AROTTNITI-fEWORLD

AGordianKnot:TheEthnicRelationsoftheSouthSlays

ItislikelythattheviolentwarnowragingbetweenthesouthSlavicpeopleswillbeincludedamongthemosttragicofthetwentiethcentury.Therootsoftheanimosityextendfarintothepast.Whileasolutiontotoday’shorrorswillhavetoaddressthecomplicatedinteractionsofhistory,theparticipantsthemselvesmuststepoutsidetheirattachmenttothepastandattacktheproblemfromnewperspectives.

OldWine,NewBottles*OfChristianityandEmpire:theEarlyHistoryoftheSouthSlays*UnderAustriaandtheOttomans:Conquest,Migrations,ConversiontoIslam*The19thCentury:IntellectualsDebateNationality*ComingTogether,BreakingApart:Yugosiavism,GreaterSerbdom,CroatianSeparatism*TheSiovenesandMacedonians*TheFirstYugoslaviaIsBorn,1918*CircusDemocracyandaPoliceState:YugoslaviaDuringtheInterwarPeriod*WorldWarII:YugoslaviaShattered,GenocideandResistance*TitoTriestoSolvetheNationalQuestion*TitoStepsIn*TheSuccession:FromTito’sDeathtoToday.Books,GitanesandCDs

ByNicholasBreyfogle

OldWine,NewBottlesWelivedinpeacefor50years.Wewereneighbors,friends-Yugoslavians.Igrewupneverhearingethnichatredorplansforwar.IlovedsummersinSarajevo,wheneveryonewouldwalkalongthemainstreetintheevening,stoppingatcafésfilledwithfriendsandhappylaughter.Myfriendswerenormalteenagers.Wewantedtohavefun,gotomoviesandpartiesandshop.Wedidn’tchoosefriendsbasedonwhetherwewereSerbs,CroatsorMuslims.Newsweek,March8,1993

SowroteNaidaZecevic,aneighteenyearoldBosnian,nowafirstyearstudentattendingcollegeintheUSAandadefacto

refugee,exiledbythecourseofeventsfromherfamilyinSarajevo.HerdescriptionfitswellwithpastimagesofYugoslaviaasatouristdestinationrepletewithstartlingmountains,lushcoastalresorts,andawarm,invitingpopulationwhoextendedhospitalityinoldEuropeanstyle.Yet,theyarestrangewordstobereadingthesedays.Hardlyadaygoesbywithoutsome’furtherunfoldingofthewarsthatragebetweenthepeopleofYugoslavia’ssuccessorstates.ThesewarsnowaccountforthemostterriblefightingEuropehasseensincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar-some50,000to150,000dead,anywherebetweentwoandthreemilliondisplacedpersons,institutionalizedpoliciesofrape,andthehabitualassortmentoftorture,slaughter,imprisonment,deprivation,andstarvation.Itisawarwithoutboundariesinwhichthelinebetweencivilianandsoldier,inthetrueBalkantraditionofbrigandageandguerillawarfare,issoblurredandbesmirchedthatitalltoooftendisappears.

TheethnicrelationsofthesouthSlaysarelikethemythicalGordianknot.Forhundredsofyearstheyhavestruggledtountangletheintertwiningchords,proposingdifferentsolutionsatvarioustimes.Recently,however,thesolutionofchoicehasbecome,notforthefirsttimeintheirhistory,theforcibleseparationoftheknotbyviolentlyhackingthebondsthattie,splitting

chordsandsprayingropedust.Throughouttheirtangledhistory,thesouthSlavicpeople

whocametomakeupwhatthetwentiethcenturyhasknownasYugoslaviahavestruggledwiththeforcesofhistory.Theirmemoriesreachbacktoanalmostinconceivabledegree,toEmpiresandreligiousconversionathousandyearsago.Theyrelivetheirhistoryintheconflictsoftoday,instories,politicalspeeches,andradioandtelevision.Eachnewstepisjustifiedbyapaststep,eachclaimbyapastclaim,andeachvictimizationbyapastvictimization.Historyhasbroughtthemtogetherbutithasalsotornthemapart-sometimeswithviolence,sometimeswithwords.

Today,thesouthSlayscontinuetostrugglewiththeirpast-withreligions,withethnicity,withmedievalempires,withthescarsandchangesmadebytheOttomanandHapsburgEmpires,withdiaspora,withtheimpactofwesternnotionsofnationalism,withtheviolentbreakupofthoseEmpires,withthehungry"GreatPowers"whostoodattheirdoorstogobbleupthescraps,withdifferentconceptionsoftheunityofYugoslavia,andwiththeapproximatelyeightyyearsthattheylivedtogetherunderoneroof,oftensquabblinglikethemembersofafamily.Itwasafamily,butperhapsonlyoneofconvenience-neverthebest,onlythebetter,solution.Whentheexternalthreatofconquestdisappearedandtheeconomydisintegratedinthelate1980s,thefamilybegantobreakup-eachmembernowstrivingtotakewiththemasmanyofthefamilypossessions,and,infact,asmanyoftheotherfamilymembers,aspossible.

