The
ORIGINS OF WATER POWER With special reference to its Use and Economic
Importance in England from Saxon Times to the year
A.D. 1750
by
PAUL N. WILSON * M.A., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.
Reprinted from "Water Power," August, 1952-pp. 308-313
*Managing Director, Gilbert Gilkes & Gordon Ltd. Water Turbine Manufacturers, Kendal, England
The Origins of Water Power By PAUL N. WILSON
U TIL the last decade or o littl thought ha been given to the water-power re ources of this
ountry. While millions of pounds have been pent on diverting water from stream and river to atisfy the dome tic need of our people and the industrie in our citie , to ns and villages, old weir crumble and decay, mill pond fill with weed , and head and tail races di appear below the new building of the factorie to which they once brought pro perity.
There were, howe er, time when water power wa invaluable, and whole indu trie were compell d to move to ar a where it wa available. The factor which contributed to the tart of the In-du trial Revolution are vari d, but water power wa a e sential as coal, iron ore, wool, cotton or ilk. Without it many of the indu trie which grew to con iderable proportion in the event enth and eigthteenth centuries could never have b en deve-loped. Again, it wa th lack of ·ufficient water power to compete with the greatly increa ed requir -ment of the new factori at the end of the eighteenth century which fo rced inv ntor to eek de perately for ome alt rnative sourc of power, and so pro ided the incentive for Boulton and Watt to d velop th team engine.
First Use of Water Power The first known ma hin for onv rti ng th
kinetic n rgy of flowing water into u ful work i the 'Nora,' ' oira' or ' aura' wh L which wa built for irri aation purpo e in Ch ina, Arabia and
orth Africa many c nturi s before the Ch ri tian era and i _till in u e, probably in it original form. It con i t of a bamboo wh el with paddl which dip into the tream where th e curr nt i relatively wift, thereby au ing it to re olv . A mall
bamboo 'bucket' i attached t the rim . Thi fill with water a the paddle dip into the river and empti e into an irrigation trough a it i lifted to the top 1
•
The aura wheel was a self- ontained unit which was not u ed to driv any oth r form of machine. It can have had no inAuen e upon the invention of the Greek mill, which wa the fir t waterwh eel u ed
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A B A B C
~ Fig. r. Typical erbian 111ill, from a shetch made by Dr .
Gilbert Wilson in I92
for grinding corn, but may have inspired the de ign of the horizontal- haft R oman mill.
The Greek mill wa probably invented in the third or second century B. . Ac ordina to Beck-mann2 one of th e earlie t reference appear in a Greek epigram quoted by ntipater which ha b en translated as follows: -
" ea your work, ye maid , ye who laboured at the mill; sleep now, and I t the bird ing to the ruddy morning; for Csres has command d the water-nymph to p rform your task; th c, obedient to h r call, throw them elv on the wh eel, force round the axl -tr e, and by the m a n th heavy mill."
It was a vertical- haft paddle wh el, with four or more blades on to whi h a tream of water wa dire ted through a tecply loping wooden trough. The haft wa k yed to the upper mill ton and th drive wa direct. Fig. I is a ketch of a mill of this type in erbi a mad in 192 . Th wheel i probably similar to th at of th original Greek mill, though th haping of the blade to give better effi ciency may have be n a later d velopment.
The earliest record of th horizontal- haft R oman waterwheel i found in the writings of Marcu Vitruvius" , dated probably about A.D. 27. Follow-ing upon hi description of 'En ine for rai ing Water' and 'The First of the Tympanum' (which wa , in fact, a aura whe 1) he stat that : -
" Water-mil l ar turned on th ame principle, and are in all respect similar, exc pt that at one end of the axi they are provided with a drum-wh el toothed and fram ed fa t to the said axi ; thi being placed vertically on the dge turns round with the wheel.
" Corresp nding with the drum-wheel a larger horizontal toothed wh eel i placed, working on an axis whose upper head i in the form of a dovetai l, and i inserted into the mi ll- tone. Thus th e teeth of the drum-wheel wh ich i made fast to the axi acting on the teeth of the horizontal wheel, produce the revolu tion of the mill- tones, and in tb engine a suspended hopper upplying tb m with grain, in t he am revolution flour i produced. "
Thi de cription could almo t certainly have been appli ed equally well to any of the medieval flour mill in England, and th illu tration in Fig. z show a mill which follow clo ely Vitruviu ' description.
