Organizational Change in the Harvard College Library: A Continued Struggle for Redefinition and Renewal by Susan Lee

In 1990, after years of status quo operations, the

Harvard College Library began a process of

unprecedented and intense change. This

article chronicles and analyzes the change

process, focusing on eight key success factors for

strategic planning in an environment of

continual change.

Susan Lee is Associate Librarian for

Administrative Services, Harvard College

Library, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA.

I n 1990, after years of existing in a relatively stable and certain environment, the Harvard College

Library (HCL) began a change program of unprecedented magnitude, variety, and intensity.’ This article looks behind the scenes to examine the change process and some of the specific strategies employed from the perspective of organ- izational development and the facilita- tion of change. It argues for the importance of attending to organizational dynamics and behavior in any major change effort and suggests that effec- tiveness can be increased by establish- ing communication channels to respond to staff members’ information needs, and by providing proactive leadership.

This article is written from my own personal and institutional perspective; it presents ideas related to change proc- esses that readers may find useful. It does not summarize the vast literature of the field, nor is it comprehensive in scope. Rather it focuses on those con- cepts that may be most helpful and most transferable to other research libraries.

Permanent White Water Many years ago, Kurt Lewin created

a simple but vivid model of the change process, which he termed “unfreezing- moving-refreezing.” Lewin’s concept is analogous to a wild river of white wa- ter connecting two frozen lakes. For years, this model has served as the basis for most organizational change processes: after a wild ride while changes are implemented, things will settle down.

In the past, research libraries’ plan- ning processes have focused on fixed multi-year time frames and on specific program changes, such as the imple- mentation of an online library system

or the development of a new library facility, that could be completed in that same time frame.* Today, however, there is a growing awareness that research libraries may be in a “permanent white water” situation. So while efforts in the past have focused on priority program changes, today’s strategic planning ef- forts must focus instead on helping the library as an organization adjust to a state of continued uncertainty. Acknowl- edging this, one of the major emphases of the Harvard College Library’s plan- ning effort was on the programs needed to help other organizational processes respond more smoothly and effectively to continuous rapid change.

Key Success Factors In his opening remarks at the initia-

tion of HCL’s 1990 Strategic Planning Process, Richard De Gennaro, the Li- brarian of Harvard College and the ini- tial force behind the process, quoted architect Daniel Burnham: “Make no small plans, they have no magic to stir men’s blood. Make big plans and aim high.” De Gennaro went on to say that planning and implementing change would be a lot of hard work, that it would be exciting and rewarding, and that he was confident that we would succeed together.

Although we found no magic recipe for transforming the Library, our expe- rience allowed us to identify eight key success factors for navigating the white water:

l support from the University Library, ARL, and CLR,

l strong executive leadership,

l a focus on organizational development,

. careful composition of the taskforces,

The Journal of Academic Librarianship, vol. 19, no. 4, p. 225-230 01993 by the Journal of Academic Librarianship. All rights reserved.

l creation of staff focus groups,

l a time frame for the process and the plan,

l a recognition of concurrent changes, and

l the development of a new generation of managerial staff.

University Library, ARL, and CLR Support The shifting business climate of the

last two decades has prompted corpo- rate executives to try to answer the fol- lowing question during strategic planning sessions: “What business are we in?” Recent changes in technology, econom- ics, patterns of scholarship, publishing, teaching, and research have pushed ad- ministrators of research libraries to ask this question of themselves. These ad- ministrators are finding that the library’s basic reasons for existing and the basic terms of its success are changing be- yond those encompassed by traditional mission statements.

HCL’s 1990 Strategic Planning Proc- ess was the beginning of an effort to redefine our organization both for now and for the future. The articulation of a revised mission, and, more critically, the development of a vision statement were the beginning of a continual struggle for redefinition.

The planning process was guided from start to finish by Barbara Graham, As- sistant Director for Financial Planning and Special Projects in the University Library, who was appointed Planning Coordinator and Chair of the Strategic Planning Committee. In addition, a full- time strategic planning consultant was hired to facilitate focus groups for fac- ulty, students, and staff, and to provide general administrative support to the planning effort.

In December 1990, the Library was awarded a two-year $100,000 planning grant from the Council on Library Re- sources (CLR). The grant funded two analytical studies, the planning retreat, and the consultant. In addition to offer- ing this important financial support, the grant provided a public acknowledgment of the value of the process, giving us all a boost at a critical time.