Aftercenturies,thelongstandingquestionsstillremaintobeanswered.WhoshallcontrolthelandsofBosniaandHercegovma?WillitbetheCroatsortheSerbswholeadthesouthSlays?Howarenationalboundariesdefined-byethnicityorhistoricprecedent,byreligionorbylanguage?WhoarethesouthSlays,onegroupormany?WhoaretheBosnians?AretheyallSerbsorallCroats?Willitbeafederalorcentralpoliticalstructure?Whowilldecide?

Withallthishistory,thesouthSlaysarecaughtinaparadox.Ononehand,lastingsolutionstothestrugglewillinevitably

ORIGINSMAY1993

havetocometotermswiththecauses-causeswhoseoriginsliedeeplyentrenchedinthepast.Ontheotherhand,today’sparticipantsmustescapethatverysamehistory-mustbreakthebondsthatcondemnthemtorelivethepast-sothattheymayaddressthecontemporarysituationwithclearandrationalminds.

OfChristianityandEmpire:TheEarlyHistoryoftheSouthSlaysTheSlavicpeopleswhonowinhabitthemajorityoftheBalkanpeninsulamigratedtotheirnewhomelandduringthe6thand7thcenturiesandsoonthereafterconvertedtoChristianity.Thoseinthewest-theSlaysofmoderndayCroatia,Slovenia-wereconvertedbyGermanspeakingRomanCatholics,thoseintheeast-‘Serbia,Montenegro,Macedonia-byEasternOrthodoxChristians.WiththeschismthattoretheRomanandEasternchurchesapartin1054,thesouthSlayswerepermanentlyseparatedonefromtheother.BosniaandHercegovina,situatedonthedividinglinebetweentheRomanCatholicandtheEasternOrthodox,wereconvertedbybothandwerealreadyaboneofcontentionbetweenthetwosides.

DuringMedievalhistory,thesouthSlavlandsdevelopedtwoimportantempires-onecenteredonCroatia,theotheronSerbia.Eachempireexpandedtocontrollandsthattodayfallunderthejurisdictionofothernationalities.TheCroatiankingdom,whichincludedpartsofwhatistodayBosnia,beganin924andlastedforclosetotwohundredyears.TheSerbianpeoplesdevelopedandmaintainedthestrongestofthesouthSlavmedievalkingdoms,unitingthepeoplesofMontenegro,Hercegovina,andSerbia.ThekingdomreacheditsapexduringthereignofStepanDusan1331-1355whoexpandedtheborderstoincludeallofmodemAlbania,MacedoniawhereDusanlocatedhiscapitalcity,Skopje,partsofBosnia,aswellasagoodportionofGreece.In1389,theSerbarmywasdefeatedbytheTurksatKosovoPolje-abattlethathastakenonamysticalimportancefortheSerbianpeopleandwhichliesattheheartoftheSerbiandeterminationtoholdKosovo.

UnderAustriaandtheOttomans14thto19thCenturies:Conquest-MigratIons--ConversIontoIslamToday,pocketsofethnicSerbsarefoundspreadthroughoutformerYugoslavlands-inCroatia,inBosniaaiidHercegovina,inKosovo,inVojvodina.ThisdiasporaoriginatedwiththemassmigrationswestwardthatfollowedinthewakeoftheOttomanTurkishMuslimsinvasions.Themasstransfercontinuedinfitsandstartsoverthecourseofthefollowingcenturies.ItbroughtCroatandSerbtogethertolivesidebysideand,overgenerations,theybegantodevelopsimilarcustoms,traditions,andlanguage.

OttomanruleenhancedthepoweroftheSerbianOrthodoxChurchandreligiousleaderstookonnewroles.TheOrthodoxChurchquicklybecamethevesselinwhichSerbiantraditionandnationalconsciousnesswasfosteredandtransportedthroughtheages.Moreover,theOrthodoxchurchactedtobindOttomanSerbswiththeotherSerbsspreadthroughouttheHapsburgEmpire.

OttomanruleservedtodistanceitssubjectsfromthedevelopmentsintheWest.Thebureaucratic,administrative,feudalstructureofOttomanruleremainedvirtuallyunalteredbycapitalismandthedevelopmentofnewclasses.Theconsequencehasbeenapermanenteconomiclagonthepartoftheeasternsouth

Slays.ThefinalimportantresultoftheOttomanconquestwasthe

conversionofasignificantpartofthepopulationtoIslam.ThegreatestincidenceofvoluntaryconversiontookplaceinBosniaandHercegovina.ManyBosniansandHercegovinianshadcometoadheretothebreakawayBogomilChristiansect.TheywelcomedthecomingoftheMuslims,onlytoohappytoescapethepersecutionoftheirChristianbrothers.Tothisday,BosnianMuslimsareresentedbytheothersouthSlaysasTurkishcollaboratorsandtraitors.

ThoseYugoslavswhofellunderHapsburgcontrol-Slovenes,Croats,Serbs-underwentaverydifferentseriesofchangesanddevelopmentsthantheircousinsunderOttomandominion-changesthathavelefttheirmarktothepresent.TheHapsburgSlayswereexposedtoGermancultureandtheforcesofevolvingcapitalism.Administratively,theHapsburgSlaysmaintainedtraditionalgoverningstructuresthroughtheinstitutionofthesabor-agoverningassembly-andtheban-agovernor.UnliketheOttomanSlavrelianceonthechurch,theCroatsandSlovenesreliedonthesepoliticalstructuresasnationalrallyingpointsandfortheupholdingoftradition.

