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Original Sustainability

The struggles and successes of small-scale farming

In Latin America and the Caribbean

Theresa Englund

International Studies

Senior Seminar – 495

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Introduction

Small-scale farming in South America, Central America, and the Caribbean is constantly under

pressure from competition with larger, often mono-crop land use, and the global market. The

various processes, economic options, and need for capital that accompany land cultivation create

challenges for viable continuation of farming. Additionally, families cope with the income

variability associated with cultivation reliant on nature and the ever-increasing draw toward other

labor options. This paper will study the similarities that local, indigenous, and family farmers

face in Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica. The examination includes decision-making power,

ability to own land, and the farmer’s willingness to remain dynamic in order to survive.

Furthermore, I will display that the techniques and practices small-scale farmers implement

better sustain the environment, the local community, and maintain a source of independence for

their families and domestic markets.

Regardless of the country, small-scale farms in Latin America share some of the same challenges

and successes. Research shows that similar crops, labor factors, and techniques offer cultivators

continuation of achievement for survival on small areas of land. Furthermore, innovative

practices ensure the ability to overcome challenges of land degradation, competition, and loss of

income. One question requiring an answer is the potential for small-scale farming to remain

viable for the farmer, the region, and the global market. A discussion about interaction in the

domestic and global markets, and the opportunities and challenges such a relationship presents

will reveal the dynamic approaches farmers take. The goal of this essay is to determine that

though common opinion may view agriculture as a realm best suited for the Green Revolution’s

mono-crop, genetically modified growth strategies, the benefits of supporting small-scale

farming exist for the farmers’ future and our own.

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Methodology

As a student of International and Environmental Studies, whose focus is on globalization and

development, turning to our neighbors in the South to determine their means of viability has long

been of interest to me1. My coursework includes biological, geological, and geographical

approaches to the earth sciences, extensive historical exploration of colonization and world

cultures, and continuous focus in the social sciences2. These studies provide me with a

knowledgeable framework to examine research on the complex systems of small farms.

Additionally, researching the Maya and visiting them in Chiapas, Mexico in 2009, I have studied

and written about the history and sustainability of a dynamic culture. In 2010, I did research on

Cuba’s ability to overcome dependency and create food security on the island through urban

agriculture. My plan for fieldwork in both countries is since delayed, limiting my options to

collect further data on the region to scholarly works. This year, it was important to expand my

knowledge of Latin America and the Caribbean and focus particularly on sustainability of the

environment using a multidisciplinary approach.

Literature Review

In choosing the selection of works in order to research small-scale farming in Latin America and

the Caribbean themes of biodiversity, sustainability for the farmer and the environment,

traditional knowledge, and the ensuing challenges arose. A broad compilation of social science

approaches enhanced by a small selection of natural science methodology support my thesis.

1 Plus, the climate and vegetation in the region is fantastic! 2 Outside the classroom, I also focus on the protection of animals. I was a foster home for abandoned dogs, and

spent Jan 2010 winterm volunteering and observing at the Bahamas Human Society in Nassau.

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The authors chosen cover rural agriculture, biodiversity, and the development challenges that

farmers face. These are multiple authors researching rural small-scale agriculture in Ecuador,

Costa Rica, and Jamaica. With case studies, ethnographies, and interviews the evidence

documented and cited by the researchers identifies successful cultivation practices that assist in

overcoming challenges. They are also my sources for the types of crops that are farmed small-

scale especially those that exist in all three countries, for example coffee, maize, and tubers. The

collection documents research exploring the productivity and sustainability of conservative

resource utilization and cultivation methods that benefit or minimally affect the environment.

Sustainability

Each work includes at minimum mention of, if not full focus on, sustainability of the ecosystem.

Additionally, sustainability of the culture, community, and development are significant themes.

Jules Pretty is one author who does not focus specifically on Latin America. Pretty’s work,

Regenerating Agriculture, addresses the misconception of low input, minimal technological

cultivation as un-advanced, describing the combination of new and traditional practices as

sustainable (12). Chapter 3 especially identifies the social and environmental costs of practicing

unsustainable cultivation. His other article, “Regenerating Agriculture: The Agroecology of

Low-External Input and Community-Based Development,” written with Irene Guijt, Ian Scoones

and John Thompson, discusses the technology involved in agriculture, and the need to reinvent

that technology in order to eliminate damage to the environment. The article identifies the

requirement of food production in relation to the trend of exponential human population growth.

