-O-R model O is the organism represents both

physiological and psychological being B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and

covert C stands for consequences both overt and covert

Models of Organizational Behavior 1 Autocratic 2 Custodial 3 Supportive 4

Collegial 5 System

Autocratic model

In the autocratic model the employees endured the ill treatment silently The result is

obviously insecurity and frustration which they vent out on their family and friends Such

behavior jeopardize their personal and social relationships

Custodial model

In the custodial approach the employees cease to depend on the managers but their

dependence on the organization increases This helps in retaining the employees For

example if an organization offers regular increments bonus and an attractive pension

package the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization

The Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model The term collegial refers to a

group of persons working for a common purpose It is teamgroup oriented generally

conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System

behaviour model

It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to

and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to

those external events This is useful because we design and program primarily to service

these events

The Supportive Model

The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money Good

leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization

achieve its objectives In this model managers believe that an inadequately supportive

work climate leads to resistance among the employees

Unit-II

Group

Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for

common goals and develop a shared attitude

The following are the features of the group-

a TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people With a single

individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction

b COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that she is a

part of the group and be aware of his membership If not aware there will be no

meaningful interaction

c INTERACTION - Each member should share herhis ideas with others through

communication at least occasionally

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 2: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

UNIT-I

Definition

―Organizational behavior is the study and application of knowledge about human

behavior in organizations as it relates to other system elements such as structure

technology and the external social system -Keith Devis

Nature and scope of OB

1A separate field of study and not a discipline only

OB is not based on a specific discipline It is based on multi interdisciplinary

orientation So it is better to call OB as a separate field of study

2 An interdisciplinary approach

OB is essentially an interdisciplinary approach

Because it tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines

like psychology sociology and anthropology to make them applicable and to study OB

3 An applied science

OB applies various researches to solve organizational problems which are related to

human behavior The basic difference between OB and pure science is pure science

concentrates on fundamental research and OB concentrates on applied researches

4A Normative science

OB suggests how the findings of applied science can be applied to socially accepted

organizational goals So it deals with what is accepted be individuals and society

5 A humanistic approach

OB treats people as thinking feeling human beings It is based on the belief the human

beings have desire to be independent creative and productive And if people are given

proper environment it can be fully realized by them

6 A total system approach

In socio-psychological framework man is a complex system So this systems approach

is one which integrates all the variables affecting organizational functioning concerned

with people

Scope of OB

1People

Organization consists of groups and individual And the groups may be large small

formal informal official unofficial Thy are dynamic It may change every day People

thing to set different goals and try to achieve it So the organizations exists to serve

people and not the people exist to serve the organization

2Structure

It defines the sole relationship of people in an organization Different people in an

organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others It

leads to division of labor and people perform and work to accomplish the organizational

goal Thus the structure relates to power and duties

3Technology

People cannot do their work without the assistance of tools buildings machines

processes and resources So it refers to the technology which differs based on

organizations and its nature and affects the work and working conditions in large manner

So technology brings effectiveness and at the same time restricts people in various ways

4 Social system

A single organization cannot exist also It is a part of whole There are many other

organization because one organization cannot give everything All the organizations

influence each other It affects the attitude their working conditions and above all brings

competition for resources and power

Approaches to organizational behaviour

1 Inter-disciplinary approach

It is an integration of all other social sciences and disciplines such as psychology

sociology organizational theories etc Man is studied as a whole so all disciplines

concerning man are integrated

2Human resources or supportive approach

It is just opposite to traditional approach in which the employees were driven by the

managers So this approach is developmental and facilitative which provides a climate

where a worker can develop self control responsibilities and other abilities to achieve the

organizational goal

3 Contingency approach

Certain principles are used in all circumstances otherwise different treatment is required

in different cases after analyzing the various situational variables carefully So it is called

situational approach

4System approach

Organizational is a social system There are so may variables in the system which are

inter-related and independent So the manager must think over the effects of an action on

the whole or part of the system before making a decision

5Productivity approach

It refers to the numerical value of the ratio of output to input If the ratio is higher then it

is meant that the efficiency and the effectiveness

Process of behaviour Based on the analysis of behaviour process over period of time four model of

behaviour process have been developed

1S-R model

2S-O-R model

3 S-O-B-A model

4 S-O-B-C model

1 S-R model

This model of human behaviour suggest that the behaviour is caused by certain

reasons The reasons may be internal feeling(motivation) and external environment

(stimulus) The stimulus may be heat light piece of information etc that directly affect

the activity of organism

2 S-O-R model

This model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O(organism) in the classical

S-R model The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed in the organism and

followed by a behaviour

Here O which is active is doing some functions like scanning the surrounding

monitoring its own action seeking certain conditions and avoiding others ie

maintenance function and adjustment function

3S-O-B-A model

It is acomprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and

human being But O is not active but it is mediating maintenan and adjustive function

between S and R

B refers to the behaviour It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body

movement talking facial expressions emotions sentiments and thinking

A stands for accomplishments and sonsequences When behaviour acts on the

outside world it leads to accomplishments

4S-O-B-C model

It incorporates a more complex mechanism human behaviour which modifies and

extends S-O-R model In this nmodel S stands for the situation which is more

comprehensive than the stimuli of S-O-R model O is the organism represents both

physiological and psychological being B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and

covert C stands for consequences both overt and covert

Models of Organizational Behavior 1 Autocratic 2 Custodial 3 Supportive 4

Collegial 5 System

Autocratic model

In the autocratic model the employees endured the ill treatment silently The result is

obviously insecurity and frustration which they vent out on their family and friends Such

behavior jeopardize their personal and social relationships

Custodial model

In the custodial approach the employees cease to depend on the managers but their

dependence on the organization increases This helps in retaining the employees For

example if an organization offers regular increments bonus and an attractive pension

package the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization

The Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model The term collegial refers to a

group of persons working for a common purpose It is teamgroup oriented generally

conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System

behaviour model

It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to

and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to

those external events This is useful because we design and program primarily to service

these events

The Supportive Model

The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money Good

leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization

achieve its objectives In this model managers believe that an inadequately supportive

work climate leads to resistance among the employees

Unit-II

Group

Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for

common goals and develop a shared attitude

The following are the features of the group-

a TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people With a single

individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction

b COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that she is a

part of the group and be aware of his membership If not aware there will be no

meaningful interaction

c INTERACTION - Each member should share herhis ideas with others through

communication at least occasionally

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 3: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

2Structure

It defines the sole relationship of people in an organization Different people in an

organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others It

leads to division of labor and people perform and work to accomplish the organizational

goal Thus the structure relates to power and duties

3Technology

People cannot do their work without the assistance of tools buildings machines

processes and resources So it refers to the technology which differs based on

organizations and its nature and affects the work and working conditions in large manner

So technology brings effectiveness and at the same time restricts people in various ways