The watermi lls of Rome app ar to have remained a rather expensive novelty until the fourth or fifth century. o long as lave or animal labour was ava ilable to grind corn there wa little incentive to lay out capital in buildina watermills. By the sixth century, however, th ey were evidently of con-iderable e onomic importance. When Vitige ,
Fig. 2. Medieval R oman mill (R eproduced from " H istory of Corn Milling," by B ennett and Eldon )
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king of the Goths, be eiged Belariu in Rome in the year 536 A.D ., he cut off the aqueducts which supplied the mills The topping of the mills cau ed great distre s in the city, but B larius overcame the trouble by building floating mills which were moored in the Tiber, the wheel being driven round by the velocity of the current. The besiegers tried to top the mill by floating log of wood and dead bodie down the river, but B lariu laid boom up tream, and succeeded in raking the ob tructions clear before they reached the wheel 1
•
The Introduction of Water Power to England Th fir t watermills to be u ed in England were
introduced by the Roman during the second or third century A.D. In 1907, Mr. F . Gerald impson,
.B.E ., M.A., Hon. F . . A . cot., excavated a building between the Great Wall and the Vallum of the Roman Wall at Haltwhi tl Burn H ead, Co. Durham, which he identified a a watermill dating (according to di coverie of pottery) from the econd century . He was able to trace the head and tail-ra e, and a few piece of timber which appear d to have formed a part of the structure which contained the wheel were found . There were al o fragments of mill tones which were too large to have been turned by hand. A later excavation at
he. ters showed that an existing building which formed a part of the Great Wall adjacent to the bridge abutment on the east side of the orth Tyne ri v r had been converted for u e a a mill. The head and tailraces can be clearly seen, the tailrace being covered with ma sive slab which carri ed the mi litary way to the bridg . At Willowford near Gil land there are trace of a irnilar watermill ite where th e Wall cros ed the river Irthing . Mr.
iI"Qp on is of the opinion that ther may have been more watermills in the vicinity of the Wall and he hopes that further excavation will prove this5
•
It i interesting to speculate why the Roman garri son at the Wall should b in talling wat rmill as early as the econd century A.D . when apparently they were carcely used at all in Rome at thi time. A po ible answer i that the Wall supported a very large garri on in an area which was probably spar ely populated. If there was a erious shortage of labour there would be a trong incentive to try out the late t labour-saving d vice from Rome.
Apart from the finding at the Wall there have been no other authentic trace of Roman watermills in England. Sir William Fairburn, quoting from Whittakers "History of Man hester" (r77r), refers to traces of a Roman mill found in Manche ter. There is little evidence to prove that this was in fact, a Roman mill 6 .
Much patient and accurate re earch work was carried out at the end of the nineteenth century by Bennett and Eldon on the history of corn milling. They infer from the evidence then available that the Romans did not use watermills in this country, but had the excavation at Haltwhi tie Burn Head and Che ters been carried out before their work was published, they would undoubtedly have altered their opinion;.
They expre sed the opinion that the medieval watermill was introdu ed to England during early Saxon times and it seems probable that from the end of the Roman occupation until the arrival of the Saxons, watermills became extinct in this country.
It is not known whether the early Saxon water-mills were of the Greek or Roman type. Traces of vertical- haft (Greek) mills have been found in Ireland and they were u ed in the hetland Isles as late a the nineteenth century. All early illustrations indicate that the Saxon mill was a horizontal-shaft under hot wheel of the Roman type, but this cannot be taken as proof that the vertical-shaft or overshot mill was never u ed 8 .
Where there was a suitable fall and volume of water either type may have been installed, but the Roman mill would be more suitable for the low heads available in tho e part of the English country-side which were mo t thickly populated before the
orman Conquest. The pos ible site of a vertical-shaft "Norse" (Greek) mill has been investigated at Buttermere in Cumberland . This area was largely populated by the or emen during the period before the orman Conque t and the fact that there may have been an i olated mill of this type in Butter-mere is no guide a to the general practice throughout the greater part of the country 9
•
The earliest authentic reference to a watermill appears in a Saxon document of 762 A.D. and it may be assumed that corn mills were coming into general u e in Saxon Britain from about the eventh or eighth century onwards10 . -
Corn Mills More than 5,000 corn mills are mentioned in
Domesday Book1 1 and the following extract from "A History of Bedford" may be taken as typical of the extent to which water power was being used throughout England at the end of the eleventh century.