According to Pretty et al, low input cultivation is the option to best control pests and diseases,

ensure water and nutrient conservation, and optimize recycling and utilization of resources (125).

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Additionally, they identify the gaps of the Green Revolution that came about at the end of the

20th century. The resulting advantages missed many people in less developed counties because

modern techniques require exceptional costs in energy, water use, artificial fertilizers, pest and

disease controls, labor, and capital (126). Further conveyed is the dichotomy of maintaining

social and cultural tradition of native populations within the request and need for government

influence. This source identifies the role of indigenous federations and non-profits in

agricultural development. Lastly, tying in concepts of local knowledge developed over

generations that maximize resource utilization and successful cultivation practices ties into the

themes of many writers addressing the neglect of rural peoples, or traditional knowledge in

research and extension work (131).

I reference Patti Anderson’s ethnographic fieldwork in Ecuador, even though it is an examination

of non-food harvesting because she studies sustainable development. Additionally, she

recognizes the value of traditional local knowledge (413). Her methods include ecological

research and interviews exploring Amazon deforestation and the changes resulting from

road/highway construction on the local people. Access to new employment and new market

demands reveal the paradox valuation of traditional and modern influences in relation to resource

conservation.

Biodiversity

All of the works selected easily maintain the value of biodiversity. From forest harvesting to

cash crop cultivation, this element is number one for sustainability. To emphasize empirical

evidence on biodiversity I include supporting references from the natural sciences from Johnson

et al and Varón et al. Additionally, researchers study the concept of agro-forestry to evaluate

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biodiversity. The articles are also a productive survey of biological pest and disease control. In

Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica cultivation diversity including a cash crop such as coffee helps

to sustain the household. Therefore, biological research experiments are beneficial to verify the

positive results of natural vegetation conservation or multi-cropping to argue against the

damages from mono-crop growing. In addition, for each of the countries, the science also ties in

the cultivation techniques of the people. The following sources provide identification and

explanation of successful systems and practices. Whether intentionally cultivated or naturally

occurring, sustainable agriculture successfully includes poly-culture farming practices.

In their article, “Effects of Shade and Bird Exclusion on Arthropods and Leaf Damage on Coffee

Farms in Jamaica’s Blue Mountains,” Johnson et al prove the usefulness of over-story trees and

birds for pest control in crop production. The methods include, bird exclosures, arthropod

sampling, leaf surveys, vegetation complexity, and data analysis. The conclusion drawn is that

the habitat (shade trees) available for pest predators (birds) drastically reduces the damaging

insect population (144). My paper also cites this article to support the research on the

disadvantages of mono cropping, but the significance of coffee to the region.

Turning then to Costa Rica, Varón et al also prove that the inclusion of shade trees to coffee

cultivation in agro-forestry systems is beneficial. The vegetative diversity reduces the crop

damage caused by ants. Their methods involve a field survey of ant foraging and laboratory

bioassay for ant preference. The article “Effect of Farm diversity on Harvesting of coffee Leaves

by the Leaf-cutting Ant Atta cephalotes” concludes that the pest prefers other vegetation and that

diversity can lead to healthier crops. Furthermore, the authors cite the significance of small-scale

farming production in Latin America (53).

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Carlos Ramos García-Serrano and Juan Pablo Del Monte provide a clear example of the many

benefits of biodiversity in their essay, “The Use of Tropical Forest (Agroecosystems and Wild

Plant Harvesting) as a Source of Food in the Bribri and Cabecar cultures in the Caribbean Coast

of Costa Rica.” Their methodology includes fieldwork, taxonomy, and interviews. The “tribal

use” of vegetation or ethnobotany they examine reflects cultural and sustainable practices. In

addition, this article supports the value of traditional knowledge. For instance, the various

cultivation patterns and types of growth utilized by the Bribri and Cabecar relate directly to their

belief systems. My focus however, leans on the ecological, and draws on the benefits of tropical

food forestry, multiple plant use, and year round subsistence production (61).

Theo Hills also explores food forestry in the Caribbean3. Like García-Serrano and Del Monte,

he identifies the significance of year round production for sustaining the household (6-7).

Moreover, “The Caribbean Peasant Food Forest, Ecological Artistry or Random Chaos”

recognizes efficient food production, modeling the extensive and complex value of traditional

knowledge with high productivity. His method involves historic and contemporary evidence

summarized to conclude food forestry the “best case” for traditional small-scale farming in the

Caribbean (22).