TheNIneteenthCentury:IntellectualsDebateNationality

Duringthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,theconceptsofnationalityandnationthathaddevelopedfromeighteenthcenturywesternEuropeanromanticismweretakenupandappliedbysouthSlavicintellectuals.Language,morethanreligion,custom,orevenethnicitywasconsideredtobetheallimportantfoundationofnationality.

InSerbia,VukKaradzicstandardizedtheSerbianlanguagearoundthe"stokavian"vernaculardialect.ThisacthadasignificanteffectonSerbian-Croatianrelations.ThemajorityoftheCroatsalsospokeinthestokaviandialect-apotentiallyunifying

LjutJijana,_._‘Zagreb

CROATIA

K’jinaRgio

POLITICALMAPOFFORMERYUGOSLAVIA-VojvodinaandKosovowereautonomousregionswithinSerbia,theothercountrieswerefullrepublics.[Electromap,Inc.]

MAYfl3ORIGINS.3

forceandbasisforanationstate.However,thelinguisticissuealsoservedtodividetheCroatsfromtheSerbs.Karadzicarguedinanarticle"SerbsAllandEverywhere"thatallpeoplewhospokestokavianwereinfactSerbs-aninterpretationthatdeniedtheexistenceofCroatswhospokeinthatdialect.TheargumentquicklyledtotheinterpretationthatalllandsinwhichthepopulationspokestokavianshouldbelongtoSerbia.ManyCroatsarguedinasimilarfashion,everyonewasCroatian.

TheselinguisticdebatestookplaceinthebackdropofapanYugoslavideologythatdevelopedinCroatiaatthesametime-Illyrianism,namedfortheRomanprovinceofIllyriathatcoveredthelandonwhichthesouthSlavstateslaterdeveloped.AdherentstotheIllyrianviewassertedthatallBalkanSlaysweredescendentsofthesametribecalledthe"Illyrians"andwereethnicallyunited.DistinctionsbetweentheIllyrianpeopleexistedbecauseoftheyearsofforeignrule.TheIllyrianscouldandshoulduniteinthefuture.

ComingTogether,BreakingApartYugoslavlsm-GreaterSerbdom-CroatlanSeparatismFromthel850s,movementtowardssouthSlavunityaccelerated.Nevertheless,"Yugoslavism"alwaystookabackseattothestrongerandmorequicklydevelopingsenseofindividualnationalidentities.In1866-67,secretmeetingstookplacebetweentherepresentativesoftheCroatianassemblyandtheSerbianforeignministry.Ageneralagreementwasreachedforthe"formationofaYugoslavstateindependentofAustriaandTurkey."However,almostimmediatelyitbecameclearthatdisagreementsexisted

4.ORIGINS.MAY1993

onmostofthespecificproposalsforunification.AttheheartofthedisagreementlaytwoquestionswhichhavecontinuedtothepresentdaytoplaguesouthSlavleaders-WhowouldassumethemantleofleadershipintheunificationoftheYugoslavs?and,related,butequallyasimportant,HowwouldthelandsthatmadeuptheterritoriesofBosniaandHercegovinabedisposedofwithinanyfutureYugoslavnation?

SerbiabecamethefirstsouthSlavstatetogainitsautonomyfromtheOttomansorAustrianswiththeestablishmentofanindependentmonarchyin1878.Theroadtofreedomhadbegunasearlyas1804andfollowedatorturedpathofpeasantrebellionsandexternalmeddlingthatleftmanydeadandthefinalSerbianstatefrustratedbytheinterferenceoftheGreatPowers.

WithintheCroatianpoliticalspectrum,threepartiesemergedduringthemid-I800s,eachwithaslightlydifferentpolicyontheissueofnationality.TheUnionistpartybelievedthatCroatia’sbestinterestslayinmaintaininghistorictieswithHungaryandwasanti-Serb,anti-Orthodox,andanti-Yugoslav.TheNationalPartyespousedtheIllyrianidea,believinginthepan-SlavicvisionbutbasedaroundaCroatiannucleus.ThePartyof[CroatState]RightledbyAnteStarcevicstoodforanindependentCroatia.Starcevicarguedthat"theentirepopulationbetweenMacedoniaand[German-speakingAustrianareas],betweentheDanubeandtheAdriaticSea,hasonlyonenationality,onehomeland,oneCroatianbeing."

Twoeventsduringthe1870sservedtorapidlydistancethesouthSlavgroupsfromoneanother.First,aneducationallawwaspassedin1874inCroatiawhosemissionwastosecularizeeducation,shiftingcontrolfromthechurchestothesaborand,thereby,tofosterasenseof"Croatness"amongallSlavicpeo

plesinCroatia.TheOrthodoxSerbianpopulationunderthe

Monarchyresistedthislegalactionanddemandedthattheybeexemptedfromthelaw.ThatthelawwaspassedrankledSer

biancitizens.ThattheOrthodoxcalledforanexemption,stifllulatedsuspicionsamongnationalistCroatleaders.

