OSB Packet

7/28/2019 OSB Packet

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AHS OSB Study PacketNational Ocean Sciences Bowl Website: http://www.oceanleadership.org/link/nosb.

Sample tossup and team challenge questions: http://www.oceanleadership.org/link/nosb/questions.

An argument for ocean exploration and research:

http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/robert_ballard_on_exploring_the_oceans.html.

A Note from 2010-2011 Ocean Sciences Bowl Captain Sam Zeng:

For all who are reading this packet right now, presumably because you are interested in tryout out for

Ocean Sciences Bowl, allow me to commend you for your choice. Truly, Ocean Sciences Bowl is an amazing

team to part of. As an academic team, you will be learning an unbelievable amount of new, astounding

knowledge. Equally, during the process, you will form bonds and friendships that will last a lifetime. As it is,

you have probably by now noticed the length of this package. First off, DONT PANIC. We do not expect you

to know all the information in this packetthat is too much even to ask of returning members, much less new

members. The purpose of us providing you with such study material is to differentiate between those

extremely committed and willing to learn, and those not so much. As such, past tryouts have shown typically,

those putting great efforts into studying will score around the 25-30 (out of 80 questions), and that is our

expectation. A note on the test, it will be divided into 8 equal sectionsbiology, chemistry, geography,

geology, marine policy, physics, social science, and technologywith all questions drawn only from the facts

presented in this study guide. Good luck to you all, and I hope to see you become part of the team.

Biology

Taxonomical Categories (from broadest to generalist): Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,

Species. (King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup)

Phylums

Porifera: sponges Platyhelminthesflatworms NemerteaRibbon worms. Have an extended tongue-like object, called a proboscis, to entangle prey NematodaRoundworms Annelidasegmented worms.

o Most belong to Class polychaetes: have protrusions called parapodia that bear bristles, calledsetae. Also, their larva form is a trocophore larvae

o Class Oligochaetes: lack paradoiao Class Hirudinea: Leeches

Siboglinidae - beard worms. They lack a mouth and gut and have symbiotic bacteria to manufacturefood.

Molluscalargest marine phylum


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o Class Gastropoda: largest, most common and varied of the mollusks. Includes snails, limpets,abalones and nudibranches (sea slugs, no shell)

o Class: Bivalviaclams, mussels, oysters, also shipworms. No head. Have gills to absorboxygen and filter and sort food particles. Buried clams usesiphons to draw water in and out of

the cavity. Mussels use byssal threads to attach themselves to surfaces. Clam is largest bivalve.

Shipworms are fouling organisms

o *Veligerplanktonic larva of many gastropods and bivalveso Class Cephalopoda - octopuses, squids, cuttlefishes. Octopuses8 arms. Squids8 arms, 2

tentacles. Cuttlefish8 arms, 2 tentacles, calcified internal shell called cuttlebone used as

calcium for caged birds

o Class Polyplacophorachiton. Characterized by eight overlapping shell plateso Class Scaphopodatusk shells, elongated shell tapered on both sides

Arthropodacharacterized by segmented body, bilateral, jointed appendages, tough exoskeleton.o Subphylum Crustaceamost arthropods in the sea belong to this group. Includes

Copepodsimportant planktonic organisms. Life stages: naupliuscopepoditeadult copepod

Barnaclesfouling organism, filter feeder, have typical crustacean larvae, adultlooks like molluscs. (nauplius cyprisadult barnacle)

Amphipodslaterally compressed body Isopodslike amphipods, but dorsoventrally flattened.