4 Social system

A single organization cannot exist also It is a part of whole There are many other

organization because one organization cannot give everything All the organizations

influence each other It affects the attitude their working conditions and above all brings

competition for resources and power

Approaches to organizational behaviour

1 Inter-disciplinary approach

It is an integration of all other social sciences and disciplines such as psychology

sociology organizational theories etc Man is studied as a whole so all disciplines

concerning man are integrated

2Human resources or supportive approach

It is just opposite to traditional approach in which the employees were driven by the

managers So this approach is developmental and facilitative which provides a climate

where a worker can develop self control responsibilities and other abilities to achieve the

organizational goal

3 Contingency approach

Certain principles are used in all circumstances otherwise different treatment is required

in different cases after analyzing the various situational variables carefully So it is called

situational approach

4System approach

Organizational is a social system There are so may variables in the system which are

inter-related and independent So the manager must think over the effects of an action on

the whole or part of the system before making a decision

5Productivity approach

It refers to the numerical value of the ratio of output to input If the ratio is higher then it

is meant that the efficiency and the effectiveness

Process of behaviour Based on the analysis of behaviour process over period of time four model of

behaviour process have been developed

1S-R model

2S-O-R model

3 S-O-B-A model

4 S-O-B-C model

1 S-R model

This model of human behaviour suggest that the behaviour is caused by certain

reasons The reasons may be internal feeling(motivation) and external environment

(stimulus) The stimulus may be heat light piece of information etc that directly affect

the activity of organism

2 S-O-R model

This model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O(organism) in the classical

S-R model The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed in the organism and

followed by a behaviour

Here O which is active is doing some functions like scanning the surrounding

monitoring its own action seeking certain conditions and avoiding others ie

maintenance function and adjustment function

3S-O-B-A model

It is acomprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and

human being But O is not active but it is mediating maintenan and adjustive function

between S and R

B refers to the behaviour It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body

movement talking facial expressions emotions sentiments and thinking

A stands for accomplishments and sonsequences When behaviour acts on the

outside world it leads to accomplishments

4S-O-B-C model

It incorporates a more complex mechanism human behaviour which modifies and

extends S-O-R model In this nmodel S stands for the situation which is more

comprehensive than the stimuli of S-O-R model O is the organism represents both

physiological and psychological being B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and

covert C stands for consequences both overt and covert

Models of Organizational Behavior 1 Autocratic 2 Custodial 3 Supportive 4

Collegial 5 System

Autocratic model

In the autocratic model the employees endured the ill treatment silently The result is

obviously insecurity and frustration which they vent out on their family and friends Such

behavior jeopardize their personal and social relationships

Custodial model

In the custodial approach the employees cease to depend on the managers but their

dependence on the organization increases This helps in retaining the employees For

example if an organization offers regular increments bonus and an attractive pension

package the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization

The Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model The term collegial refers to a

group of persons working for a common purpose It is teamgroup oriented generally

conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System

behaviour model

It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to

and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to

those external events This is useful because we design and program primarily to service

these events

The Supportive Model

The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money Good

leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization

achieve its objectives In this model managers believe that an inadequately supportive

work climate leads to resistance among the employees

Unit-II

Group

Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for

common goals and develop a shared attitude

The following are the features of the group-

a TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people With a single

individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction

b COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that she is a

part of the group and be aware of his membership If not aware there will be no

meaningful interaction

c INTERACTION - Each member should share herhis ideas with others through

communication at least occasionally

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 4: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Process of behaviour Based on the analysis of behaviour process over period of time four model of

behaviour process have been developed

1S-R model

2S-O-R model

3 S-O-B-A model

4 S-O-B-C model

1 S-R model

This model of human behaviour suggest that the behaviour is caused by certain

reasons The reasons may be internal feeling(motivation) and external environment

(stimulus) The stimulus may be heat light piece of information etc that directly affect

the activity of organism

2 S-O-R model

This model of human behaviour is achieved by inserting O(organism) in the classical

S-R model The S-O-R model is based upon the stimulus processed in the organism and

followed by a behaviour

Here O which is active is doing some functions like scanning the surrounding

monitoring its own action seeking certain conditions and avoiding others ie

maintenance function and adjustment function

3S-O-B-A model

It is acomprehensive model of human behaviour which combines the S-R situation and

human being But O is not active but it is mediating maintenan and adjustive function

between S and R

B refers to the behaviour It includes both overt and covert behaviour such as body

movement talking facial expressions emotions sentiments and thinking

A stands for accomplishments and sonsequences When behaviour acts on the

outside world it leads to accomplishments

4S-O-B-C model

It incorporates a more complex mechanism human behaviour which modifies and

extends S-O-R model In this nmodel S stands for the situation which is more

comprehensive than the stimuli of S-O-R model O is the organism represents both

physiological and psychological being B stands for pattern of behaviour both overt and

covert C stands for consequences both overt and covert

Models of Organizational Behavior 1 Autocratic 2 Custodial 3 Supportive 4

Collegial 5 System

Autocratic model

In the autocratic model the employees endured the ill treatment silently The result is

obviously insecurity and frustration which they vent out on their family and friends Such

behavior jeopardize their personal and social relationships

Custodial model

In the custodial approach the employees cease to depend on the managers but their

dependence on the organization increases This helps in retaining the employees For

example if an organization offers regular increments bonus and an attractive pension

package the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization

The Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model The term collegial refers to a

group of persons working for a common purpose It is teamgroup oriented generally

conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System

behaviour model

It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to

and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to

those external events This is useful because we design and program primarily to service

these events

The Supportive Model

The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money Good

leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization

achieve its objectives In this model managers believe that an inadequately supportive

work climate leads to resistance among the employees

Unit-II

Group

Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for

common goals and develop a shared attitude

The following are the features of the group-

a TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people With a single

individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction

b COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that she is a

part of the group and be aware of his membership If not aware there will be no

meaningful interaction

c INTERACTION - Each member should share herhis ideas with others through

communication at least occasionally

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 5: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Custodial model