Local Knowledge

A common thread found while researching small-scale farming in Latin America and the

Caribbean is the significant value of the cultivators’ knowledge. Maintaining natural

biodiversity or multi-cropping appears inherent, described as “ethno-botanical knowledge”

(Beckford and Barker 124). The future success of the small-scale farming is dependent on

3 Hills is also cited by Beckford regarding the food forest and home garden

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inclusion of the farmer as the foundation for cultivation improvements and development. While

many of the works I cite touch on rural peoples’ knowledge, it is the focus of both Anthony

Bebbington and Clinton Beckford’s research and essays.

Anthony Bebbington et al produced a network paper sponsored by the Overseas Development

Institute Research and Extension Network. The research addresses the development needs in

Ecuador’s rural small-scale agriculture. One realization is that technological innovation in

agriculture is not sufficient to address rural development. Land rights, education, access to

marketing, banking, and investment assistance must be resolved first (1). The challenges rural

agricultural populations face are likely to displace the small farm if not addressed4 (5). They

conclude that overall, the “virtue of rural people’s knowledge5” cannot be excluded (2).

The majority of my literature collection on Ecuador concentrates on the Andes highlands.

Bebbington researched alternative development in this Ecuadorian rural area vis-à-vis

conventional agricultural development. In particular, his article, “Modernization from Below:

An Alternative Indigenous Development” includes extensive citing concluding the failings of the

Green Revolution as a means of development for rural people. His main thesis emphasizes the

combining of modern options for productivity with traditional methods to maximize success and

maintain indigenous identity. Additionally, like Pretty, he explores the paradox in the common

arguments for sustainable farming and the need or movement toward improvement via

modernizing methods including outside influences. The conclusion drawn from these works for

the purpose of this paper is the necessity to promote indigenous technical knowledge along with

the maintenance of indigenous culture (Bebbington 287).

4 See my section on Challenges 5 Coined RPK

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Clinton Beckford also studies rural peoples’ knowledge, interviewing and studying farmers in

Trelawny, Jamaica. I select his term local knowledge, and interchange it with traditional

knowledge to discuss the significance of rural, local, and indigenous peoples’ intellect and

farming methods. His 2002 article, “Decision-making and Innovation among Small-scale Yam

Farmers in Central Jamaica: a Dynamic, Pragmatic, and Adaptive Process” recognizes the

significance of small farmers for Jamaica’s export economy. He indicates that modernity is

essential for the island’s food security (250). Largely research on the failures of Caribbean

farming ignores the delivery methods of agricultural development projects, specifically the

exclusion of farmers (251). Like the aforementioned authors, Beckford determines that the

incorporation of the farmer in the development process is crucial for success.

"The Role and Value of Local Knowledge in Jamaican Agriculture: Adaptation and Change in

Small-scale Farming," Beckford and David Barker’s 2007 article, defines local knowledge as

“dynamic and complex bodies of know-how, practices and skills…providing framework for

decision making [and is] embedded in culture and tradition (118).” Decisions farmers face go

beyond cultivation and affect all aspects of living including social, economic, and environmental

concerns. Those decisions are valuable, influencing traditional knowledge as they learn the

natural sciences, usually through generations of tested methods (126). However, the authors

identify a lack of support for farmers in research, extension projects, land ownership, lending, as

well as little government policy on domestic crop growth (125). Such failings hinder farmers’

decisions and their progress toward development. In addition, this makes managing food

security, conserving resources, even good health, and education difficult to achieve for local

growers. The article concludes that independence, control over inputs, research, as well as

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willing collaboration are important for the farmers and necessary for a common goal of

development on the island (126).

Beyond the Farm: non-agro income, cooperatives, and fair trade

There are income options beyond farm production to consider when the market demand is not

meeting household needs, or more capital is necessary. Sometimes there is a shift to other labor

options, and sometimes there are new market opportunities. Douglas Southgate, Fabian

Rodriguez, and Timothy Haab look closely at the role added income has for subsistence farmers

in Ecuador. “Payments for Sustainability” is a case study on the methods and effectiveness of

supporting water conservation. The authors explore the variability and risk in agriculture vis-à-

vis working elsewhere as an employee (55). In receiving payment to reduce land cultivation and

thus conserve and protect water resources farmers who rely solely on their produce accept less

funds than those with additional income. However, there is less risk of loss when one relies on

their own land. The conclusion then is that the payment not to cultivate, offered at a lower costs

to already poor farmers, does not benefit efforts toward development.