The expertise and experience of two members of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) staff, Duane Webster and Susan Jurow, provided critical di- rection and support. At Harvard’s invi- tation, they consulted with us and guided

the planning efforts. They helped de- sign and facilitate both the strategic planning kick-off event (a two-day man- agement retreat), and a day of closure at the completion of the process.

Under their guidance, one of the first steps in the strategic planning process was developing a Vision Statement, which was carried out in conjunction with revising the mission statement. This initial emphasis on “vision” was criti- cal to the subsequent change process. Left to our own devices, we would have produced a revised but traditional mis- sion statement. But with their assistance, we reviewed a range of possible futures and, as a group, chose a future for the Library that was noticeably different from our current organization.

“This initial emphasis on ‘vision’ was critical to the

subsequent change process. . . . we reviewed a range of

possible futures and, as a group, chose a future for

the Library that was noticeably different from our

current organization.”

The Vision Statement, which provided a “picture” of the Library once this desirable future had been achieved, helped focus the process and became the springboard for all subsequent plan- ning activities. The articulation of this future state was followed by an analy- sis of the present. Contrasting these scenarios-future and present-helped us identify specific areas requiring change and made us see the need for a broad- based organizational transformation.

Executive Leadership At a session on organizational change

during the 1992 ALA Conference in San Francisco, a program discussion focused on the particular difficulty of changing large organizations. When Harvard was cited as an example of this, one of our new department heads (who was mod- erating the session) jumped to the Library’s defense and insisted that Harvard really was changing. The reply to this was: “Well, that’s because you have De Gennaro now.” Both speakers were indeed correct: Harvard is chang-

ing, and new leadership certainly has been critical to this process.

Under De Gennaro’s leadership, we saw clearly the need for a new strategy and moved quickly to make things hap- pen. We built a sense of urgency that fired our ability to change, energized our vision, and motivated staff. With- out denigrating the past, we signaled to staff that things would be different. The good things about the past and opti- mism for the future were stressed. Staff were reminded that they were part of a proud tradition, one that may have slipped some, but that could be attained again. In the early stages of change, direction was needed and was given. Later, when momentum, commitment, and goal con- sensus were established, we moved to more collaborative management mecha- nisms.

Focus on Organizational Development Preparing a vision statement for the

Library created an opportunity for us to take a stand for a preferred future, an ideal state. The statement was an ex- pression of our hope and idealism, but it also revealed discrepancies between our stated goals and some organizational practices that pulled us in other direc- tions. Therefore, our next step was a thorough assessment of the current or- ganizational condition, which included an analysis of these discrepancies.

During the strategic planning retreat, the need for an organizational develop- ment effort was first advanced by the HCL Personnel Office staff. Through their participation in the retreat, per- sonnel staff helped us conceptualize the task we were facing. In addition, they urged the establishment of a Staff and Organizational Development Taskforce to be charged with defining a strategy to address organizational change.

Positive adaptation to change must be- come the hallmark of the HCL over the next ten years. Whether this will be so or not will depend in large part on the kind of organization we de- velop. [Your task is to] identify and define the essential elements of an ef- fective organizational strategy to build the kind of organization we have de- scribed in our vision statement. Iden- tify programs and activities that will bring about the paradigm shift needed. Indicate what organizational and staff development programs and activities should be planned. (Excerpt from charge to the Tasvorce.)

226 the Journal of Academic Librarianship, September 1993

Values Statement. Since a vital el- ement in our vision concerned how we wished to relate to one another, we drafted a statement of organizational values to supplement the Vision State- ment. This Values Statement comple- mented the Vision Statement by expressing the nature of the organiza- tion that we wished to create. It was hoped that in time these values would become rules by which we would hold ourselves accountable.

Our statement of organization val- ues was in no way meant to be exhaus- tive. There are many traditional values (quality, pride in the richness of our collections, coordinated decentralization, concern for staff, etc.) that remain an important part of our culture. The Val- ues Statement was deliberately devel- oped to emphasize those values critical to our new vision, critical to the culture we were working to create. The areas covered included:

. unity with diversity,

l open communications and trust,

l collaboration, and

. innovation and initiative.