Krill (euphausiids)planktonic, carapace on anterior, filter feeders, common in polarwaters

Decapodsmeans ten legs, largest group of crustaceans. Include shrimps: (zoeaadult shrimp); spiny lobsters (phyllosoma adult lobster); crabs: (zoea

megalopaadult crab). Use abdomen shape to tell gender of crab:

V-shaped in males, U-shaped in females

o Class Merostomata: Horseshoe crabs. Living fossilso Class Pycnogonida: sea spiders. 4+ pairs of jointed legs to small body, large proboscis

EctoproctaBryozoans. Consists of minute individuals called zooids that secrete skeletons Chaetognatha- Arrow Worms. One of most common and important plankton. Voracious carnivores. Echinodermata: characterized by radial symmetry in adults, bilateral in larvae. Have endoskeletons,

water vascular systems, tube feet, ampullae (muscular sacs) and madreporite (a plate thingy on the

aboral side).

o Class Asteroidea: aka starfish. Usually has 5 arms, but it can have up to 100. Surfaces arecovered with pincer like protrusions called pedicellarie, which keep the sea star clean.

Regenerative abilities: you could technically regenerate a whole new starfish from one arm,

but it MUST have a part of the central disk.

o Class Ophiuroidea: Brittlestars. Resemble sea stars in terms of number of arms, but the


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arms are longer, thinner, and more flexible. Over 2,000 members = largest group.

o Class Echinoidea: Sea Urchins, heart urchins, sand dollars. For feeding, they use a series ofjaws and muscles called Aristotles lantern.

o Class Holothuroidea: sea cucumbers. No radial symmetry. Many are deposit feeders. Theycan secrete toxins through their anus or expel their guts (evisceration) to ward off predators.

The organs grow back.

o Class Crinoidea: Sea lilies and featherstars. Suspension feeders that have feathery arms toobtain food and water. Some have only five arms, but most have up to 200 because of

branching.

Chordata: All have following sometime during development: dorsal hollow nerve cord, gill/pharyngealslits, notochord, post anal tail.

o Sea squirts/ascidians: filter feeders. Body protected by tough, outer tunic.o Salpstransparent, barrel-shaped body. Form large long stringy colonies. Abundant in

warm water.

Fish

First appeared 500 million years ago, oldest, simplest and most abundant of all living vertebrates (50%) Class AgnathaJawless fishes. Most primitive, body is cylindrical and elongated like snakes. Include

hagfishes/slime eels and lampreysattach themselves to other fishes and suck their blood.

Class Chondrichthyes -- Cartilaginous fish. Have placoid scales, paired lateral fins, developed jawsInclude

o Sharks: Fished for fins and oils. Shark skin is made into a leather called shagreen. Havenictitating membraneused by sharks to reduce brightness and protect the eye during feeding

o Rays and skatesdorsoventrally flattened, demersal (live on bottom), five pairs of gill slits onunderside.

Class Osteichthyes: Bony fish.23,000 species (96% of all fish, half of all vertebrates). Havecycloid (smooth) scales or ctenoid (have tiny spines). Operculum = gill cover. Fins made of bony

spines called fin rays, have swim bladder for buoyancy. Stonefish is the most poisonous fish in the

world

Countershading: camouflage technique used in open watersilver/white bellies that contrast againstdark backs.

Fish smell through nares, which are attached to the olfactory sacs; fish detect movement throughmovement of calcareous ear stones, or ooliths. Also have a lateral line sense organ that detects

movement and vibration in the surrounding water.

A fish is anadromous if it lives in salt water and breeds in freshwater (salmon). Is catadromous ifreverse (eels)

Oviparous reproductionhatched from eggs; ovoviviparouseggs develop in parent and hatch (mostbony fish are like this); Viviparouslive bearers


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Reptilia Pokilotherms (cold blooded), first appeared 350 million years ago Order Chelonia- Sea turtles

o Only nine species. All considered threatened. Hawksbill, kemps ridleymost endangered,leatherback, hawksbill, green, leatherback, kemps ridley, loggerhead

Order Squamata: Sea snakes, marine iguana. Sea snakes found in tropical Indian and Pacific, Marineiguana on the Galapogos Islands

Order Crocodilia: Saltwater crocodileAves

Homeotherms, covered with waterproof feathers to conserve body heat Penguins: flightless, denser bones, clumsy on land, amazing swimmers, all but 1/18 penguins live in

Antarctica/other cold regions in southern hemisphere.