Discussions on research and development for rural people often include non-profits, federations,

and cooperatives. These organizations often have the people as the first priority, though some

would argue there is still a top down approach when collaboration includes external influences.

The bulk of sources cited inevitably include discussion regarding the role one or more play in the

successes and challenges of small-scale farmers.

Choosing Dennis O’Brien’s piece provides specific research into agriculture and cooperatives

working to maintain diversity and support traditional crop cultivation in Ecuador. Steven

Gliessman’s editorial, “Building Sustainable Livelihoods While Conserving Biodiversity,” also

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provides onsite experience with non-profits and cooperatives in Costa Rica. Successes for

family farms there come from collaboration to improve research, education, and market and

network development. The selection is also significant because Gliessman studies agro-

ecosystems and I utilize his research, “The Ecology and Management of Traditional Farming

Systems,” to validate biodiversity6. Lastly, Deborah Sick challenges the actual value of the fair

trade market for coffee farmers in Costa Rica. One positive discovery is the benefit of

government support for small-scale farms versus other countries in the region. She provides

insight into market challenges revealing the destruction of farms that occurs when markets fail7

(195). This occurs when production exceeds demand. The article, "Coffee, Farming Families,

and Fair Trade in Costa Rica: New Markets, Same Old Problems," concludes that the current fair

trade market is not adequate to meet the needs of small-scale farmers, citing examples of no

improved income (202).

Conclusion

The research in Latin America and the Caribbean on small-scale farming must continue for the

world to accept and recognize the benefits of biodiversity and sustainable practices. Pulling

together examples across the region allows the reader to recognize with certainty the challenges

and successes of sustainable farming. My extensive research results in the works cited section

are not all inclusive of the evidence I came across. The works do however, support my thesis

that traditional, diverse small-scale farming practices sustain the rural population and that these

methods are better for the environment, hence us all. By accumulating the results of these

findings, I have successfully enhanced a new approach to agriculture in Latin America and the

6 O’Brien and Gliessman counter the challenges of development for small-scale farmers that Bebbington and

Beckford address in their conclusions. 7 Gliessman’s editorial also addresses the collapse of the coffee market in 2001

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Caribbean. Moreover, in selecting specific countries and linking various similarities provides

small-scale farming methods in the region a novel platform from which to shine.

What is Sustainable Small-scale Farming?

Cultivation of land and vegetation for food and cash crop in Latin America varies in degrees of

intensity, labor, capital, and necessary inputs. Land size, geographic location, vegetative

structure, soil composition, and both natural and human resources all play a role in the ability for

farmers to maintain agricultural productivity. In most cases, low input agriculture benefits the

environment and the lower costs provide comparable yields, whether in produce or net return

(Pretty 12). Additionally, the farms become a habitat of their own. Crop residues are recycled

into the soil or animal food, fertilizer results from plant and animal manures, and legumes

(grown in all three countries) complete the nitrogen cycle. Furthermore, farmers who use

regenerative technologies are able to increase their yields with little or no external input by

utilizing traditional knowledge gained over time (Pretty 19).

For the purposes of this paper and the general results of the case studies selected, small-scale

farms are defined by sizes ranging from the home garden of less than one hectare to mono or

poly-crop areas of about ten hectares. More importantly, the close link between the landowner

and the land involves cultivation practices that ensure future generations will have use of the

land. In each country studied, emphasis on low to moderate input coincided with decision

making to ensure sustainable land tenure. On another note, the input levels for labor on small

farms often involve family members. However, when available wages from external sources are

present, hiring of outside labor occurs (Southgate, Rodriguez, and Haab 55).

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Throughout the case studies in Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica farmers maintain traditional

knowledge while utilizing available agricultural advances (Bebbington 1993; Beckford 2002,

2007; Garcia et al 2004). In fact, combining agricultural practices that are centuries old with

advantageous modern practices, is another feature found in small-scale farming. Additionally,

maintaining some original farming practices validates strides to continue sustainable practices.

Finally, some examples of blended cultivation include the use of scientific suggestions while

multi-cropping, new rotation patterns enhancing past ideas, and the use of local pest management

(versus artificial manufactured products) which now benefits a consumer seeking organic

production ( Pretty Regenerating Agriculture 10) (Sick 197).

Biodiversity

There are environmental, economic, and cultural advantages to maintaining a diverse ecosystem.