" Abundant u e wa made of wa ter power, almo t every considerable manor having its mill; and it may h re be remarked that the much la rger number of mills-all of which would pre umably b e wat rmill - imm diately after the conq u t , can b accounted for on everal grounds. In the feudal times the manorial mill was a source of
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income to the lord of t he manor, as all pea ant were und er obligation to take their corn t hither to b gro und, and tra nsport was also a seriou question. H en e there was a mill wherever there was wat er enough to work one; and mills exi st d in loca li t ie in which at pr sent there i never, or v ry ra rely, wa ter enough for uch purpose. The diminution of the woodland and the modern syst em of drainage have both contributed to eff ct this change." 1 2
The obligation to grind his corn at the manorial mill appears to have been a severe burden on the pea ant, but heavy penaltie were extracted from those who went elsewhere1 3
. The miller, who normally rented his mill, and made a much a he could out of his customers, became an unpopular figure. (Vide Chaucer, 'The R eeve's Tale') . He enjoyed a monopoly, and made the most of it. There was a common joke at hi expen e : -
"What is the bolde t thing in the world ?-A miller 's hirt, for it clasp a th i f by the throat da ily. "
In 1397 the citizen of Chester objected strongly to the fact that the lessee of the Dee Mill was charging considerably more than the normal one-sixteenth of the corn ground for the u e of the mill. They addressed the following humble petition to King Richard II: -
" To th excellent and or mo t redouwbted sovereyne the Ky ng.
" Yours pore leges and supplycant the meyre and comlti e of yor citie of Che t er showe that the mylners of yor milnes of dee do t ake from day to day divers owtragiouse partes over the right toll used throgh e all yor realm of ther corne and malt over xvj greyne after that it is grounde to the gr at ympoveri hment and damage of yor said pore supplica nts .
''T hat it mey please yor mo t highe t maiesti e and of yor ·p eciall grace to graunt unto them to hav ther corne and malt grounde at yor m ilnes for the xvj gr yne without any other tol e pa rte or any thyng over. For God sake and in love of the citi e." 14
~
The rival interests of the miller and river navi-gators were often cause of argument and litigation.
An enquiry was held during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I into the danger to navigation of the many "Wear , locks and mills" on the riv r Thames between Maidenhead and Oxford . There were sixteen mills on this stretch of the river, and boat-men were frequently drown d in the locks. The following defence wa put forward by the mill-owners: -
" First, touching and in behalf of th se Mill and locks upon the Thamuse ; That they were of as great antiquity a the town and vi llage wh er unto th y ad joyn; a nd a a ncient evidence to be sh wed for them as any man b ath for any land he held within the realm of England. That they were of such n ecessity , as that without them the great multitude and number of the Queen 's people, inhabitants between Maidenh ead Bridge and the City of Oxford, should not well know wh ere to have their corn
• ,.
ground ; be id mealing to th e city of London a nd other place . " 1 s
As might be expected , trouble with the fishermen broke out on the northern border of the country . At Berwick-on-Tweed a w ir was thrown across the river and the " ew filne" was built in 1683. Apparently "Lord Hume and other Scotch (sic) gentlemen" organised a raiding party to break down the weir, but the town people turned out in such force that the raid wa called off 1
" . The narrator of th e tory adds the following not : -
" Th r a on why the cot b doe o moll e t the towne' s milne i becau e they imagine it stop the a lmon fish to come t o them, butt one of the Scotch la ird , that wa more moderate, a id he could not ay that it d id hinder him of one fi sh, and tha t he did not take ti ll a many as before the miJne was sett up. "
From early Saxon times until the coming of the steam age it is clear that the watermill was an im-portant feature of the Engli h countryside, but it can hardly be aid to have had any decisive effect upon the sh ifting of indu try or population. Where water power was available it wa used; otherwise corn wa ground by wind power or horsemills. The adaptation of water power to other uses is probably of more interest to the engine rand student of economic hi tory.