In the custodial approach the employees cease to depend on the managers but their

dependence on the organization increases This helps in retaining the employees For

example if an organization offers regular increments bonus and an attractive pension

package the employees are more likely to remain loyal to the organization

The Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model The term collegial refers to a

group of persons working for a common purpose It is teamgroup oriented generally

conducive for research laboratories and other innovative and creative projects System

behaviour model

It is useful to understand what the external events are that our system must respond to

and to examine the details regarding what our system is supposed to do in response to

those external events This is useful because we design and program primarily to service

these events

The Supportive Model

The supportive model is based on leadership rather than on power or money Good

leaders provide an environment for employees to grow while they help the organization

achieve its objectives In this model managers believe that an inadequately supportive

work climate leads to resistance among the employees

Unit-II

Group

Group may be defined as the aggregation of small number of people who work for

common goals and develop a shared attitude

The following are the features of the group-

a TWO OR MORE PERSONS - A group should have atleast two people With a single

individual there cannot be a meaningful interaction

b COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - Each member of the group must believe that she is a

part of the group and be aware of his membership If not aware there will be no

meaningful interaction

c INTERACTION - Each member should share herhis ideas with others through

communication at least occasionally

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 6: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

d SHARED GOAL INTEREST ndash Every group has a common objective The shared goal

interests brings the group members together

Types of Groups

1 Primary amp Secondary Groups-

A primary group has intimate face to face association amp co-operation eg family

neighbourhood groups friendship groups

A secondary group is formal may not have any interest in the problems amp pleasure of

others

2 Membership amp Reference Groups

A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs

A reference group is one with which the individual identifies The attractiveness of the

reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who

aspires for it

3 Command amp Task Groups

A command group is composed of subordinates who report directly to a common

supervisor eg a production manager amp his subordinates in his department

A task group is usually formed to solve a problem It is comprised of the employees who

work together to complete a particular task

4 In-groups amp Out-groups

In-groups are a cluster of individuals that have a dominant place in social functioning

The out-groups are marginal in the society and referred as minority groups

5 Formal amp Informal groups

Formal groups are created and maintained to fulfill specific needs related to the overall

organizational mission

a Designed by Top management for achieving organizational goals

b Concentrates more on the performance of job

c People are placed in hierarchy and their status determined accordingly

d Co-ordination of members are controlled through process procedures etc

Informal Groups are created in the organization because of social and psychological

forces operating at the workplace

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 7: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

a A natural outcome at the work place amp not designed and planned

b Organization is coordinated by group norms and not by norms of the formal

organization

c Such group associations are not specified in the blue-print of the formal organization

THIS THEORY IS VERY VISIBLE WHEN WE OBSERVE

THE Group Formation

Forming This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to

develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them

This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop Group

members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through

experimentation Other membersrsquo reactions will determine if a behavior will be

repeated This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will

be decided

Storming

During this stage of group development interpersonal conflicts arise and

differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface If the group is

unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared

goals the group may collapse at this point It is important to work through the

conflict at this time and to establish clear goals It is necessary for there to be

discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the

direction the group is to move in

Norming

Once the group resolves its conflicts it can now establish patterns of how to get

its work done Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted

by members of the group Formal and informal procedures are established in

delegating tasks responding to questions and in the process by which the group

functions Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole

operates

Performing

During this final stage of development issues related to roles expectations and

norms are no longer of major importance The group is now focused on its task

working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals The group will find

that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new

skills and sharing roles

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Groups

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 8: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

The group is an important sociological unit of analysis in the subject of organizational

behavior

Types of Groups

Simplest group is a two person group (dyad)

Small groups and primary groups Small group has the criterion of small size such that

there is face-to-face interaction and communication among all members of the group

Primary group is a small group with the additional criteria that there is a comradeship

loyalty and common sense of values among members An example of primary group is

family The work group of a person is also a primary group

All primary groups are small groups But all small groups are not primary groups

Coalition Coalition is a group of interacting individuals and is formed by members for a

specific purpose But it does not have a formal internal structure Still its members act as

a group for the specific purpose for which it is formed

Membership groups and Reference groups A person is a member in the

membership group The group in which he wants to be a member is a reference group to

him Many times persons want to display the values of their reference groups

Why Do Inviduals Form Groups

Theodore Newcombs Balance Theory According to this theory persons are attracted

to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and

goals Once the relationship is formed a balance is maintained between the attraction and

the common attitudes If an imbalance occurs there is an attempt to restore the balance

and if the balance cannot be restored the relationship dissolves

Exchange Theory of Group Formation An interaction between two or more persons

has rewards and costs Rewards from interactions gratify needs Cost is incurred due to

anxiety frustration embarrassment and fatigue

Disadvantages of informal groups

Informal organizations also possess the following potential disadvantages and problems

that require astute and careful management attention

Resistance to change

Perpetuation of values and lifestyle causes informal groups to become overly protective

of their culture and therefore resist change For example if restriction of output was the

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 9: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

norm in an autocratic management group it must continue to be so even though

management changes have brought about a more participative administration

Role conflict

The quest for informal group satisfaction may lead members away from formal

organizational objectives What is good for and desired by informal group members is not

always good for the organization Doubling the number of coffee breaks and the length of

the lunch period may be desirable for group members but costly and unprofitable for the

firm

Rumor

The grapevine dispenses truth and rumor with equal vengeance Ill-informed employees

communicate unverified and untrue information that can create a devastating effect on

employees This can undermine morale establish bad attitudes and often result in

deviant or even violent behavior

Conformity This can harm the formal organization by stifling initiative creativity and

diversity of performance In some British factories if a group member gets out of line

tools may be hidden air may be let out of tires and other group members may refuse to

talk to the deviant for days or weeks Obviously these types of actions can force a good

worker to leave the organization

Benefits of the informal organization

Although informal organizations create unique challenges and potential problems for

management they also provide a number of benefits for the formal organization

Blend with formal systemInformal relations in the organization serve to preserve the

organization from the self-destruction that would result from literal obedience to the

formal policies rules regulations and procedures No college or university could

function merely by everyone following the letter of the law with respect to written

policies and procedures

Lighten management workload

Managers are less inclined to check up on workers when they know the informal

organization is cooperating with them This encourages delegation decentralization and

greater worker support of the manager which suggests a probable improvement in

performance and overall productivity

Fill gaps in management abilities

Employees experience frustration tension and emotional problems with management

and other employees The informal group provides a means for relieving these emotional

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 10: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

and psychological pressures by allowing a person to discuss them among friends openly

and candidly In faculty lounge conversations frustrations with the dean department

head or students are blown off among empathetic colleagues

Encourage improved management practice

Perhaps a subtle benefit of informal groups is that they encourage managers to prepare

plan organize and control in a more professional fashion Managers who comprehend

the power of the informal organization recognize that it is a check and balance on their

use of authority

Understanding and Dealing with the Environmental Crisis

The The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it1984 argued

that Central media and government type Hierarchical organizations could not adequately

understand the environmental crisis we were manufacturing or how to initiate adequate

solutions

NORMS DEFINED Norms are generally the unwritten unstated rules that govern the

behavior of a group Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through social

sanctioning Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or society Norms

are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a group will refuse to abide

by the norms

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

competition

GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group cohesiveness refers to the degree of liking each group member has towards each

other and how far one wants to remain as a group member

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Cohesive group are highly motivatedThey have increased morale

ii)There are less conflicts

ii) There is more effective communication among group members in a cohesive group

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 11: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

iv)Cohesiveness may lead to higher productivity as members of a cohesive group tend to

have less degree of absenteeism and turnover and they also have comparatively less

work anxieties

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COHESIVENESS

i) Sometimes the group is so cohesive that the group members forget the realization of

ultimate goals and objectives for fear of disrupting the group itself

ii) It can also hamper productivity when performance norms are too low

CARRONS MODEL of Factors Affecting Cohesion

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

the most general and remote refer to the normative forces holding a group together