Second,theBalkansfoundthemselvesincrisisfrom1875

78whichbeganwithanuprisingintheOttomanprovincesof

BosniaandHercegovina.AttheinternationalCongressof

Berlin,thelatterwereplacedundertheoccupationandadministrationoftheHapsburgmonarchy.SerbsinbothSerbiaand

AustriaobjectedastheyconsideredthelandsrightlySerbian.

Croatresponsevaried.Somecensuredtheact,consideringthe

landsCroatlands.OthersembracedthefreeingofsouthSlays

fromOttomancontrolandsawinAustrianoccupationthe

promiseofafutureamalgamationofCroatiawithBosniaand

HercegovinaundertheAustrianMonarchy.-

_______

TheantagonismthatgrewupduringtheI870s,increased

significantlyasthetwentiethcenturyapproached.InSerbia,

extremeformsofnationalzealwereconsciouslyfostered

throughthepress,churchandschools.ontheextremeofSer

bianchauvinismwasanarticlewrittenbyNikolaStojanovicIfl

1902called"SerbsandCroats"inwhichhearguedthatthe

Croats"didnothavetheirownlanguage,norcommoncustoms,

norastrongcommonidentity,nor,whatisimpOItttlt,conscious

nessofbelongingtooneanother,asaresulttheycannotbea

separatenationality."Hecontinuedbystressingthattheconflict

betweenSerbsandCroatswouldcontinue"untileitherweoryou

areeliminated.Onesidemustsurrender."Atthesametime,CroatiannationalismwasfednotonlybY

ongoingconfrontationswiththeSerbsbutalsobytheruleofNineteenthcenturyMuslimBosnianwarrior-theyneedhishelpnow.[MetroTorontoReferenceLibrary]

KarolyKhuen-Hedervay,theHungariangovernorofCroatia.Hegovernedbytheprincipleofdivideandrule,panderingtothedesiresoftheSerbianminorityonmattersreligious,economic,andeducationalinreturnfortheirsupportinthesabor.TheCroatianPartyoftheRight,movedevenfarthertotheextremeintheirchauvinismandunderanewleader,JosipFrank,turnedtoviolenceaswellasharshrhetoric.In1896,HapsburgSerbswereconfrontedbyCroatnationalistswithdemonstrationsandflagburningsandin1902,followingthepublicationof"SerbsandCroats,"CroatstooktothestreetsbeatingandharassingSerbsanddestroyingtheirproperty.

In1905,fiveSerbianandCroatianpartieswithintheHapsburgMonarchycametogethertoformtheCroatian-SerbianCoalition.Thepartybelievedintheexistenceofonenationality-Yugoslav-withthreenames-Serb,Croat,andSlovene.JustastheCatholicandProtestantGermanscouldmakeuppartsofthesameGermanysotoocouldCatholicandOrthodoxsouthSlays.Thepartywonatleastapluralityineachofthesucceedingpre-warfreeelections,indicatingsupportfortheir"Yugoslav"ideas.However,eventhispartydidnotcompletelyagreeastothefutureofaYugoslavstate.WhereasavocalportionconceivedofaunitarystateconsistingonlyofHapsburgSlaysanothersectionarguedthatanysouthSlavicstatemustcomprisetheSerbsofSerbiaandMontenegro.Moreover,whileagreementcouldbereachedconcerningoppositiontotheAustroHungariangovernment,theissueofBosniaandHercegovinaremainedaprofoundobstacle.Eachgrouplaidvocalclaimstotheirhistoricandethnicrighttothelands,realizingthatwhoevercontrolledthoselandswouldinessencehavetheupperhandinarbitrationoversouthSlavleadership.-

FollowingtheassassinationoftheArchdukeFranzFerdinand,heirtotheHapsburgthrone,in1914,Croatianultra-nationalists,takingtheircuesfromVienna,organizedandcarriedoutacampaignofpersecutionagainsttheSerbianpopulation,especiallyinBosnia-HercegovinawhereSarajevoturnedintoa"frenzyofhate."SimultaneouslytheyharanguedtheleadersoftheCroatian-SerbiancoalitionintheCroatianAssemblycallingthem"murderersoftheCroatianheirtothethrone."TheysoughtandtookadvantageofanyopportunitytoopenachasmbetweenSerbsandCroats.

NineteenthCenturyNationalism:TheSlovenesandMacedonlans

TheSloveniansgavelittleseriousconsiderationtotheYugoslavideauntilthe1880sand1890s.SlovenenationalconsciousnesswasslowtomakeitswayoutfromunderneaththedominationofGermaninfluences.AssuchtheSlovenesweremoreinterestedinthedevelopmentoftheirownidentitythantheywereinasouthSlavidentity.TheyfrequentlyspurnedSerbianadvancesbecausetheyregardedthemasbothpoliticallyandeconomicallybackward.