Fulling Mills The earliest record of a fulling mill in England is
in a survey of the Templar' land in n85. This mention a '' molendium fulerez'' at ewsham in York hire, and another built by the Templars them-elves, at Barton, in the otswolds 1;.
Fulling i a process used in the woollen trade whereby the woven cloth is beaten in water to hrink it, increa e the den ity of the material, and 'felt' the cloth to uch an extent that the fibre become bound together and th e patt rn of the weaving is lost. During the proces the cloth is coured and cleaned by detergents such as full er' s arth which remove the oil with which the wool i impregnated before pinning.
ntil the end of the twelfth c ntury the centres of the woollen indu try of England had been in the towns where the guild were trong . 'Fulling' wa done by hand, by beating the cloth with clubs, or by tramping it underfoot. At ome time- probably during the latter portion of the twelfth century-the waterwheel-driven fulling mill wa invented . It consi ted of one or more hammer , actuated by water power which automatically beat the cloth in wooden trough and required a minimum of super-vi ion and little phy ical effort on the part of the workmen.
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Fulling by water power had a profound effect upon the woollen indu try of England. pinning, carding and weaving were carried on as cottage industries until the late eighteenth century, but in spite of the efforts of the ity Guilds to prevent it, the water-driven fulling mill had come to stay, and it carri ed the woollen trade to tho e parts of the country wh ere water power wa available. To quote Miss am s-Wilson: -
" The decay of the once famou lath-making citie of th ea t ern plain and the rise of the country fulling mill how not only tha t the rural industry was gain ing over
the urban, but also, when w con ider the preponderance of fulling mi ll in the north and we t of England, that the broadcloth ind u try a a whol wa t ending to hift from east to we t, to new centres in the W st Riding, the L ake Di trict and the W est of England. For here were to b e found a mple supplies not only of fin e wool but a lso of water power. In the twelfth and early thirteenth cen-tu ri es the :fine quality English cloth specia lly in demand a broad were loth " of Stamford," " of Lincoln, " " of Louth," "of B verl ey, " "of York," but in the fou rt eenth and fifteenth centuries there was no demand at a ll for thes cloth s, but much fo r " K endal , " " Ludlows," " Cot -wold , " " Mendips," "Castlecombes, " "Stroudwaters, " or " Westerns, " and the p ri mary, though not the only, factor in this change wa the invention of the fulling mi!l."L S
By the fourteenth century there were eleven fulling mills in the W e t Riding, tw nty-five in the We t of England, nine in the otswolds and nine-teen in th e Lake District1 9
•
At the beginning of the ixteenth century there were no Jes than eighteen fulling mills in the parish of Gra mere, Westmorland, which at that time in-cluded Langdale2 0
• This is an a tonishing figure, but is ubstantiated by documentary evidence. Almo t more remarkable is the fact that by the ·eventeenth century this prosperous trade was abandoned in the Gra mere Di trict. Miss Armitt i of th opinion that this may have been due to the devastating effect of the plague in the y ars 1577, 1597 and 1598.
The water-driven fulling mill was responsible for the movement of the woollen industry from the south and east of England to th e north and west. In the ninet enth century the steam engine largely r placed the waterwheel, but at fir t steam only augmented water power, and the centres of the woollen trade, followed by the cotton trade, remained in those areas where water power was available.
The Iron Industry The iron industry grew up in th southern
counties. In the primitive bloomeries the lump of crude iron wer hammered with ledge hammers to force out the lag, but as the value of the indu try increa ed and it became neces ary to work on a larger
scale, some more powerful method of beatincr the iron had to be found. The water-driven tilt hammer wa probably adapted from the fulling n1ili2 1
•
The description "molendina ferrea" or "molendina fabril e" occurs in charters quoted by Du Cange and Carpentier a early as r3rr. There i a French record of a '' moulin a fer'' as early as 1249.