The Taskforce. The Staff and Organ- izational Development Taskforce was directed to examine the status quo, iden- tify priority areas where change was needed, and develop, where appropri- ate, near-term and long-range recom- mendations. The specific areas to be reviewed were:

l organizational norms,

l management of change,

l organizational communication,

l organizational problem-solving proc- esses,

l team building,

l overcoming resistance to change, and

l organizational human relations.

The Taskforce’s early efforts focused on defining the existing organizational culture and the ways it facilitated or hindered change. Members analyzed the responses gathered from staff to an in- formal questionnaire covering six di- mensions (leadership, motivation, communication, decision making, goals, and control), and used these data to describe the HCL norms, values, and culture.

The Vision Statement The Harvard College Library, Ten Years Hence

The Harvard College Library, as one of the worlds’ preeminent research libraries, will remain nationally and internationally prominent for the depth and breadth of it collections. The Library will continue to acquire, organize, house, preserve, and make available materials that support teaching and re- search in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Library Collections will include traditional manuscripts and printed and artifactual materials, as well as audio- visual and electronic resources.

As academic fields continue to develop diverse patterns of research and communication, the College Library will respond with a growing array of specialized resources and services. Such a response will take place within the framework of Harvard’s traditional pattern of decentralized services closely allied to the needs of particular University constituencies. Increasing reliance on shared automation systems will bolster the administrative coordination necessary to manage decentralization.

An expanded online system will provide access to both library holdings and other scholarly and information resources on campus. All card catalogs will have been eliminated through comprehensive retrospective conversion. While continuing to build and describe its own collections, the Library will also provide access to external information resources. To an increasing extent it will participate in cooperative activities, including resources sharing, as a means to this enhanced access. Cooperation will also enable the Library to operate more efficiently and to contribute to the worldwide community of scholars.

The College Library will pursue a deliberate strategy of identifying and satisfying user needs. Information services will be tailored to meet differing instructional and research needs. Programs to train users in locating, using, and managing information will complement more traditional reference serv- ices.

The use of facilities will be integrated to meet the changing needs of users, staff, and collections. A growing proportion of the College Library’s holdings will be housed off-site. An ongoing program will ensure that mate- rials receiving regular use or requiring immediate access are housed on cam- pus, while other materials will be held off campus. Improved facilities will be available on campus for servicing audio-visual resources, electronic infor- mation, manuscript and other nonpublished materials, microforms, govem- ment documents, and other types of research materials requiring specialized equipment or services.

There will be increasing experimentation and innovation within the Li- brary, particularly with regard to scholarly communication. More members of the Library’s staff will carry multiple responsibilities that cut across the lines separating traditional functions. Both technological competence and solid traditional skills will be required. There will be an emphasis on collaboration and developing shared understanding and shared strategies. The College Library’s growing dynamism, broadening concerns, and new initiatives will require a major investment in ongoing training and staff development at all levels.

They then examined the new organi- l From a segmented approach toward zational culture of the Vision Statement an integrated orientation to task per- and delineated shifts necessary to ar- formance. rive at this new culture. These included:

l From an emphasis on individual ac-

l From decentralization toward a uni- fied vision amidst diversity.

complishments toward an acknowl- edgment of the efficacy of collabora- tion.

l From hierarchical structures toward a flatter organization.

l From a static environment with spo- radic change toward a learning envi-

the Journal of Academic Librarianship, September 1993 227

ronment characterized by innovation and risk taking.

From idiosyncratic management to- ward ensuring effective managerial expertise for all supervisory staff.

From a process culture with an em- phasis on perfection toward one with tolerance for ambiguity.

From control toward trust in staff at all levels.

Important strategies were defined in the areas of managerial style, diversity, motivation, recognition and rewards, and training. The Taskforce also focused on areas which would require particular attention in the context of change: con- flict resolution, negotiation, sharing different perspectives, and the over- arching issue of trust. In their report, the Taskforce recognized that success over the long term required the assimi- lation of a new culture with the corner- stones of integration, collaboration, re- wards, and trust.

Following the development of the Vision Statement and the Values State- ment, we all agreed that this culture thing was great and that we all wanted one. The reality was however that we already had one-just not the one we wanted, not the one that would empower the new vision.