Nationalistsentimentswerealsogrowing,althoughatamuchslowerpaceamongtheMacedonianpopulation.In1896theInternalMacedonianRevolutionaryOrganizationIMROwasbornwhichstruggledtothrowoffforeignrule.IntheMacedonianregionthatcameunderSerbiancontrolin1913anareathathadformedpartofDusan’sMedievalempire,thenewSerbmastersbeganapolicyofculturalandlinguisticassimilation.Macedonianswerecompelledthroughthreatsofimprisonment,torture,anddeathtochangetheirnamestoSerbianstyleby

adding"itch"totheending.

TheFirstYugoslaviaIsBorn,1918

In1914,theconceptofYugoslavismnowherereceivedanymorethanreservedsupportfromthesouthSlavpeoples.ThefinalcreationofYugoslaviacamealmostasanaccidentandwasfraughtfromtheoutsetwithinternalweaknessesandcontradictions.

WartimemeetingsbetweenrepresentativesoftheHapsburgSlaysandtheexiledSerbiangovernmentculminatedintheDeclarationofCorfuinJulyof1917whichagreedinprincipletotheunionofallsouthSlays.Despitetheenumerationofspecificcharacteristicsforthenewstate-constitutional,democraticmonarchy,freedomofreligion,useofbothalphabetsCyrillicandLatin-theissueofafederalorcentralstatestructurewasnotresolvedandremainsunsolvedtothisday.

Twothreateningforces-oneinternal,oneexternal-actedasthecatalystsfortheeventualcreationofthefirst"Yugoslav"statein1918calledtheKingdomofSerbs,Croats,andSlovenesruledbytheSerbianKingAleksandar.Ontheonehand,thecollapsingHapsburglandswerecaughtinaspiralofspontaneouspeasantunrestthatresultedfromacombinationofwartimedeprivationsandlongstandinghardship.Ontheotherhand,ItaliantroopswereadvancingintosouthSlaviclands.TheItalianshadbeenpromisedpartsofCroatiaandSloveniabytheAlliesatthesecretLondontreatyof1915inreturnforenteringthewarontheAlliedside.Whenthewarendedtheycametocollectpayment.

CircusDemocracyandaPoliceState:YugoslaviaDuringtheInterwarPeriodFromtheoutset,internalproblemsthreatenedtobreakthenewstateapart.TheKingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSloveneswas

ETHNIC/RELiGIOUSBREAKDOWNOFFORMERYUGOSLAVIA-Areasshadedrepresentregionsinwhichthatreligionand/orethnicityformedthemajority.MacedoniaandSerbiahaveseparatebranchesoftheOrthodoxchurch[Electromap,Inc.]

**Orthodox,*:***Serbia,,andMacedoniant

Catholic

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Muslims,Slavic

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Muslims,Albanian

MAY1g3.ORIGINS.5

verymuchmorethanthat.ItwasamosaicthatincludedfiveSlavicpeoplesandavarietyofminoritynon-Slays,threereligions,eighthistoricalprovinces,threemainlanguagesaswellasahostofdialects,twoalphabetsandaplethoraofbothbadandgoodfeelingthatwasthelegacyofrelationsduringthepre-waryears.Moreover,thecomponentpeoplesfoundthemselvesatverydifferenteconomicandsocialconditions.TheoldAustroHungarianlandsCroatia,Slovenia,andVojvodinaweremoreindustrialized.Serbia,MontenegroandBosnia-Hercegovina

‘accountedfornomorethan15%ofthenation’sindustry.Serbsviewedthenewstateasacontinuationofthepre-1914

SerbianKingdom,withitsconstitution,army,monarchy,andbureaucracy.TheypromotedSerb-dominatedcentralizationandtheslogans,"threenames-onepeople"and"thethreetribesoftheYugoslavnation."However,overtforcesofdivisioncamefromCroatseparatistmovements,thePartyofRightandtheCroatPeasantPartyledbyStepanRadic.By1930,thePartyoftheRightledbyAntePavelichadturnedintoaultra-nationalistparamilitaryterroristorganizationtheustasa,findingsupportinMussoliniwhowishedtoseeanindependentCroatiathathecouldpullintohissphereofinfluence.RadicandtheCroatPeasantPartycalledforalooseconfederationofrepublicsand

refusedtocompromise.TheytooktheircomplaintstotheinternationalcommunitytryingtofindabackerfortheirvisionofanindependentCroatia.TheseactionssmackedofbetrayalfortheSerbpopulationswhoweredismayedthattheCroatswantedoutsosoon.

ThesouthSlavicexperiencewithdemocracyinthel920swasoneofexasperationandfrustrationinwhichlittlewasachieved.Thenationwideelectionsof1920returnedcandidatesfromawholespectrumofregionallybasedparties.Thedividedparliamentariansvetoed,obstructedandblockedanylegislationthatcamethrough,strugglingtotailorittotheneedsoftheirspecificlocality.Tocapthingsoff,RadicandfourothermembersofparliamentwereshotbyadisaffectedMontenegrinpolitician.KingAleksandartookthisopportunitytoterminatetheunworkableparliamentandinstitutearoyaldictatorship.InOctober,1929thenameofthenationwasofficiallychangedtoYugoslavia.Aleksandardecreedaconstitution,proclaimingacentralizedstate.Inanefforttofosteranationalunity,citizenswerehenceforthtoconsiderthemselves"Yugoslav,"allsignsandsymbolsoftheoldnationalitieswereremovedandallmeasureswerebackedwithforce.