The counti es of Kent, Su sex and Surrey have no great water power potential, and the ironma ter oon ran into diffi-culties. In order to conserve water they had to go to con- .. ··. iderable expen e to build and
maintain " hammerponds," mo t of which appear to have been fed by very small streams. As the size of the furnaces increa ed, cast iron replaced wrought iron, and it became
Fig. 3. A i:ilt hammer, operated by a waterwheel, and used by K irks tall Forge, L eeds, from I6oo to I92I (R eproduced by permission of the company)
es ential to maintain a con tant and powerful blast of air as long a the furnace was alight. Some furnaces only worked during the winter month when a reasonable water supply could be expected, and when the streams failed completely they had to recourse to the very costly expedient of 'treading the wheel,' i .e. u ing the waterwheel as a treadmill. Presumably only a few men could 'tread the wheel' at one time and if th i wa ufficient to maintain the blast the power developed by the e wheels must have been relatively small. traker suggests that the very dry year of 1737 to 1750 contributed to the final eclipse of the Wealdon iron industry2 2
•
In the northern counties the situation was much more ati factory. Once the problem of smelting and proces ing iron using coal as the basic fuel had been solved, the ironma ters were mainly concerned with improving their water power, and were pre-pared to pend great sums in doing o. At Kirk tall Forge, near Leeds, great attention was paid to increasing pondage, but even o lack of water wa often a limiting factor in production23
.
Mining and Water Supply In 1550 Georgiu Agricola completed hi famous
book on mining, ''De re Metallica,'' although it was not published until 1556, after his death24
.
Agricola lived in Saxony and spent much of his time amongst th e mining camps of south-western
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Germany . Books VI and VIII contain rg illustra-tions of waterwheels used for ore crush ing, pumping, venti lation, winding and blowing. N·early all these illustrations show overshot wheels supplied by wooden troughs which must have been much more effici ent than the medieval design of undershot wheels with flat paddles .
In r565, ten year after Agricola' book wa pub-lished, Daniel Hechstett r, a mining engineer from Augsburg in southern Germany , came over to Keswick, Cumberland, to investigate the po sibi lity of mining precious metals in the district. Within a year a community of German (oft n r £erred t a 'Dutch') miner had settled in th e Lake District, and were oon busily at work exploiting the gold, silver, lead and copper deposit 2 5
.
There can be little doubt that H ech tetter and his men were familiar with all the appliances described by Agricola. Collingwood' book deals largely with th e financial accounts of the German company, and waterwheels are often mentioned. In 1568 and 1569 there are frequent referen e to the building of stamping mill at ewlands and aldbeck, in-cluding an item of r s. 6d . for " Drinks to ewlands farmers who helped to carry the wheel-axle. " 26
Fig. 4 is taken from Agricola, but probably could equally well represent the ewlands or Caldbeck stamping mill. If the axle ha to be carried for any distance the farmers earned their drinks!
. The German miners carried their experience to Cornwall. Richard Car w, in his "Survey of Cornwall " (London, 1602) , di su ing methods of ore dress-ing, tates that: -" ... Sir Fra nci Godolphin . . . enter ta ined a Dutch :.\Iynerall man, a nd taking light from his ex perien e, but building thereo n £arr more profitable co nclusions, of his owne invent ion , ha th practi ed a more a v ing wa y in t he e matters, and
beside , made T ynne with good profit of tha t refu e which Tynners rejected as nothing worth ."
Thi 'Dutch lVIynerall I\Ian' was Ulri ch Frass who, accord-ing to Collingwood , was ent (from Ke wi k?) a manag r to Trewarth near Perrin Sand . Carew do 0 s not state defi ni t ly that Fra s introduced the water-driven tamp mill, but it i rea onable to infer that mach in-ery of thi sort wa used to cru h the old poil heap to uch an extent that tin could be re-claimed in paying quantities27
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The mo t famou of the early water-power projects in Eng-land wa the Thames pumping plant. Thi wa built in 15 2 by one Peter lVIorri , variou ly described a a Dutchman and
Fig. -1-· W atei•wheel-driven ore-crushi11 u stamp
a German . Thi , and the later waterwheel driven pumps which upplied dome tic water t th City of London, ha been o ably described in a rec nt serie of articl s by the late Dr. H. W. Di kin on 2
' in The Engineer that it i unnecessary to repeat th e information there given .