Accomplishments. The work of the Taskforce greatly influenced our man- agers, who were able to see that issues such as integration, collaboration, re- wards, and trust are not solely person- nel concerns; they are key priorities for managers. Our managers came to real- ize that one of the most significant fac- tors in our future success would be the state of our organization. A cohesive staff and organizational development program is now an HCL priority and progress continues at a steady state.

To continue work in this area, the Taskforce recommended the appointment of a Staff/Organizational Development Officer, the creation of a Steering Com- mittee on Staff and Organizational Development, and the development of programs to improve the management and operational effectiveness of staff. These programs would emphasize team building and facilitation, problem solv- ing, communication and collaboration, negotiation, and conflict resolution. Implementation began in 1991 with the appointment of Mary Elizabeth Clack to the position of Staff/Organizational Development Officer.

The Steering Committee’s current initiative is the development of a team- based total quality management (TQM) approach for improving service and operational effectiveness. During 19921 93 we will begin a training program that will initially involve the 75 mem- bers of the Cataloging Services Depart- ment. We am working with ARL’s Office of Management Studies, the Harvard Quality Process, and the Harvard Cen- ter for Training and Development to design a research library-based TQM program and training plan.

Composition of the Taskforces It was understood that some staff

might find the new vision threatening. Efforts were focused on working to help staff see the change process as an op- portunity rather than a threat.

From the start the success of the strategic planning effort was largely dependent on the actions of many indi- viduals and groups throughout the or- ganization. To create and maintain momentum, a critical mass of commit- ted staff was needed. Gaining the com- mitment of a critical mass within the organization was approached indirectly, through a grassroots effort. To assist this effort, individuals at all levels were enlisted in helping to define the new vision and to champion it.

A wide range of staff was included in the process; staff who worked most closely with users, technologies, and operations were tapped. By challenging them to think about the future, to pay attention to technological developments and how these might impact the Li- brary, the process of our Strategic Plan- ning effort was in many ways the most important product.

In addition to the Staff and Organi- zational Development Taskforce, four other taskforces were established: Serv- ices, Collections, Intellectual Access, and Reconfiguring Space and Services. The taskforce participants were selected from a pool of over 300 volunteers. Mem- bers included both professional and support staff; the Librarian, Associate Librarians, and Department Heads (a group of about 20) absented themselves from participation on the taskforces.

As a result of this broad-based par- ticipation, commitment among taskforce members was raised and resisting forces and tensions were lowered; this in turn stimulated interest in the strategic plan throughout the organization, at all lev- els. Working together to define the

library’s future helped bring all staff into the change process, promoted a Library-wide perspective, and helped reduce traditional competitive rivalries. HCL became a more open organiza- tion, better prepared for future change, and better able to engage in organiza- tional learning.

The decision to exclude upper man- agement from taskforces helped encour- age the development of leadership talent among staff members. Throughout the planning process, taskforce participants were given the opportunity to demon- strate their competence at solving group problems and participating in group decision making. Through regular meet- ings with each of the taskforce chairs and with the taskforce members, top management was able to assess their communication, organizational, and in- fluencing skills.

Staff Focus Groups Staff focus groups proved to be an-

other effective method of assuring broad- based staff involvement. The focus groups, which were intended principally for staff who were not part of the for- mal planning exercises, included one group for each of the ten HCL libraries and five for Widener Library. In all, over 150 staff members participated.

Unlike the taskforces, which were charged with the examination of spe- cific issues, the staff focus groups pro- vided a forum for discussion of the Vision Statement drafted during the retreat. Like the taskforces, however, the focus groups were sources of information for the Stra- tegic Planning Committee (SPC). Fo- cus group participants were asked for their views on how their units might address this vision of the future, and for suggestions on what organizational changes would be required to move forward together. An external discus- sion leader was brought in to coordi- nate the sessions. Her role was to moderate the discussions about the fu- ture, keep the group’s exchange on course, and provide summaries to the SPC.

Summarized responses were given to the SPC by the planning staff, but no individual staff member was identified or associated with a particular response, and no master list of participants was circulated. As the core deliberative body of the process, the SPC had the responsi- bility to integrate this information into the final reports.

228 the Journal of Academic Librarianship, September 1993

Time Frame of the Process and the Plan From the preliminary meetings in

September 1990, to the draft of the stra- tegic plan during the summer of 1991, the entire process was intense and fast paced. The taskforces received their charges in January 1991 and submitted their final reports in May 1991. Through- out, the urgency to change and the need to adjust to a state of continual uncer- tainty was emphasized. Our goal was to avoid institutionalizing the planning process while modeling our new ability to change rapidly.