(contracts scholarships family expectations)

These influences can hold a group together although other factors such as age proximity

or eligibility requirements can also play an important role

2 PERSONAL FACTORS

refer to the individual characteristics of group members such as participation motives

Three Motives

task motivation (associated with task cohesion)

affiliation motivation (associated with social cohesion)

self-motivation (attempt to obtain personal satisfaction)

Carronlsquos Model

3 LEADERSHIP FACTORS

include leadership style and behaviors that professionals exhibit and the relationships

they establish with their groups

The role of leaders is vital to team cohesion

Specifically clear consistent unambiguous communication from coaches and captains

regarding team goals etchellip

Carronlsquos Model

4 TEAM FACTORS

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 12: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

refer to group characteristics (individual versus team sports) group productivity norms

desire for group success and team stability

The Relationship between Cohesion and Performance

Cohesion increases performance for interacting sports but decreases or shows no effect

on performance for co-acting

Co-acting Teams--archery bowling golf riflry skiing wrestling

Mixed--football baseball track

Interacting--basketball hockey soccer volleyball

DIRECTION OF CAUSALITY

whether cohesion leads to performance success or performance success leads to cohesion

Circular relationship

OTHER FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COHESION

Team Satisfaction--an individual factor (Circular)

Conformity--the more cohesive the group the more influence the group has on its

individual members

Adherence--exercise groups Those that feel good cohesion are more likely to attend

more classes arrive on time less likely to drop out more resistant to disruptions in

group more likely experience positive affect related to exercise have stronger efficacy

beliefs related to exercise

Other Factorshellip

Social Support--there is a positive relationship between the social support an individual

receives and her or his evaluations of group cohesion

Stability--refers both to the turnover rate for group membership and to how long group

members have been together

The more cohesive a group is the greater an influence it will have on individual members

to conform to the groups norms

Teams higher in cohesion can better resist disruption than teams lower in cohesion

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 13: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Teams that stay together longer tend to be more cohesive which leads to improvements

in performance

Togetherness--When group members are repetitively put in close physical proximity

feeling of cohesion increase

Common Barriers to Group Cohesion

Clash of personalities in the group

Conflict of task or social roles among members of the group

Breakdown in communication among group members or between the group leader and

members

One or more members struggling for power

Frequent turnover of group members

Disagreement on group goals and objectives

GROUP DECISION MAKING

What are the advantages of group decision making

Whether or not one would resort to group decision making in a particular scenario would

depend on whether the advantages of group decision making justify it There are

numerous advantages of group decision making

1 Diversity Varied cultures age groups gender etc all add to the diversity of group

which gives us varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up

with

2 Varied experiences There are difference in fields of experience and amount of

experience and there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences

people have had even with the same problem This pool of experience can be a great

advantage

3 Enhanced memory for facts An individual may forget a particular piece of

information but as there are a number of people involved here there is the combined

memory of all members to recollect data

4 Greater Acceptability of decisions As everyone has made some contribution to the

decision people tend to be more accepting of the decision Also those who may not have

contributed still support it as ―the group has come to this decision

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 14: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

5 Error detection When there are many people working together mistakes and errors

that may have accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by

other team members

6 collective understanding The members together come to a decision after much

deliberation and discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of

action to be followed

7 Less influence of bias Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have

to recognize and eliminate them

8 more creative solutions With so many people involved more creative and innovative

solutions to problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop

9 shared responsibility There are a number of people involved so no one person has to

shoulder the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision

10 motivational effect The group decision making may even have a motivational effect

on the team if the team is a successful one

11 simplifies complex decisions Many complex decisions can be made by the group

decision making process which an individual may not have been able to tackle

bull What are the disadvantages of group decision making

While group decision making has numerous advantages there are times when individual

members may outperform the group In fact at times what are the very advantages of

group decision making become disadvantages

1 Diversity Too much diversity or diversity when diversity is not needed can reduce

cohesiveness and affect the group decision making process

2 Time used With too many people involved more time is required to reach a decision

which reduces efficiency

3 Group think If members strive for agreement at the cost of accurate assessment of

required information the group decision making falls prey to the problem of group think

and individual performances may reflect better results This is particularly true for highly

cohesive groups

4 diffusion of responsibility As numerous people are involved no one person wants to

assume responsibility which may lead to lesser results

5 potential for conflict If the group is too large or low on cohesiveness or too diverse

and sometimes even if none of these factors are present there is the potential for conflict

which may reduce output

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 15: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

6 group polarization People sometimes tend to make more extreme or radical decisions

in a group than individually This is an advantage so far as it offers new solutions but

extreme solutions may present more problems than anticipated

7 cost to organizations The cost in terms of time money and resources is high where

group decision making is involved which may not always be viable

8 competition If individual performance is also rewarded in groups in a manner that is

not motivational group decision making may inadvertently lead to competition among

individual members

9 lack of objective direction In a group without a leader there may be a lack of

direction and the decisions

Motivation

Need hierarchy theory

Main article Maslows hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslows theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation

The theory can be summarized as follows

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior Only

unsatisfied needs influence behavior satisfied needs do not

Since needs are many they are arranged in order of importance from the basic to

the complex

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at

least minimally satisfied

The further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality humanness and

psychological health a person will show

The needs listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as

follows

Physiology (hunger thirst sleep etc)

SafetySecurityShelterHealth

BelongingnessLoveFriendship

Self-esteemRecognitionAchievement

Self actualization

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 16: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Frederick Herzbergs two-factor theory aka intrinsicextrinsic motivation concludes

that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction but if absent they dont lead

to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction[7]

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime but respect for me as a

person is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life

He distinguished between

Motivators (eg challenging work recognition responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction and

Hygiene factors (eg status job security salary and fringe benefits) that do not

motivate if present but if absent result in demotivation

The name Hygiene factors is used because like hygiene the presence will not make you

healthier but absence can cause health deteriorationThe theory is sometimes called the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory andor The Dual Structure Theory

Alderfers ERG theory

ERG theory (existence category The growth category contains our self-actualization

and self-esteem needs Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs mdash

existence relatedness and growth hence the label ERG theory The existence group is

concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements Finally Alderfer

isolates growth needs an intrinsic desire for personal development These include the

intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included

under self-actualization

There are two kinds of motivation

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure they think it is important or

they feel that what they are learning is significant It has been shown that intrinsic

motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be

ascertained[17]

Also in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing

material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the

intrinsic motivation of these students[18]