TheassassinationofAleksandarinFrancein1934-apparentlycoordinatedbytheustasaandIMRO-onceagainremappedthenationallandscape.By1939,Yugoslaviawaseffectivelydividedintotwospheresofinfluence,oneCroatian,theotherSerbian.Croatiawasmadeintoanenlargedprovincewithspecialautonomouspowers,aseparatelegislature,andcontroloffiscalandadministrativematters.ThislookedverymuchlikethelooseconfederalsolutionthatRadichadsearchedforduringthe1920s.Thefinalboundariesbetweenthetwospheres,however,wereneverspecificallydefined-theissueofthemixedpopulationsofBosniaandHercegovinaremainedunanswerable.ThisnewagreementalsoentirelydismissedtheequalityoftheothernationalitieswithinYugoslavia,afactthattheyverymuchresented.

WorldWarII:YugoslaviaShattered,GenocideandResistance

OfalltheincidentsinthepastrelationsofthesouthSlays,WorldWarIIandthetreatmentoftheSerbsbytheCroatustasagovernmentismostoftenrehashedandisbyfarthemostincendiary.FollowingtheAxisvictory,Yugoslaviawascutupintotinypiecesanddividedamongstthevictors-Germany,Italy,Hungary,BulgariaandAlbania.InCroatia,afascistgovernment,ledbyPavelic,waserectedonthefoundationoftheustasa.ItwastherealizationofthelongdesiredindependentCroatstateandincludedallofBosniaandHercegovinawithitspopulationofapproximately50%Serbsand30%Muslims.

TheCroatustasagovernmentorganizedsystematicmassacresoftheSerbsonCroatianterritory.TheextentanddegreeofthehorrorisbitterlydebatedtodaybetweenSerbsandCroats.CertainhistorianshaveclaimedthatthedestructionoftheSerbsrankssecondonlytotheJewishHolocaustinbothferocityandvolume.OthersarguethatitwastheGermans,nottheCroats,whocarriedoutthemassacres.SomeputthenumberofSerbianvictimsat200,000,othersat600,000,stillothersatmore.Inonedocumentedcase,1,260SerbianpeasantswerelockedinanOrthodoxchurch,murderedandincinerated.Moreover,theCatholicchurchinstitutedapolicyofforcibleconversionofOrthodoxSerbsthatturnedsome200,000SerbsintoCatholics.

KingAleksandar-firstkingofYugoslavia,1918-1934.[MetroTorontoReferenceLibrary]

6ORIGINS.MAY1993

AsWorldWarIIcametoaclose,civilwarandanarchybrokeoutinYugoslavia.Thetwoprimaryresistanceforces-Mihailovic’sChetniksandTito’sPartisans-foughtboththeconqueringGermans,theCroatustasa,andeachothertheChetnikstendedtoberoyalists,thePartisans,communistsandtheChetniksoftencollaboratedwiththeGermanforcesagainstthePartisans.Localpopulationsarmedthemselvesagainsttheinvaders,againstthedifferentparamilitaryorganizationsandagainsttheirneighbors.Thecivilwarinvolvedeveryoneanditleftdeepscars.

TitoTriestoSolvetheNationalQuestionThedevelopmentofTito’sresponsetothenationalquestioncanbeseeninfourrelativelydistinctstages.Thefirststage,until1948,reflectedaSoviet,Stalinistsolutiontoamulti-ethnicsociety.FivedistinctYugoslavnations,sixrepublics,andtwoautonomousregionswererecognized.Administrativestructureswerecreatedtosupportandbolsterethniccomplexitybutcounterbalancedbyahighlycentralized,single-partydictatorshipwithastrongpolicepresenceandcentrallymanagedeconomy.

FollowingthebreakwiththeSovietUnionin1948,thecentralgovernmenttookitsfirststepstowardsthedecentralizationofboththeeconomyandthepoliticalstructuretolowerlevelsandworkerscooperativestherebybeginningthesecondstage.InYugoslavia,‘local’means‘ethnic’andthedecisiontodivestthecenterofitsmonopolyservedtoinflameregionalanimositiesandenhanceinter-regionalcompetitionastheygrappledforscarceresources.

Thatregionalallegianceswereonceagainontherisewasshownbyresistancetoa"Yugoslavism"campaigndesignedtofosteranoverarchingsupranationalsentimentthatwouldoverridethecentripetalregional-nationalistforces.TheindustriallymoreadvancedCroatiaandSlovenia,believingthattheyhadreceivedtheshortendofthestick,lobbiedforgreaterliberalizationwhileatthesametimecomplainedthatmanyofthestatedepartmentsandespeciallythatofsecurity,weredominatedbyethnicSerbs.Theysawthepolicyof"Yugoslavism"asaveiledattemptonthepartoftheSerbiancentertore-instatethetypeofYugoslaviathathadexistedunderKingAleksandartwenty-fiveyearsbefore.Inthefaceofthisnegativereactionthe"Yugoslavism"programwasscrappedandtheliberalizersfinallyswayedTitototheirside.Thecentralizerswerepurgedin1966andYugoslaviamovedontothethirdstageoftheTitoistnationalsolution.