Research continues to demonstrate the benefits of diversity for crop cultivation, maintenance of

traditional knowledge, and low capital input for small-scale farmers. In fact, scientific analysis

on a global level identifies biodiversity as significantly advantageous to the survival of a

multitude of species including our own. Additionally, agricultural cultivation while maintaining

diversity ensures retained food sources with the inherent genetic ability to combat the stresses of

disease and pests (Varón 47). In traditional cultures throughout Latin America and the

Caribbean, known plants with medicinal properties benefit the local population as well as

expanding into the western pharmaceutical world. The value of protecting their cultivation and

habitat is both economically and environmentally beneficial (Murray 22). Of particular

importance is conservation. This region retains significant native species. Losing these

traditional crops is a serious concern for indigenous farmers and there are efforts to ensure

survival of the plant diversity (O’Brien 10). Lastly, farmers utilizing available vegetative

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intercropping and pest control methods see improved productivity with less need for economic

capital.

Recognizing the natural processes in our environment has been essential to human survival.

Fortunately, many rural people in Latin America and the Caribbean use traditional ecologically

valid practices in order to retain land productivity8. Maintaining vegetation complexity is one

example of following natural methods of growth (Johnson 139). Farms with multi-crop systems

benefit because the negative effects of crop failings are reduced (Pretty “Regenerating

Agriculture” 129). Following is a discussion of two types of successful intercrop cultivation.

Traditionally managed farms maintain a native habitat for plants, insects, mammals, and birds

(Johnson 140). Furthermore, sustainable farming from an environmental perspective includes

methods that farmers already practice because of limited resources. Examples of sustainable

methods involve biological controls, planting with intent to recycle nutrients, overall

conservation of the resources available, and waste management. Most farm households also

utilize a small kitchen garden for vegetables, herbs, and medicines (Besson 41).

Research proves that the inclusion of shade trees when growing coffee protects the crops by

increasing diversity and decreasing insect damage to the crop (Varón et al 47). Additional

benefits particular to sustaining the soil include an increase in organic matter (dropped leaves

etc.), and completion of the nitrogen and nutrient cycles. In comparison, elimination of shade

trees, the use of agrochemicals, and manipulation of crop genetics creates monocultures that

8 Janis Alcorn also provides an excellent analysis of Agroforestry systems in all of Latin America in her essay

“Indigenous Agroforestry Systems in the Latin American Tropics.” Agroecology and Small Farm Development.

Eds. Miguel Altieri and Susanna Hecht. Boca Raton: CRC Press Inc., 1990. 203-218.

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become susceptible to pests (García-Serrano and Del Monte 65). This paper further explores

shade tree and coffee harvesting as it relates to required contributions and natural alternatives9.

Agro-forestry is another type of sustainable small-scale farming. It is complex farming

combined with rational methods of traditional knowledge. Termed agronomic, the food forest

provides annual production through mixed cropping and maintains ecologica lly supportive

vegetation (Hills 6). In Limón, Costa Rica, indigenous erudition and diversity are combined to

grow a multitude of vegetation and crops while sustaining the tropical forest ecosystem (García-

Serrano and Del Monte 62). This agro-ecosystem of the tropical forest contains multiple levels

of cultivation and overcomes the challenges of reduced land area (García-Serrano and Del Monte

61). The first type is the home garden, one to two hectares, where subsistence crops are grown

year round (García-Serrano and Del Monte 61). Secondly, slash and burn agriculture provides

crops like maize, and beans, which are marketable traditional foods for the community (García-

Serrano and Del Monte 63). Although at times controversial, pairing slash and burn with crop

rotation can preserve the soil. This final growing technique of poly-culture is a fine example of

integrating modernity into farming. Again using Costa Rica for an example, we find native

vegetation, and staple crops grown among plantain trees. Though less diverse than the home

garden, for remote farms these crops provide necessary income and provisions to the household

(García-Serrano and Del Monte 65). Lastly, one may conclude that agro-forestry is beneficial

and sustainable because the farmers’ dependency is on wild plants and agricultural produce

rather than indeterminate external sources.

9 See heading “ Organic Inputs” for further discussion

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Organic Internal Inputs

Low external inputs are paramount for conservation of natural resources and preservation of

cultivated foods (Pretty et al 125). In contrast, inorganic inputs threaten habitats surrounding

farms and unbalance the ecosystem. These manmade controls contaminate the water and soil,

lead to increased land erosion, and as a result will eventually reduce productivity for the small-

scale farm. Though fossil fuel based inputs were effective for decades in large-scale mono-crop

farming, they require high capital, are non-renewable, and again, are highly pollutant.