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do

something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like

money or good grades)

satisfaction

employee recognition

employee motivation

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 17: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

human resources definitions

managing employees

Employee Morale

Definition

Employee morale describes the overall outlook attitude satisfaction and confidence that

employees feel at work When employees are positive about their work environment and

believe that they can meet their most important needs at work employee morale is

positive or high If employees are negative and unhappy about their workplace and feel

unappreciated and as if they cannot satisfy their goals and needs employee morale is

negative or low

Improve Employee Morale

treating employees with respect

providing regular employee recognition

empowering employees

offering open and regular communication about factors important to employees

providing feedback and coaching

offering above industry-average benefits and compensation

providing employee perks and company activities and

positively managing employees within a success framework of goals

measurements and clear expectations

Importance of Employee Morale

Employee Morale plays vital role in the origination success High Morale leads to success

and low Morale brings to defeat in its wake The plays of Morale is no less important for

an industrial undertaking The success of failure of the industry much depends up on the

Morale of its employees

Types of Morale

I High Morale

It will lead to enthusiasm among the workers for better performance High Morale is

needed a manifestation of the employees strength dependability pride confidence and

devotion Some of the advantages of high Morale such as

1 Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization

2 Loyalty to the organization and its leadership

3 Good Leadership

4 Sound superior subordinate relations

5 High degree of employeelsquos interest in their job and organization

6 Pribe in the organization

7 Reduction in absenteeism and labour turnover

8 Reduction in grievance

9 Reduction in industrial conflict

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 18: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

10 Team building

11 Employee empowerment

II Low Morale

Low Morale indicates the presence of mental unrest The mental unrest not only hampers

production but also leads to ill health of the employees

1 High rates of absenteeism and labour turnover

2 Decreased quality

3 Decreased Productivity

4 Excessive Complaints and Grievances

5 Frustration among the workers

6 Lack of discipline

7 Increase errors accidents or injuries

FACTORS AFFECTING MORALE Employee Morale is a very complex phenomenon and is influenced by many factors on

the shop floor Several criteria seem important in the determinants of levels of workers

Morale such as

1 Objectives of the organization Employees are highly motivated and their Morale is

highly if their individual goal and objectives are in tune with organizational goal and

objectives

2 Organizational design Organization structure has an impact on the quality of labour

relation particularly on the level of Morale Large organization tend to lengthen their

channels of vertical communication and to increase the difficulty of upward

communication Therefore the Morale tends to be lower Against this flat structure

increases levels of Morale

3 Personal Factors It is relating to age training education and intelligence of the

employees time spent by them on the job and interest in worth taken by them affect the

Morale of the employees For examples if an employees is not imparted proper training

he will have low Morale

4 Rewards Employees expect adequate compensation for their services rendered to the

organization Good system of wages salaries promotions and other incentives keep the

Morale of the employees high

5 Good Leadership and Supervision The nature of supervision can tell the attitudes of

employees because a supervisor is in direct contact with the employers and can have

better influences on the activities of the employees

6 Work Environment The building and it appearance the condition of machines tools

available at work place provision for safety medical aid and repairs to machinery etc all

have an impact on their Morale

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 19: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

7 Compatibility with fellow employees Man being a social animal finds his words

more satisfying if he feels that he has the acceptance and companionship of his fellow

workers If he has confidence in his fellow worker and faith in their loyalty his Morale

will be high

8 Job Satisfaction If the job gives an employee an opportunity to prove his talents and

grow personality he will certify like it and he will have high morale

9 Opportunity to share profit one of the requirements of high morale is possibility and

opportunity of progress in any concern All worker should be given an opportunity of the

progress and earn high wages without any discrimination

MEASUREMENT OF MORALE

Morale is basically a psychological concept As such the measurement of morale is a very

difficult task to measure it directly However the following methods are more commonly

used to study employee morale

1Observation Method

Under this method evaluator observes the employees on work and records their

behaviour altitude sentiments and feelings which have developed in them The changes

in the attitude and behaviour of the employee are the indicators of high and low morale

2Attitude Surveys

In order to overcome the limitation of the above method attitude survey method is being

largely employed in modern days This method includes conducting surveys through

questionnaires and interviews This relates what the workers are looking in and what step

should be taken to improve their approach towards work

3Company Records and Reports

The records and reports relating to Labour turnover rate of absenteeism the number of

goods rejected strikes and such other things which are indicators of the level of morale

4Counseling

Under this method employees are advised to develop better mental health So that they

can imbide self confidence understanding and self control This method is used to find

out the causes of dissatisfaction and then to advice the employees by way of remedial

measures

BUILDING OF HIGH MORALE In order to achieve high morale among the employees the following suggestion may be

followed

1 Two-Way Communication- There should be a two-way communication between the management and the workers as

if exercises a profound influences on morale The workers should be kept informed about

the organization polices and programmes through conferences bulletins and informal

discussions with the workers

2 Show Concern

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 20: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Large or small every business should have names on desks work stations or cubicles to

show that a real person with worth works there not just a machine Next ask their opinion

whenever an opportunity arises rather than always telling them what to do or the way to

do it

3 Job Enrichment-

This involves a greater use of the factors which are intended to motive the worker rather

than to ensure his continuing satisfaction with the job he performs the idea is to reduce

employee discontent by changing or improving a job to ensure that he is better motivated

4 Modifying the work environment-

This involves the use of teams of work groups developing social contacts of the

employees the use of music regular rest breaks

5 Rotation of Jobs

This is also one of important techniques to increase employee morale Job rotation helps

to reduce an employees boredom

6 Incentive System

There should be a proper incentive system in the organization to ensure monetary and

non-monetary rewards of the employees to motivate them

7 Welfare Measures Management must provide for employees welfare measures like canteens credit facilities

sport clubs education for their children etchellip

8 Social Activities

Management should encourage social group activities by the workers This will help to

develop greater group cohesiveness which can be used by the management for building

high morale

9 Training There should be proper training of the employees so that they may do their work

efficiently and avoid frustration when the worker are given training they get

psychological satisfaction as they feel that management is taking interest in them

10 Workers Participation

There should be industrial democracy in the organization management should allow

workers participation in management Whenever a change to be introduced which effects

the workers they must be consulted and taken into confidence workers must be allowed to

put forward their suggestion and grievance to the top management

11 Cognitive theories

It takes but a few seconds to say Nice Job Well done Marked improvement You

re on the right road or

UNIT-III

Conflict

Nature of conflict

We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a

threat to their needs interests or concerns Within this simple definition there are

several important understandings that emerge

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 21: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Disagreement - Generally we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions

of the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict But the true disagreement versus the

perceived disagreement may be quite different from one another

Parties involved - On many occasions people who are seen as part of the social system

(eg work team family company) are influenced to participate in the dispute whether

they would personally define the situation in that way or not

Perceived threat - while perception doesnt become reality per se peoples behaviors

feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that evolving sense of the threat they

confront If we can work to understand the true threat (issues) and develop strategies