From1965,themovetowardslocal"self-management"took

onanewandacceleratedspeed.Economicreformswereundertakenthat,forallintentsandpurposes,endedcentraldecisionmakingandplacedcontrolofinvestmentfundsandthebankingsystemintothehandsoflocalethnicauthorities.Thesebodiesquicklycametofunctiononlywithinaspecificregionorlocalityinsmall,inefficientunits.

Atthistime,moreover,theautonomousprovincesofKosovoandVojvodina,technicallywithinthejurisdictionofSerbia,gainedofficialautonomy.InKosovo,nationalistdemonstrationsbythemajorityAlbanianpopulationresultedintheflightoflargepartsoftheethnicSerbswho,filledwithresentment,fearedfortheirfuture.TheSerbsconsideredKosovotobetheheartlandoftheoldMedievalSerbianstateandclaimeditonhistoricalgrounds.TheAlbaniansrightlypointedtotheirdemographicdominance-approximately80%ofthepopulation-andtheirhistoricrootsonthelandwhichdatebacktowellintotheeigh

teenthcentury.AtthesametimeCroatian

leaderswerebecomingevenmoreassertiveintheirdemandsforgreaterautonomyandovertsignsofsovereignty.The1967Croatian"LanguageDeclaration"calledfortherecognitionofCroatianasanequal,officialYugoslavianlanguage-tobetaughtinschoolsandusedinthemedia-andrejectedSerboCroatianasanartificial,Serbinflicted"politicallanguage."

Thisperiodalsowitnessedtherecognitionoftwo"new"nations-theBosnianMuslim1968-69andtheMacedonian1967.ForthefirsttimeinhundredsofyearsBosniaandHercegovinaaswellasMacedoniawereofficiallyconsideredethnicallybasednations,ratherthansimplydistinctculturalcommunities.

TitoStepsIn

Theadministrationofthecountrywascollapsinganddead

lockedinthemazeofmutualvetoesbuiltintotheconstitution.Inthisatmosphereofgrowinginternalethnictension,Titosteppedin1971,threateningmilitaryintervention,tobringthecrisisundercontrol.

Tito’sdrasticmeasuresof1971-72inauguratedthefourthphaseofthenationalsolution.Thefederalsystemremainedinplaceandwasevenbolsteredbythe1974constitutionthatleftonlyquestionsofforeignpolicy,defense,andgeneraleconomicdirectiontothecentralpowers.ThegreatestdifferencebetweenthethirdandfourthphaseswasTitowhoassertedhisgreatpersonalpowertokeepalidontheboilingpot.ThenewleadershadlearnedthatTitowouldnolongertoleratetheovertexpressionofregionalinterests.Moreover,thesesameleadershadcometorealizethatlocalistsentimentcould,ifoutofhand,acttodisruptother,perhapsmoreimportant,componentstotheir

MAY1943.ORIGINS.7

lives,suchastheeconomy.Duringthe1970stheeconomywasontheriseandfewpeoplewishedtodisturbthesuccess.

Despitetherelativequietofthel970s-asignificantriseinthenumberofcitizenswhodescribedthemselvesas"Yugoslav,"ratherthanasamemberofaspecificethnicgroup,appearedtobodewellforYugoslavia’sfuture-theregional-nationalistwaterscontinuedtoboil,shownbyfurtherdemonstrationsandarrestsinKosovointhemid-l970s.WiththedeathofTitoin1980,thesafetycatchesontheliddisappeared.

TheSuccession:’FromTito’sDeathtoToday

ThetwomostimportantfactorsthatkeptYugoslaviafrombreakingapartbefore1980haddisappearedbythesecondhalfofthel980s-Titowasdeadandtheeconomydisintegrated.Foreignpressure,traditionallytheotherimportantforcekeepingYugoslaviatogetherwasincoherentandinternallydisorganized-theColdWarwasoverandtheEuropeanCommunity,indispute.

Inthisenvironment,regionalpoliticalleaders-whoespousedchauvinist,ethnic,populistmessages-combinedwiththepeopletoworkeachotherintoafrenzy.SlobodanMilosevic,whobecameCommunistPartyChiefofSerbiain1986,remainsthemostprominentofthesenationalistleadersbutwascertainlynottheonlyone.Byfosteringstreetdemocracyandmassrallies,Milosevicstartedinmotionaperpetualbacklashbetweentherepublics,mostespeciallybetweenSloyeniaandSerbia.

MiloseviccapitalizedonSerbgrievancesunderthefederalsystem.SerbscomplainedabouttheirlackofinfluenceinfederalYugoslaviawherethesignificanceoftheirlargerpopulationwaslostinasystemthatgaveequalweighttoeachethnicity,andspecificallyofwhattheyperceivedtobetheirrawtreatmentintheeconomicsphere;aboutthedivisionofSerbiaintothreepartsKosovoandVojvodinabytheCroatTitoandhissecondincommandKardelj,aSlovene;andaboutthenationalismandirredentismoftheseparatistAlbaniansinKosovo,whichtheybelievedwasbeingfosteredbytheotherrepublics.