It i , however, intere ting to sp culate upon wh ether Peter Morri wa a fri nd or as ociate of Hechstetter and hi compan ion . Morris' invention depended upon the use of a force pump. In 156 Hechstetter invented a new engine for draining mines,' and he appl ied for 'the privil g of water-work , ' offering to ' form a company and all ot hare ' 2
" .
Dr. Dickinson states that bridge waterworks originated in G rmany, and one wa in talled at Aug burg . R ech tetter frequently visit d London and Aug burg, and it appears possible that Morris may have been an engineer from southern Germany who, hearing of the hortage of wat r in London, and the rapid tidal flow at London Bridge, decided
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to fo ll ow h is countrym n to the land they had ado12t d .
Th London Bridge waterworks became of great importance, but as London grew they failed to cope with th e needs of the people, and the gravity upply of the New River Company coupled with the necessity for rebuilding London Bridge ultimately brough t about thei r removaP 0
• The la t unit were designed by Smeaton, and they were dismantled by Act of Parliam nt in r 22.
The Approach of the Industrial Revolution In his choolday the author wa led to b lieve
that the Industrial R evolution started during the latter half of the ighteenth century and wa brought about by the invention of the pinning frame, power loom and team engine. Work wa normally carried out by hand in cottage and the factory y tern only beaan to dev lop after th e invention
of th e e power driven machines .
Modern economic hi torian have examined the evidence with much greater care, and now agree that large scale capitalist indu try wa developing steadily during the reign of Elizabeth and the
tuart '11, and that th e "revolution" which took place between 1750 and 1800 was e entially a very rapid developm nt of established busine
Long before avery, wcomen, Arkwright or Watt were born the waterwheels of England were driving fulling mill , carding engin , tilt hammers, rolling, slitting and wire-drawing mill , grindstone , furnace blower , mine tamp , pump' and cornmills. The inventor stru agled to produce power-driven machines which would in rease output with reduced labour o t , and except for a re tricted field of mine pumping and ome textil proce es where horse mills were ometime u ed, they looked to water-wh eels for their our e of power. The indu trial production of England may have been mall com-pared with th e agri ultural production, but had it not b en for our water-power resource it would have b"en infin itesimal. The author is forced to the con lusion that but f r the r latively hicrh rainfall of Lanca hire, York hire, Derbyshire. Cumberland and \ e tmorland, and the high land of the Pennine
hain running down the c ntr of England, there i no reason to believe that th e ''Indu trial Revolu-ti on" would have started in thi couptry.
REFE R E>ICES 1 ir Joseph lynn. "Power of \\·at r to Turn ~lill s, " p. 4. John
\\"ea l , London, l 53. 2 J o hn Beckmann. " Hist ry of Invent ions and Disco veries."
\ ·01. 1, p. 152 . Tran s. \\'m. Johnston . Londo n, 1 46. This Antipa ter was appa ren th· L. oelius Anlipa ter, juri t and historian , who wrote about 5 B . .
3 :'llarcus \ .itruvius (Pollio). ". rchite ture," Book X, h. X. Tran s . Jos. Gwilt. Prie tly c• \\·eale, London, r 24.
4 Pro opius of Caeseira, " His tor)· of the \\"a rs," Bk. \ ', The Gothi \\°ar, Tran s. H. B. Ewing, Loeb Serie . 1919. . lso E. ibbon, "De line an l Fall of the Roman Empir ,"Ch. XL! , London, r 33 .
5 Full details of i\lr. Simpson' di co ve ries have not ye t b en publi heel and unfortunately the mill site at H a ltwl>"st le Burn Head , which is undoubted))· the most co mple te, ha been covered over by the wa te hea p of a quarry. An excellen t drawing, however, was prepared by Mr. Simpson . References to the mill ite; may b found in J . Coll ingwood Bruce (edited by l an A. Ri hmond) " Hand bo k to the Roman \\.a ll," pp. o, r47 and 166. Ten th edition. Andrew Reid & Co. Ltd ., :'\ewca lie-upon-Tyne.
6 ir \\"illiam Fairburn. " Trea li e on ~ l ill s and ~lillwork , " p. 4 . Longman reen & Co., London, l 7 .