(solutions) that manage it (agreement) we are acting constructively to manage the

conflict

Needs interests or concerns - There is a tendency to narrowly define the problem as

one of substance task and near-term viability However workplace conflicts tend to be

far more complex than that for they involve ongoing relationships with complex

emotional components

Styles of conflict

Each style is a way to meet ones needs in a dispute but may impact other people in

different ways

Competing is a style in which ones own needs are advocated over the needs of

others It relies on an aggressive style of communication low regard for future

relationships and the exercise of coercive power Those using a competitive style

tend to seek control over a discussion in both substance and ground rules

Accommodating also known as smoothing is the opposite of competing

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others trying to be

diplomatic They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own

which may not ever be stated as preserving the relationship is seen as most

important

Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict Perhaps if

we dont bring it up it will blow over we say to ourselves But generally all

that happens is that feelings get pent up views go unexpressed and the conflict

festers until it becomes too big to ignore

Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a

series of tradeoffs While satisfactory compromise is generally not satisfying We

each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and dont

necessarily understand the other side very well

Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common

goal Often called win-win problem-solving collaboration requires assertive

communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either

individual could have achieved alone meaningfully

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 22: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Factors affecting conflict situation

Culture race and ethnicity Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to

hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world as well as the role of

conflict in that experience

Gender and sexualityMen and women often perceive situations somewhat

differently based on both their experiences in the world So men and women will

often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired

outcomes from the situation as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist

Knowledge (general and situational) Parties respond to given conflicts on the

basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand This includes

situation-specific knowledge (ie Do I understand what is going on here) and

general knowledge (ie Have I experienced this type of situation before or

Have I studied about similar situations before) Impressions of the

Messenger If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be

a threat (powerful scary unknown etc) this can influence our responses to the

overall situation being experienced

Previous experiences Some of us have had profound significant life

experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations These

experiences may have left us fearful lacking trust and reluctant to take risks

Causes of conflict Differing values (eg conservative vs progressive minded)

Differing perspectives (eg limited vs broad domestic vs international)

Differing ideas (creative vs mundane)

Different styles of solving organisational problems

Differing agendas (sometimes hidden ones)

Differing attitudes (rigid vs flexible)

Differing objectives and goals

Differing circumstances

How to manage conflicts in an organisation Let us simulate the situations under which the conflicts occur in an organisation

Basically there could be three situations in an organisational context

1 Conflict with the boss

2 Conflict with colleaguespeers

3 Conflict with subordinates

1 Managing conflict with the boss All of us have read the famous rule

Rule no 1 Boss is always right

Rule no 2 In case the boss is wrong see rule no 1

This is not to say that one has to be yes man all the time When ever you face a

conflict situation with your boss consider the following approaches

(i) Appreciate wider perspective The boss has wider perspective than you

therefore please consider whether there is

something you are not able to visualise that your boss has visualised

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 23: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

(ii) Do not offend his authority Every boss is sensitive to maintaining his

authority If you have a better idea put it in a

manner of suggestion avoid offending his authority

(iii) Evaluate the impact Very carefully evaluate the impact of the wrong

decision of the boss on your position in particular

and on organisation in general Do not challenge his decision unless you have to

(iv) Avoid bitterness If you have to differ with your boss just register your

point of view without making it bitter

TOP

2 Managing conflict with peerscolleagues

Most of the times the conflict between peers occurs because of the tendency of

One up manship When ever you face a conflict situation with your colleagues

try some of the following approaches

(i) Communicate Most of the time your colleagues may be differing with you

either because they have not understood your point of view properly or you have

not communicated clearly enough Since you do not have any authority over

them enter into a dialogue and discuss the issue with an open mind

(ii) Conflict to Co-operation Work towards skillfully converting conflict in to a

co-operation Strive to appreciate their point of view Find out the ways and

means to create a win-win situation If need be ammend your approach and meet

your colleagues midway

3 Managing conflicts with the subordinates In this situation you have the authority yet you have to be skillful in managing

the conflict

(i) Allow freedom to express Give adequate freedom to your subordinates to

express their views freely be patient listen to them carefully

(ii) Allow dissent Dissent is natural manage disagreement constructively

(iii) Build consensus Identify the +ve minded persons in your team and convert

them into the champions of causes and let them reason it out with the ynical

fellows Provide right kind of support intervene skillfully to build consensus

(iv) Develop a common vision Appreciate the fact that all your subordinates

may not have the broad vision and perspective like yours Its your responsibility

to share your dreams and aspirations for the organisation with them and make

them appreciate these Through discussion training and counseling develop a

common vision

TEN (GENERIC) APPROACHES TO MANAGE CONFLICTS

1 Patient listening

2 Empathy understand others point of view

3 Avoid reacting strongly avoid anger under all circumstances

4 Evaluate your responses properly before responding

5 Communicate enter into a dialogue convince or get convinced

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 24: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

6 Choose the right time for dialogue when the other person is in a receiving

mood

7 Avoid throwing your weight even if you have the authority

8 Allow dissent manage disagreement constructively

9 Build consensus take people along

10 Create a common vision if others do not have as broad a perspective as your

explain it to them with patience train them amp counsel them

In resolving conflict using this approach you follow these rules

Make sure that good relationships are the first priority As far as possible

make sure that you treat the other calmly and that you try to build mutual respect

Do your best to be courteous to one-another and remain constructive under

pressure

Keep people and problems separate Recognize that in many cases the other

person is not just being difficult ndash real and valid differences can lie behind

conflictive positions By separating the problem from the person real issues can

be debated without damaging working relationships

Pay attention to the interests that are being presented By listening carefully

youll most-likely understand why the person is adopting his or her position

Listen first talk second To solve a problem effectively you have to understand

where the other person is coming from before defending your own position

Set out the ldquoFactsrdquo Agree and establish the objective observable elements that

will have an impact on the decision

Explore options together Be open to the idea that a third position may exist and

that you can get to this idea jointly

Conflict resolution process Step One Set the Scene

If you are involved in the conflict emphasize the fact that you are presenting your

perception of the problem Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand

otherlsquos positions and perceptions

Restate

Paraphrase

Step Two Gather Information Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests needs and concerns Ask for the

other personlsquos viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his or

her cooperation to solve the problem

Step Three Agree the Problem

This sounds like an obvious step but often different underlying needs interests and goals

can cause people to perceive problems very differently Youll need to agree the problems

that you are trying to solve before youll find a mutually acceptable solution

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 25: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Step Four Brainstorm Possible Solutions If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution it will help if everyone has had

fair input in generating solutions Brainstorm possible solutions and be open to all ideas

including ones you never considered before

Step Five Negotiate a Solution

By this stage the conflict may be resolved Both sides may better understand the position

of the other and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all

However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions This is

where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that at least

to some extent satisfies everyone

Unit-IV

Stress management

Definition Let us see now whether the following definition will fit all our facts