Sustainable farming that utilizes organic inputs is instead less dangerous to consumers of plants,

air, and water.

Basic internal organic inputs require little or no capital toward productivity. Examples of

organic internal inputs include; compost, plant and animal manure, ash, as well as the practices

of terracing, crop rotating, and of course, intercropping (Bebbington 285). For many, energy is

derived naturally from the sun, rain provides the water source, nitrogen is maintained with plant

selection, and nutrients are added through the options described above10 (Pretty 10). In addition,

symbiotic crop cultivation based on traditional knowledge is a no cost biological and cultural

method of production (Beckford and Barker 119). In fact, in this region sixty to eighty percent

of corn, squash, beans, and potatoes are intercropped (Pretty et al 129). Likewise, pest and

disease control are sustainable through biological methods. What is more, native or natural

species are already adapted so as not to be negated by pests or become disease resistant. These

plants are cultivated through local knowledge thus avoiding destruction or poisoning to other

vegetation and the environment (Pretty et al 132). Lastly, biodiversity controls insects, retains

10 Admittedly lack of any are a challenge that farmers must face (see “Challenges”)

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soil, and sustains necessary cycles11. Acting as such, there is a reduced need for fertilizers and

external inputs. This means capital can be used to toward other household needs and be invested

locally thus sustaining the cultivators’ community.

Research shows that there are biological alternatives for small farms growing only coffee, which

are proven effective at reducing pests. In separate studies, crop leaf damage was analyzed, one

in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, the other Turrialba, Costa Rica. Farms in Jamaica that

include shade trees provide a habitat for birds, which in turn reduces the herbivorous insect

presence (Johnson et al 146). Findings in Costa Rica show that almost half of coffee plants on

mono-crop farms were targeted by ants, verses ten percent on farms with diverse vegetation

(Varón et al 50). In both cases, the results prove that biodiversity sustains productivity.

The Challenges of Small-scale Farming

A challenge most obvious to the reader is the term “small.” Alternatively, were one to assume

crop cultivation to feed the world’s population by today’s standards, the Green Revolution and

the industrialization of agriculture have made great strides. Unfortunately, our environment and

the viability of crop diversity have suffered significantly. In addition, fresh water sources and

the little remaining productive soil surfaces face negative impacts and often-permanent damage

from large-scale farming methods and pollution. These are realistic reasons to turn to the small-

scale farmer and the traditional practices that sustain the niche and ensure diverse local food

production.

11 Water, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus

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Inputs, Capital and Land

It can be difficult to sustain the crop diversity necessary to meet all the economic needs of the

household. As outside influence reaches more cultivators, mono-crop cultivation rises (García-

Serrano and Del Monte 65). The resulting pressures to increase productivity at lower costs in

order to remain competitive require technological and economic inputs (Bebbington et al 5).

Resources, such as water and quality soil once lost must be supplemented and inorganic options,

though less expensive and recyclable, are not always an option. Regrettably, this leads to use of

chemicals, synthetics, and machinery and the resulting need for capital can result in debt.

Alternatively, finding funding, extension support, or domestic investment is a challenge and as

input prices intensify, small-scale farmers are often denied lending (Beckford and Barker 121).

Indeed, increased productivity of food through modernization has led to unemployment,

pollution, and negative effects on local communities (Pretty 58).

Land ownership, and affluent groups’ consumption and takeover of once public viable land are

additional challenges facing small-scale farmers. Testimony of earlier farming in Costa Rica

reveals that though they were poor, people were able to cultivate crops sufficient to feed their

families, utilize their surrounding environment, and practice animal husbandry with greater

multiplicity (Faber 68). Alas as capital heavy agriculture spread, cultivation became limited by

soil and water degradation (Besson 41). In fact, forty-four percent of Costa Rica’s soil contends

with erosion problems (Faber 64). In Jamaica, farmers are constrained to small areas of viable

land and tenure is an impediment (Beckford 254). With the rise of tourism, the number of

islanders employed in agriculture is now less than twenty-five percent, down from almost fifty

percent a half century ago (Beckford 248).

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The Market

Today, global market realities emphasize mass production and long distance, fossil fuel driven,

transportation. Furthermore, for the small-scale farmer price fluctuation at the grand scale can

lead to production costs higher than sales (Sick 195). Being dependent solely on market

conditions is not a secure livelihood (Bebbington 277). At the turn of the century, many Costa

Rican coffee growers gave up on farming due to market conditions12 (Sick 196). Other farmers,

hoping to maintain income and not lose their land, switched to cattle though it is more damaging

to their land (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 359). These farmers and

cooperatives in the provinces of Puntarenas, Heredia, and San José reveal the challenges of a

one-crop system to sustain income. Unfortunately, fair trade as an alternative is a small market

with low demand not yet large enough to provide a fully viable alternative to the prevailing

market (Sick 199).