7 Benne tt & Eldon. " H is tory of Corn i\ l illi ng, " \ ·01. 2, Ch. 3. impkin :'ll a rshall & Co. Ltd. , London, ' 99.
C. P. kilton. "Brili h \\.ind mill and \\ 'a t rmill s," p. 39. o llins, London, 1947. An illus tration of a horizontal-shaft waterwheel fro m th Lutterell a lter (c. 1340) is reproduced.
9 :'\ichola ize. "Click )Jill at Bultermere." Tran ac tion Cumber-land & \\·estmorland n tiquarian ar.d Arch:co logica l So i ty. :\" .S. \ "o I. 36.
10 Benn tt & E ldon . Op. it., p. 6. 11 ir j ohn lapham . "The conci e E onom ic History of Britain,"
p. 67 . Cambridge nivers ity Jr s, 19+9. 12 " \ "ictoria His tor)· of the Counties of England-Bedford." \ ·01. 11 ,
p. 73. 13 1-1. . Bennett. "Life on the English :'llano r," p. 130 . Camb.
l.Jniv . Pres , 1937. 14 Bennett c· Eldon. Op. Cit. \ ·01. 4., p. 69. 15 john tow. " A un·e)· of the ities of London and \ \·estmin t r ."
En larged and improved by John trype. h. X , p. 39. London, 1720 . 16 ~I. A. Richa rdson . " The Loca l Historian ' Table Boo k." Hi torica l Divi ion, \ "o l. l , p. 315, :\ewcastl -upon-Tyne, 1 4 r.
17 E. ~I. a rus- \\"ilson. "An l ndustrial R vo lution of the Thirteen th Centun-." Econo mic H is tory Review, \ "o l. XI , 194 1, p. 44.
~ 9 Ca~us- \\: il on. Op. Cit., p. 59. a1us-\\ilson . Op.C1t.,p.4.
20 i\ l iss :'ILL. Armitt. "Fullers and Freeholder of Grasmere." Tra11 s. of the Cumberland and \\"estmorland Antiquarian and Arch::eo-lo ical oc . i\ . . \ ·01. \" III , p. 155 -
21 Erne t tra ker. " \\·eald n Jron." Ch. \". G. Bell & Sons, London 193 1. 22 Straker. Op . it . Pp. 64, 65, 72, 73. 23 Rodn y Bull r. "The His tory o f J< irks tall F rge." h. 3. Henry J enkinso n Ltd., I< irks tall, 1945. 24 Geo rgius Agrico la . "De Re ~l eta llica. " Ch. \ ·1 and \ "Tl I. Trans-la ted Herb rt & Lou Hoover, The i\/1:11i11g .\/agatine, London, 1912.
25 \\". G. o lli ngwood . "Elizabe than Kes-wi k." Titus \\"ilson, J< ndal, 1912.
.- .... --
26 Co llingwood. Op. Cit. P. 9i. 21 Agrico la. Op. Cit. Footn le p. 2 3.
Th Hoov r qu le Col. .rant Fran is in his co llection " melting of Opper in the Swan ea District,,, Lon Ion, 1 r , giving th name as ' t;Iri k Fro e.' 28 Dr. H. \\". Di kinson. " \\.a ter Supply of .rea ler London.'' The Engi11eer, 9th Jui)·, 194 , e l seq . 29 Collingwood. Op. Cit. P. 16.
30 Dickinson . Op. it. The Engineer, 30.7.4 . P. 102.
31 A. L. Rouse. "The Engla nd f Eliza-be th.'' ~l acmillan & Co. Ltd. , London, 1950 . Page 114: " ~l anufacture of woollen and olton in Lancashir (d uri ng the seventeen th en tury ) spread on such a ca le that the changes I rought about were sca rece ly I s important than those of th ) Industrial Revolution of the la te eighteen th cen tury." Professor J. l'. :'\ f. "The progress of l chni al and the gro wth of large-sca le inclu try in Great Britain, 1540- 1640." The Economic His to n · Review. \ 'ol. - , 1934-5. Page 44 : "The rise f indus-tri a lism in Great Britain can be more properly r co rded as a long process
Fig. 5. L ondon Bridge wa.terwork deliueal ed by Bate, 1633
tretching back to the middle of th s ixlc nth century . .. th n as a udden phenomenon associated with the igh-teen th and early n ine t en th cen turies.' '