Larry Dowler, HCL’s Associate Li- brarian for Public Services, analyzed and organized the mass of data and ideas that were generated by the planning process and authored the text of the plan. The final plan, an eight-page document, was designed to articulate a coherent vision and statement of principles. The first three pages provided an overview of the external developments forcing the library to change. This.was followed by a statement of the “formative ideas” meant to guide the library in charting a new course. The final section articu- lated five strategic goals for the 1990s.

This plan was designed and written as a conceptual essay meant to summa- rize the new thinking about the Library and to focus the attention of the faculty and administration on the Library’s future needs and opportunities. Written in narrative form and kept to essay length, its aim was to underscore the need for the Library to chart a new course and to present a compelling new vision. By design the plan omitted discussion of the specific tactics of program imple- mentation. Implementation was to be dealt with in other documents and within the operational environment. The aim was to produce a living document with a message that would permeate the academy and effectively inform a wide range of ongoing decisions.

This approach produced the final plan in record time and emphasized the flu- idity of the change process. Publica- tion, distribution, and discussion of the plan were done in concert with an imple- mentation program. The plan was writ- ten to provide, in understandable language, an inspiring point of refer- ence for ongoing decision making at all levels of the organization.

Concurrent Changes While the formal strategic planning

process was going on, problems arose

that demanded attention. Decisions had to be made and operational changes had to be implemented. And even while plan- ning was in process, it was important to begin demonstrating the power of the strategic vision as a decision-making cri- terion, as a tool for providing opera- tional focus and purpose.

‘We built a sense of urgency that fired our ability to

change, energized our vision, and motivated staff. Without

denigrating the past, we signaled to staff that things

would be different.”

To capture attention and to tangibly demonstrate the vision, a few high- leverage, high-visibility changes were made during the planning process. In executing these new strategies, we had to liberate ourselves from the need for full consensus on every detail. And in line with this approach, we moved de- cisively to build a team of supportive action-oriented managers, side-lining naysayers when necessary. The follow- ing actions/decisions illustrated our com- mitment to the strategic vision and our resolve to engage in changes that sup- ported it; they were all initiated prior to the drafting of the final plan.

A major restructuring of Widener Library.

A plan to transfer a million volumes from Widener to remote storage over a five-year period.

Approval of a $16 million recon ef- fort including funding by the Univer- sity Corporation and the microfilming of the Widener Catalog.

A major serials review project.

Loading the LC Book File onto our online system.

In addition, steps were taken to be- gin a restructuring of the budget. Through major cost containment efforts during fiscal 1992, the Library made signifi- cant progress in priority areas-those mentioned above as well as others re- lated to technology/automation. All vacant positions were held off payroll for a minimum of six weeks, and select positions were held vacant for longer periods. These salary savings allowed the Library to fund approximately half

a million dollars of unbudgeted priority programs.

Communication-open staff forums, position papers, project reports, depart- mental meetings-was a very impor- tant component of the change process. When staff recognized that they were expected to make major changes in their ways of working, they sought (often in subtle ways) frequent feedback on their performances. They wanted to be indi- vidually and regularly reassured that they were on the right track. Response to these informational needs by senior management was a powerful influence on staff commitment to the changes.

Without a completed detailed plan, some of these operational decisions may have seemed improvisational; the cu- mulative effect, however, was to move us in the desired strategic direction. These decisions and actions set the pace, built momentum, and began to empower the vision. We started to feel that we had already come a long way, even if we didn’t know exactly where we were going.

A New Generation of Managerial Staff HCL’s strategic plan emphasized the

need to retain the best of the past while creating an organization that is respon- sive to change and provides leadership that can shape the future. One of the most difficult challenges of implement- ing the plan has been determining how to go about building the kind of organ- ization we envisioned. The ten-month planning process identified the changes that were needed and the programs and activities that would provide “new be- ginnings,” but our ability to meet the challenges of the 21st century, to grow and change, is directly dependent on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the staff. Early in the process, we rec- ognized that the staff, particularly the managers and “leaders,” were key to shaping future services and programs.