The market system that encourages unsustainable practices and the industrial approach to

increase output thus manages prices, supply and demand levels, and import/export needs of a

nation-state. This veracity creates difficulty for smaller farms to maintain productive land and

compete for market prices. For example, on Jamaican yam farms income security is the largest

influence on decisions made by small-scale farmers. They must compete with crops globally,

forcing particular and un-natural cultivation to obtain larger yams (Beckford 252). Even with

agrarian reform across the region in the 1980s, farmers continue to struggle to overcome the

import market challenges. In the Andean highlands of Ecuador, forty percent of the rural

population receives income from more than one job (Bebbington et al 7). Some question

whether rural families can support themselves solely on agriculture (Bebbington et al 1).

12 Mono-crop is again less environmentally sustainable than diverse vegetation cultivation

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Government policies add to the challenges of the small-scale farmer. In the last half of the 20th

century reliance on foreign investment, the World Trade Organization, and IMF demands have

dramatically influenced corporate control on agriculture, and the cultivation options available for

funding (Choudry 291). The free trade agreements that open a country to outside control usually

favor the wealthy larger farms and ignore the small-scale farmer or peasants. Movements in

Costa Rica and Ecuador have been semi-successful in resisting areas of natural resource

exploitation, but less so in the realm of agriculture (Choudry 295). Jamaican farmers were

largely unable to compete with the opening of the island to imports, due to its smaller size, even

the domestic market was overcome by the flood of imported fruits, vegetables, and dairy (Life

and Debt 2003).

Inexpensive foreign imports are also bad for farming because foreign investment drives

migration to urban areas resulting in a loss of independence, insecure income, and unguaranteed

employment. In a decade, Jamaica’s domestic production was reduced to half13 (Beckford and

Barker 122). The island must maintain food security, or risk permanent dependency on outside

influences. Without the support of subsidies, conservation encouragement, research and capital

investment from the national to the local government, the peasant farmer struggles to sustain the

household and improve their standards of living.

Migration

Accompanying loss of land was the influx of manufacturing, and new labor options from other

natural resource exploitation such as mining and petroleum. The wage labor available from

these new markets, though less stable, provides the cash necessary to purchase goods from the

13 1995-2005

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opened markets. This leads to an increasing desire for western cultural products, sneakers,

televisions, etc. (Anderson 413). The social demand for modernity and technology where quick

income and not long-term subsistence are the goal is high especially for youth (Bebbington 279).

This and new construction of roads in rural areas creates a wave of out migration. Indeed,

acculturation is leading to a decline in sustenance farming and as income options arise,

independence for the native farmer decreases (García-Serrano and Del Monte 66).

Transportation costs, migration of youth out of rural areas, and competition with technological

advances make sustainable farming more difficult than it once was. For many however, the

insecurity of wage labor creates more instability than reliance on nature or self-employment

(Southgate 54). Lastly, despite the challenges, there are significant strides toward new methods

of cultivation that ensure gain, cooperation in the communities, and some external options to

open the market. One may conclude that though the struggles exist, the ability for a household to

survive in dire times is only possible for those who are able to cultivate land for food crop.

Overcoming Challenges – Sustainable Success

Jamaica

Until the end of the 20th century when tourism really took off, agriculture was the focus of

economic development (Beckford 248). Rural people were able to grow food even though

divisions from slave plantation days marginalized their access to land (Besson 39). Today,

small-scale farmers continue working hard to be innovative and traditional at the same time in

order to remain independent and continue farming. Combining local knowledge, selecting

21

symbiotic crops, conservative irrigation, and maintaining soil quality ensures cultivators’

success.

To compensate for lack of available arable land in St. Lucia cultivation methods involve agro-

forestry. This involves annual and perennial mixed cropping (Hills 1). Fruits, vegetables, herbs,

and cash crops are grown within tropical species maximizing organic inputs of sunlight,

fertilizers, and biological pest controls. The vegetative variation is based on crop availability and

soil conditions as well as economic considerations (Hills 6). By utilizing land (the size of a

small yard or at max one hectare), cultivators are able to maximize productivity, maintain

biodiversity, and sustain household nutritional needs.