Themulti-partyelectionsof1990broughtnon-Communist,regionallycenteredgovernmentsintopowerinSlovenia,Croatia,BosniaandHercegovina,andMacedonia.Justdaysbeforethefightingbegan,theycontinuedtorehashthelongstandingissuesoffederalversuscentralandthesplittingofYugoslaviaintoitsOttomanandHapsburgcomponents.ButwherewouldthebordersbeandhowwouldBosniaandHercegovinabedealtwith?Fragmentationranamokastwohundredregionallybasedpartiesemerged.AllattemptsatreformbythePrimeMinisterAnteMarkovicwereblockedorunderminedbydifferentethnicparties,reminiscentofthepoliticalstalemateoftheearlyinterwaryears.ThistimetherewasnoTitoorAleksandartorestorestability.

Regionalnationalismgrewlikewildfire.FearofseparatistmovementssoaredamongSerbslivingoutsideofSerbiaandrelationsbetweentherepublicssoured.Thememoriesofpast

[KirkAnderson]

8*ORIGINS.MAY1993

conflictswereblownoutofproportionforpoliticalend.SerbspointedtothehorrorsoftheindependentCroatianstateduringWorldWarIIand,inahighlypublicizedincident,CroatleadersrenamedasquareinZagrebafterAnteStarcevic,the19thcenturyCroatianultra-nationalistwhounfavorablycomparedSerbswithbarnyardanimals.

FearofanindependentCroatiangovernmentwasespeciallyfierceintheKrajinaregionwheretheSerbsrepresentedthemajorityofthepopulation.Miloseviccametothesupportofthe"foreign"Serbsdemandingrightsandprotectionfortheircommunities.Hedidnotopposeself-determinationonthepartoftheotherrepublicsbutaskedthatthesamecourtesybeextendedtothemajoritySerbpopulationswithintheirboundaries.Hequietlyencouragedthe"foreign"Serbstodemandit-thisdespitehisblatantdenialofself-determinationoftheAlbanianpopulationinKosovo.

IntheKrajina,localSerbs,notalwaysfollowingBelgrade’slead,tookmattersandtheinitiativeintotheirownhands.Theyarmedthemselves,blockedroads,andtookoverlocalfacilities.Aspessimismgrew,SloveniaandCroatiapreparedforagunfight.TheYugoslavPeople’sArmyJNAbelievedintheimportanceofmaintainingYugoslaviaintactwithoutwhichtheywouldhavenojobandoftencametosidewiththeSerbiangovernmentandlocalSerbmilitias.InJuneof1991,followingtheSerbsponsoredblockingoftherotationofthepresidency,SloveniaandCroatiadeclaredindependence.Sabersrattled,leadersmisjudged,andboththepeopleandtheirstatesacceleratedarming.Theviolentconflicthadbegun.

Books,Gitanes,andCDs

Overthepasttwoyears,thefightinghasmovedfromSloveniatoCroatiatoBosniaandHercegovina.WhileSloveniaisnowrelativelyquiet,battlescontinuetorageinCroatiabetweentheKrajinaSerbsandthenewCroatgovernment.InBosniaandHercegovina,SerbsandCroats-astheyhaveforhundredsofyears-arefightingtheSlavicMuslimstocarveoutcontrolofaregionthattheybothclaim.OvertviolencehasyettosweepVojvodina,KosovoorMacedonia.However,thesethreeregionsmayprovetobethemosttragic.Eachareaincludesalargenon-SlavicpopulationHungarian,Albanian,andBulgarianandTurkishrespectivelyandconflictcouldconceivablydragneigh-

boringnationsintotheYugoslavmaelstrom.GeorgeSantayanawarnedthatthosewhodonotremember

theirpastaredestinedtorepeatit.ButthesouthSlaysremembertheirhistoryalltoowellandneverthelessseemcondemnedtoreliveit.WhiletheforcesofhistoryhaveledtothebreakupofYugoslaviaandserveasthewellspringoftheviolence,ifthesouthSlaysaretocometoaresolutionoftheproblemoutsideofmutualannihilation,theymustforgettheirpastandconcentrateonlyonsalvagingthepresent-aformidabletaskinYugoslavia.

Asalways,however,itshouldberememberedthatthisisawarfoughtbypeople,nottheforcesofhistory.Thereasonsforfightingarenotalwaysasclearashistorymightmakethemappear.InareportpublishedinHarper’sMagazineofMarch,1993,"BalkanDeathTrip-ScenesFromaFutileWar,"TonyHorwitzrelaysthepersonalmotivationsofaSerbnamedZjelkofightingforhometownSarajevo.Itisapainfulreminderthatwarisoftenaboutnothingatall,thatpeoplecontinuetofightbecausetheywantsimplyforthefightingtoend.

Idon’tfightfornationalism-Isleepwithgirlsofallnations.Idon’tfightforreligion-Godisnoplace.IfightbecauseIwanttogobackdownthere[thedowntownhouseheleftmonthsearlierinfearofattacksonSerbs]withmybooksandmyCDplayerandmyGitanecigarettes.

Slovenianpeasantinmorepeacefultimes.[JosephineKing]

MAY13.ORIGINS.9