Stress is the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the nonspecifically-induced changes within a biologic system Thus stress has its own characteristic form and composition but no particular cause The elements of its form are the visible changes due to stress which are addictive indicators expressing the sum of all the different adjustments that are going on in the body at any time

Causes of stress

1 Causes of Stress at Home o Death of spouse family near relative or friend

o Injury or illness of any family member

o Marriage of self or son or daughter or brother or sister

o Separation or divorce from partner

o Pregnancy or birth of a new baby

o Childrens behavior or disobedience

o Childrens educational performance

o Hyperactive children

o Sexual molestation

o Argument or heated conversations with spouse family members or friends

or neighbors

o Not sufficient money to meet out daily expenses or unexpected

expenditure

o Not sufficient money to raise your standard of living

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 26: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

o Loss of money in burglary pick-pocketed or share market

o Moving house

o Change of place or change of city or change of country

2 Causes of Stress at Work o To meet out the demands of the job

o Your relationship with colleagues

o To control staff under you

o To train your staff and take work from them

o Support you receive from your boss colleagues and juniors

o Excessive work pressure

o To meet out deadlines

o To give new results

o To produce new publications if you are in research area

o Working overtime and on holidays

o New work hours

o Promotion or you have not been promoted or your junior has superseded

you

o Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or boss

o Change of job

o Work against will

o Harassment

o Sexual molestation

3 Other Causes of Stress o Fear intermittent or continuous

o Threats physical threats social threats financial threat other threats

o Uncertainty

o Lack of sleep

o Somebody misunderstands you

o Setback to your position in society

Sources of stress

1 Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 27: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

Types of stress

1Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress We cant always avoid

stress in fact sometimes we dont want to Often it is controlled stress that gives us

our competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics giving a speech

or acting

2Distress is an unpleasant or disease-producing stress Chronic sustained uncontrolled

stress of a negative type may lead to a compromised immune system illness and even

death As a result we all should become more aware of common or persistent distressors

in our lives and initiate methods for managing them

Nature of stress

1 Stress is not nervous tension Stress reactions do occur in lower animals and even

in plants which have no nervous system The general manifestations of an alarm

reaction can be induced by mechanically damaging a denervated limb Indeed

stress can be produced under deep anesthesia in patients who are unconscious

and even in cell cultures grown outside the body

2 Stress is not an emergency discharge of hormones An adrenaline discharge is

frequently seen in acute stress affecting the whole body but it plays no

conspicuous role in generalized inflammatory diseases (arthritis tuberculosis)

although they can also produce considerable stress

3 Stress is not that which causes a secretion by the adrenal cortex of its hormones

(the corticoids) ACTH the adrenal-stimulating pituitary hormone can discharge

these hormones without producing any evidence of stress

4 Stress is not the nonspecific result of damage only Normal and even pleasant

activities - a game of tennis or a passionate kiss - can produce considerable stress

without causing conspicuous damage

5 Stress Is not the deviation from homeostasis the steady state of the body Any

specific biologic function eg the perception of sound or light the contraction of

a muscle eventually causes marked deviations from the normal resting state in the

active organs

6 Stress is not identical with the alarm reaction or with the GAS as a whole These

are characterized by certain measurable organ changes which are caused by stress

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 28: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

7 Stress itself is not a nonspecific reaction The pattern of the stress reaction is very

specific it affects certain organs (eg the adrenal the thymus the gastrointestinal

tract) in a highly selective manner

8 Stress is not a reaction to a specific thing The stress response can be produced by

virtually any agent

9 Stress is not necessarily undesirable It all depends on how you take it The stress

of failure humiliation or infection is detrimental but that of exhilarating

creative successful work is beneficial The stress reaction like energy

consumption may have good or bad effects

Causes of Stress

General causes

Threat

A perceived threat will lead a person to feel stressed This can include physical threats

social threats financial threat and so on In particular it will be worse when the person

feels they have no response that can reduce the threat as this affects the need for a

sense of control

Generally speaking any threat to needs is likely to lead to stress being experienced

Fear

Threat can lead to fear which again leads to stress Fear leads to imagined outcomes

which are the real source of stress

Uncertainty

When we are not certain we are unable to predict and hence feel we are not in control

and hence may feel fear or feel threatened by that which is causing the uncertainty

Cognitive dissonance

issonance also occurs when we cannot meet our commitments We believe we are

honest and committed but when circumstances prevent us from meeting our promises

we are faced with the possibility of being perceived as dishonest or incapable (ie a

social threat)

Individual stressors

Life causes

Significant Life Adjustments

Any critical life changes both pleasant and unpleasant

2 Daily Routines

Daily routines such as fighting the rush hour traffic or meeting the deadline on an

important project zap your energy You become accustomed to your daily activities and

easily overlook their cumulative effect on you

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 29: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

3 Unrealistic Self-Expectations

While positive self-expectations motivate you to realize your goals unrealistic

expectations can lead to setting yourself up for failure and a lowering of self-esteem

4 Interpersonal Relationships

Both personal and professional relationships require a significant amount of effort to

maintain Poor communication leads to conflicts that can escalate into increased

frustration and open hostility

There are many causes of stress in life including

Death of spouse family friend

Health injury illness pregnancy

Crime Sexual molestation mugging burglary pick-pocketed

Self-abuse drug abuse alcoholism self-harm

Family change separation divorce new baby marriage

Sexual problems getting partner with partner

Argument with spouse family friends co-workers boss

Physical changes lack of sleep new work hours

New location vacation moving house

Money lack of it owing it investing it

Environment change in school job house town jail

Responsibility increase new dependent new job

Organisational Stressors

The UKs Health and Safety Executive lists six key stress factors

1 The demands of the job

2 The control staff have over how they do their work

3 The support they receive from colleagues and superiors

4 Their relationships with colleagues

5 Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities

6 How far the company consults staff over workplace changes

Other stress indicators at work include

Sickness absence

High staff turnover

Poor communication between teams

Bullying

Lack of feedback on performance

Value and contribution

Technological change

Lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 30: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Dissatisfaction with non-monetary benefits

Working long hours

Boring and mundane work

One-off incidents

Uncomfortable workplace

Lack of training

Consequences of stress

Physiological consequences Just like some people are just born more emotionally reactive some have a more

sensitive physiology and find that stress impacts their blood pressure induces

headaches or causes other physical responses Likewise the way you care for your

body in terms of healthy diet quality sleep and regular exercisemdashor lack thereofmdashcan

impact your reactivity to stress

Coping strategies

1Get Enough Sleep

Sleep is very important for your emotional and physical wellbeing Lack of sleep can

negatively impact your ability to handle stress be productive and function properly

Unfortunately busy schedules and stress can make sleep more elusive

2Exercise Regularly

Exercise can be great for you physically and mentally It provides a stress release and

keeps your body healthy It also helps your body release endorphins which increase your

feelings of overall wellbeing

3 Maintain Social Support

Social support can keep you healthier and happier creating a buffer against stress