In St Elizabeth, domestic production of garden produce involves sustainable soil management.

Here farmers are able to overcome low rainfall, one internal input that can become a challenge.

The technique involves planting under a fixed cover of dried grass. Beside maintaining moisture

this manual and biological control reduces weeds and soil erosion (Beckford and Barker 123). It

is a perfect example of sustainable small-scale farming that is beneficial for both the

environment and the farmer.

Lastly, in Trelawny, local knowledge implements dynamic cultivation practices to address

environmental and economic challenges (Beckford and Barker 119). For residents of the village

of Martha Brea, a total of 20 hectares and 800 people, land ownership consists only of the

kitchen garden (Besson 41). The villagers are able to grow traditional sustenance foods while

otherwise surrounded by plantations. Elsewhere in the province, farm sizes are five hectares or

less and include animal husbandry of goats, pigs, and chickens. Because of arable land scarcity

and fragmentation, labor intense, mixed cropping practices accomplish growth with minimal

22

input resources (Beckford 249). This region is a source for export crops that include yams14,

cassava, sweet potatoes, coca, and pumpkins. In this regard, the ability of small-scale farmers to

remain dynamic in order to sustain the farm also benefits Jamaica’s economy (Beckford 250).

Costa Rica and Cooperatives

Cooperatives combine voices, inputs, and knowledge with an egalitarian approach (Pretty et al

136). In AguaBuena, Costa Rica, the Coope Pueblos cooperative consists of fifty coffee farms of

less than five hectares (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 359). According to

Johnson et al, coffee is second only to oil in exports out of Latin America (139). Therefore,

promoting sustainable coffee growing is a great success for the cooperative. Additional

accomplishment includes a direct market link to the USA, the worlds’ largest economy. In fact,

the local harvesting, processing, roasting, and shipping of coffee results in two to three times

greater profit than the fair trade market (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 360).

Lastly, there is sustainability of the local community and support of local knowledge and labor

forces through development of the small-scale ecological coffee processing.

Ecuador

Like cooperatives, indigenous farmer federations ensure independence, reduce input costs, and

promote non-polluting practices. They create support for sustaining native species through seed

banks, encourage farmer-to-farmer extensions, and provide research support (Bebbington 286).

In the Chimborazo province, over thirty farmer federations enhance the small-scale native

farming community. Projects focus on bilingual literacy training of social and cultural rights and

resource management. There is education on legislation, accounting, and administration to

14 A staple food crop that is grown entirely small-scale (Beckford and Barker 124)

23

improve farm viability (Bebbington et al 11). All of these features promote small-farmer

interests and an agenda of profitable sustainability.

Other examples of small-scale farming successes are found across the country. In Pinchincha

province, non-commercial agriculture occurs on areas less than three hectares providing

subsistence farming for primary or secondary sustenance (Southgate 56). The methods they use

ensure continued daily nutrition for rural households that income cannot always provide. For

some in Imbabura province, reliance on external income is offset by produce supporting local

processing plants and the local market (O’Brien 10). Lastly, cultivation in Pastaza and Napo

provinces involves retaining native palms in cattle pastures, and sustainably harvesting the plant

from the forest (Anderson 415).

Conclusion

The term “Original” in title of this paper emphasizes the fact that traditional cultivation practices

found in all three countries were beneficial long before scientific research began evaluating

sustainability. Cultivators who comprehensively utilize water and soil resources, create minimal

waste, and grow multi-crop systems have been able to continue farming for centuries.

Alternatively, mono-crop agriculture becomes susceptible to soil degradation, pollutes the water

source due to high fertilizer and pesticide use, and requires high capital not available to the

majority. Small-scale farming is still an essential production force in Latin America and the

Caribbean (Varón et al 53). In fact, small farms are likely to be the solution to the regions food

security advancements. In Jamaica, multiple levels of vegetative growth ensure practical use of

space, foods available year round, cash crops for some income, and natural means of pest control

24

(Hills 6). Costa Rican plots produce evidence of greater diversity, better utilization of sunlight,

and the benefits of animal husbandry interactive with plant growth (Gliessman “The Ecology”

14-5). Finally, in Ecuador, sustainable conservation practices integrated with cooperatives

maintain sustainability of land, household, and community (O’Brien 10). All of these examples

bring us to the conclusion that we must work with farmers to finds ways to overcome the

challenges that small-scale farming face, or risk food insecurity and irreversible damage to

natural and cultivated resources.

25

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