Before Harvard’s 1991 early retire- ment program, the College Library had begun a mandated restructuring program within Widener Library. Together, sev- eral major restructuring efforts affected virtually all staff at Widener. A Preser- vation Department was formed from parts of other departments. An Area Studies Department was formed combining the Slavic, Middle Eastern, and Judaica programs. Personnel, Financial Services, and Facilities Management were com- bined into an Administrative Services

the Journal of Academic Librarianship, September 1993 229

unit. And Cataloging Services, Collec- tion Development, and Area Studies were brought together under the direction of a new position, Associate Librarian for Collections and Cataloging. We con- solidated six Associate Librarian posi- tions into three with the aim of facilitating cross-departmental cooperation and co- ordination. These mandated changes, although necessary to bring about real change, were costly, time consuming, distracting, exhausting, and painful to many.

Perhaps because of these negative side effects of change, when the University announced an early retirement program in the summer of 1991, 20 HCL staff took advantage of the package. In many ways this voluntary program played a critical role in moving the Library’s change program forward. The timing of the early retirement program could not have been better, nor the results more satisfactory to both staff and manage- ment. The combination of the restruc- turing and the voluntary retirements allowed the Library to bring in new leadership for over a dozen key pro- grams. This unique opportunity to bring in a new generation of outstanding li- brary professionals dramatically boosted efforts to refashion the College Library.

Efforts to reposition the Library to better serve an information-age univer- sity have been and will continue to be facilitated by the infusion of new staff into a number of key positions. One of the critical goals articulated in the Library’s strategic plan is to “maintain the excellence of the library in a changing intellectual, technological, and economic environment by reallocating human, fiscal, and space resources.” So, in addition to using restructuring efforts

and early retirement to reshape the staff- the organization, has begun to perme- ing structure, the Library carefully re- ate the organization. Individual units have views all new vacancies. At this time developed program-specific parallel vi- efforts are being made to increase staff- sions; annual reports have begun to focus ing in priority areas without increasing on progress toward the future articu- the total FTE by reassigning positions lated in the Vision Statement; search within the Library. committees have emphasized skills and

abilities needed to succeed in the li-

Conclusion Individual and collective change can

be difficult anywhere and anytime. But change is particularly difficult for large organizations, especially those that have been previously successful. A plenum of self-reinforcing systems and successes tie these organizations to the past. Pre- vious successes and past practices root research libraries such as the Harvard College Library to old ways of doing business. In many ways we are bound by earlier conditioned constraints: “We’ve always done it this way.” And our size makes us ponderous and slow.

Thus, the change process begun in 1990 can by no means be considered complete. After three years some people still resist, ignore, and blame, feeling no obligation to contribute to the proc- ess in a positive way. These changes have not been easy-just necessary. This change program has affected and will continue to influence the Library in dramatic ways, but it is too early to declare a home run. In changing an organization’s culture, it is essential to remember that many small steps create change. Singles can win games, par- ticularly when you get enough of them. At the Harvard College Library we are focusing on building small wins and making continuous progress.

Our strategic plan, written to pro- vide a clear point of reference for on- going decision making at all levels of

brary of the 21st century. The heart of the Vision Statement is

not so much the words as it is the ac- tion that created it and the broad-based organizational commitment that has sustained it. In October 1992, 30 HCL senior managers participated in a two- day retreat focused on strategic support for the Library’s vision-recent progress, critical issues, and important areas to be addressed within the next phase of implementation. Retreat participants also reviewed the approximately 200 recom- mendations put forward by the taskforces. Clearly, the Library faces more white water ahead, but with the Vision State- ment as a reference point, the ride will be well navigated, albeit choppy.

References ‘The Harvard College Library consists of the central collections of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences (7.3 million volumes) with a staff of 448 (168 librarians and 280 support staff). In addition to Widener (social sciences and humanities), the libraries include Cabot Sci- ence, Fine Arts, Harvard Yen&ring (East Asia), Houghton (rare books), Kummel (ge- ology), Lamont and Hilles (undergraduate), Littauer (economics), Music, and Tozzer (anthropology). 2Peter B. Vail, “Seven Process Frontiers for Organization Development,” in The Emerg- ing Practice of Organizational Development, ed. Walter Sikes, Allan Drexler, and Jack Gant (Alexandria, Virginia: NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science, 1989), p. 271.

230 the Journal of Academic Librarianship, September 1993