Friends can pick you up when youlsquore sad provide insights when youlsquore confused and

help you have fun when you need to blow off steam

5 Find Hobbies

Having some ―down time is important and hobbies can provide a nice distraction from

stress and help you stay in the momentlsquo which is also a great way to relieve tension

6 Pamper Yourself

Taking care of your body on the outsidemdashwith a spa treatment for example can work

wonders for your internal state Donlsquot overlook the importance of pampering yourself on

a regular basis to feel great about yourself and feel ready to take on the world

7 Keep Your Mind Sharp

If you maintain the attitude that stress is a challengemdashrather than a threat you are better

able to handle it And by keeping your mind sharp you are more equipped to solve the

problems and take on the ―challenges that life presents

8 Have The Right Attitude

Much of what you experience in life can feel more stressful or less so depending of your

point of view Looking at things from an optimistic frame of mind can not only decrease

your stress level but bring you more success in life and more

UNIT-V

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 31: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Organization Development (OD) is the process of improving organizations The process

is carefully planned and implemented to benefit the organization its employees and its

stakeholders The client organization may be an entire company public agency non-profit

organization volunteer group - or a smaller part of a larger organization

WHY IS ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT IMPORTANT

Profitability productivity morale and quality of work life are of concern to most

organizations because they impact achievement of organization goals There is an

increasing trend to maximize an organizations investment in its employees Jobs that

previously required physical dexterity now require more mental effort Organizations

need to work smarter and apply creative ideas

WHAT DO ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONSULTANTS DO

OD consultants custom tailor established social science theory and methods to

organizations seeking to improve profitability productivity morale andor quality of

work life Examples of activities which are facilitated by OD consultants are

Teambuilding

Goal Setting

Group Facilitation

Creative Problem solving

Strategic Planning

Leadership Development

Management Development

Career Management

Conflict Resolution

Developmental Education

Interpersonal Communication

Human Resources Management

Managing Workforce Diversity

Organization Restructuring

High Involvement Work Teams

Sociotechnical Systems Design

Technical Training

Total Quality Management

Often described as change agents OD consultants come from varied backgrounds with

experience and training in organization development organization behavior psychology

education management andor human resources Many have advanced degrees and most

have experience in a variety of organizational settings

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 32: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

There are both internal and external OD consultants An internal OD consultant is a full-

time employee with a given organization External consultants may be self-employed or

on the staff of a consulting firm Externals work with one or more clients contracting

for specific projects

Organization Effectiveness

Consultants apply organization effectiveness strategies such as those shown below when

there are needs for assessment planning growth quality improvement teamwork and

other organizational changes

Action Research - An assessment and problem solving process aimed at improved

effectiveness for the entire organization or specific work units The consultant helps the

client organization identify the strengths and weaknesses of organization and

management issues and works with the client in addressing problem opportunities (Some

form of action research is generally applied as a foundation for other consulting

strategies)

Conflict Management - Bringing conflicts to the surface to discover their roots

developing a common ground from which to resolve or better manage conflict

Consultants serve as facilitator in a conflict situation or train employees to better

understand and manage conflict

Executive Development - One-on-one or group developmental consultation with CEOs

or VPs to improve their effectiveness

Goal Setting - Defining and applying concrete goals as a road map to help an

organization get where it wants to go (Can also be applied to employee development)

Group Facilitation - Helping people learn to interact more effectively at meetings and to

apply group guidelines that foster open communication participation and

accomplishment

Managing Resistance to Change - Helping clients identify understand and begin to

manage their resistance to planned organizational change

Organizational Restructuring - Changing departmental andor individual reporting

structures identifying roles and responsibilities redesigning job functions to assure that

the way work gets done in the organization produces excellence in production and

service

Project Management - The general management of specific work blending diverse

functions and skills usually for a fixed time and aimed at reaching defined outcomes

Self-Directed Work Teams - Developing work groups to be fully responsible for creating

a well defined segment of finished work

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 33: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

Sociotechnical Systems Design - Designing and managing organizations to emphasize

the relationship between peoples performance the workplace environment and the

technology used to produce goods and services in order to effect high level productivity

Strategic Planning - A dynamic process which defines the organizations mission and

vision sets goals and develops action steps to help an organization focus its present and

future resources toward fulfilling its vision

Teambuilding - Improving how well organization members help one another in activities

where they must interact

Total Quality Management - Through work process analysis teambuilding defining

quality and setting measurable standards the consultant assists the organization in

becoming more cost effective approach zero-defects and be more market-driven

Employee Effectiveness

Consultants use employee effectiveness strategies such as those below when there are

needs for employee improvement in skill commitment and leadership

Career Counseling - Focused attention on goal setting career selection and job seeking

help individuals make career decisions

Coordination amp Management of Multi-Disciplinary Consultants - One or several

different technical specialists team up with an OD consultant to design and install new

equipment work processes work methods or work procedures

Creative Problem Solving - Organization members use practical problem solving models

to address existing problems in a systematic creative manner

Customer Service Training - Creating interpersonal excellence in public contact

positions where the individual and the organization are expected to meet or exceed

customer expectations

Developmental Education - Training in basic math reading writing and grammar

Interpersonal Communication Skills - Increased skill in exchanging needed information

within the organization and providing feedback in a non-threatening non-judgmental

way

Human Resource Management - Managing the function of hiring compensation

benefits and employee relations toward systematic goals of the organizations morale and

productivity

Labor Relations - Facilitation of conflict planning and problem-solving among

management and workforce union representation

Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

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Leadership Development - Training in select areas which change managers to leaders

Includes visioning change management and creative problem solving

Management Development - Training in various management skill areas with particular

focus on performance management communications and problem solving

Outplacement - Providing individual and group job search skills and services to

employees who have been affected by corporate downsizing Typically paid for by the

employer

Sales Training - Training in the art of selling a product or service

Stress Management - An individual growth workshop designed to arm and activate

healthy responses to stress It enables participants to maximize positive stressors and

minimize the negative both for themselves and others

Technical Training - Training in a specific technical area such as computers

Time Management - An opportunity for individuals and organizations to effect higher

levels of productivity with the time they are allotted

Training Evaluation - Systematic controlled inquiry grounded in sound statistical

practice assessing on-line training effectiveness andor business impact Assessment

focuses on course relevance transfer and cost value

Workforce Diversity - Facilitating understanding between groups toward the goal where

differences among people in an organization become the strengths for competitive

advantage productivity and work satisfaction

Group Effectiveness

In formal organizations group effectiveness can be increased by the following actions

1 Organizing work around intact groups

2 Let the group select train and reward its members

3 Use the group only to enforce norms for behavior both on the job as well as off the job

4 Distributing rewards on a group basis5 Allowing intergroup

END

Page 35: Organizational behaviour   aba8 c44

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