Arctic tern breeds in Arctic during northern summer and travels 16,000 km/10,000 mi to Antarctica forsouthern summer. Longest regular migration by any known animal

Great auks are extinct ancestors of the razorbill and looked and acted like a penguin in the NorthAtlantic, extinct in 1844

Excrement of birds called guano, and is mined for fertilizerMammalia

Evolved 200 million years ago, has hairs instead of feathers, most are viviparous Order Pinnipedia: Seals, sea lions and walruses. Have flippers for swimming but breed on land and

blubber as food storage and warmth. Elephant seals are largest pinnipeds in the world. Order Carnivora: Sea otters, polar bears. Sea otter (Enhydra lutris) is the smallest marine mammal, air

trapped in fur aids in insulation, protection began in 1911. Polar bears live on drifting ice in the Arctic

Order Sirenia: Manatees and Dugongs. Front flippers but no rear limbs, named after mermaids andsirens from mythology. Strictly vegetarians among marine mammals

Order Cetacea: Whales, dolphins and porpoises. largest group of marine mammals, spend all of life inwater, similar appearances of cetaceans is due to convergent evolution.

o Toothless whales are also known as baleen whales that have baleen made of keratin. Bluewhale is the largest mammal.

o Toothed whales use teeth to hold, not chew prey. Sperm whale is the largest toothed whale.Sperm + baleen = great whales. Debris in sperm whales are globs called ambergris, common

in fine perfumes.

In 1946, 20 whaling nations formed the International Whaling Commission to regulate whale hunting.United States Congress passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. IWC declared moratorium

on commercial whaling in 1985, Norway, Japan and Iceland continued in 1988 as scientific research.

Sperm whale is longest and deepest diver, at least 2,250 m (7,380 ft). Marine mammals have adaptations that prevent nitrogen from dissolving and the bends, and lungs

collapse.


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Chemistry

Seawater - General Properties

. Average 35 is ppt

50 ppt called brine

Most dense at -20C, freezes at -2

0C

change in pH) to ensure ecological stability

Chemicals dissolved in seawater

categorized into 5 categories: major constituents, nutrients, gases, trace elements, and organic compounds

Major Constituents

because of little variation over time in most places, also called conservative properties of ocean

Six major constituents include sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl

-), sulfate (SO4

2-), magnesium (Mg

2+), calcium

(Ca2+

), and potassium (K+), these make up over 99% of all seawaters solutes. Chloride (Cl

-) is most abundant

solute in seawater

Nutrients

include nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), silicon (Si)

on (ppm)

horous in pure forms, instead absorb phosphate (PO43-

) and nitrate

(NO3-)

Gases

ogen (N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), noble gases Argon

(Ar), Neon (Ne), and helium (He)

2 and CO2 greatly influenced by photosynthesis and respiration, also regarded as nonconservative

properties

Trace Elements

emical ingredients occurring in minute quantities in ocean


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promoting or retarding and killing life

Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and Gold (Au)

Organic Compounds

les produced by organisms

Principal of Constant Proportion/ Constant Compositionregardless of salinity, relative

proportion of elements stays constant (example: amount of chlorine compared to amount of sodium stays the

same in seawater of varying salinities)

Factors regulating salinity

freshwater input of rivers, also transport a variety of dissolved substances in ppm

residence time- average length of time ion remains in solution in oceans

hermoclines: region of rapidly changing temperature; pycnoclines (density); and haloclines (salinity)

reshwater vs. seawaterseawater has a lower freezing point, is denser, evaporates at a slower rate, andcontains more dissolved ions. Sea ice normally contains less salt than sea water because the salt is forced out

before freezing occurs

CO2combines with seawater to form carbonic acid, making the oceans more acidic. Corals are

very sensitive to water ph, and when stressed can lead to coral bleaching.

Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen Fixation: In which nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH3): N2 NH3

nitrates: NH3 NO2-NO3

Ammonification: conversion of organic nitrogen (from dead organisms) into ammonium: NH4+

: Conversion of nitrate into ultimately nitrogen gas through a series of steps: NO3NO2

NO + N2O N2 (g)


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Marine Carbon Cycle

Calcium carbonate is essentially insoluble in sea surface waters today. Shells of dead calcareous plankton

sinking to deeper waters are practically unaltered until reaching the lysocline where the solubility increases

dramatically. The Carbonate Compensation Depth is the point where all the Calcium carbonate has been

dissolved according to following equation.

temperature, pressure and the chemical composition of the water - in particular the amount of dissolved CO2 in

the water. Calcium carbonate is more soluble at lower temperatures and pH and at higher pressures.


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Geography

Winds

Currents


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Tectonic Plates

Pacific Ocean

Largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. Named by Ferdinand Magellan, though first seen by Spanish

explorer Vasco Nez de Balboa who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513

Hydrosphere covers about 46% of the Earth's water surface and about 32% of its total surface area.

The Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the Pacific and in the world,

reaching a depth of 10,911 metres (35,798 ft).

The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking from plate tectonics, while the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.

The Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism. The Ring of Fire is named after the

several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the various subduction zones.

Atlantic Ocean

Second largest ocean. Greatest depth, is in the Puerto Rico Trench.

Principal feature of the bathymetry is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Atlantic averaged to be saltiest of the world's major oceans; salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean

ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25 north and south of the

equator, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.

Bermuda Triangle found in the ocean.

Arctic Ocean

Smallest and shallowest of the world's five oceans

Connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea

and Labrador Sea.

Arctic Ocean is largely covered by sea ice throughout the year.


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Salinity is the lowest on average due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams,

and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities.

Indian Ocean

Third largest of the world's oceans, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface.

Climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon or tornado wind system. Strong north-east winds blow

from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail.

Youngest of the major oceans. Has active spreading ridges: Carlsberg, Southwest Indian Ridge, Southeast

Indian Ridge and the Mid Indian Ridges

Southern Ocean

Comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean south of 60 S latitude. Existed since 2000.

Greatest depth of 7,235 meters occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench

Geology

Obvious need-to-knows:

eavy, dense stuff sinks)

-70 km'

Earth Layers by Composition: Layer Composition Size (km) Size (%)

Crust aluminum, silicon, oxygen 35-50 km .4%

Mantle magnesium, iron, silicon,

oxygen

2900 km 68.1%

Core mostly iron alloys, also nickel 3500 km 31.5%

Notes:

composition of the crust is similar to continental granite's main components (Al, Si, O), while

the mantle's composition is similar to those of oceanic basalt (Mg, Si, O).

radioactive decay heats the Earth's interior.


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Layers by Physical

State: Layer

State Description Relative positions

Lithosphere solid hard, rigid, brittle crust + upper mantle

Asthenosphere semi-liquid partially melted (weak,

plastic)

mantle (ends at ~350

km)

Mesosphere solid rigid lower mantle

Core (outer) liquid molten core (size = 2200 km)

Core (inner) solid dense, solid core core (size = 1300 km)

Atmospheric Layers Description

Exosphere Uppermost layer of the atmosphere

Thermosphere Biggest of all the layers of the earth's atmosphere, contains the

ionosphere, and where process for aurora formation happens

Mesosphere Within the mesosphere most meteors melt or vaporize as a result

of collisions with the gas particles within

Stratosphere Ozone layer is situated here, and most commercial airlines

cruise in this layer.

Troposphere Contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99%

of its water vapor and aerosols. day-to-day weather occurs here

Notes:

of atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen (N2), 21% Oxygen (O2), Argon (Ar), Carbon dioxide (CO2),

Neon (Ne)...

Earthquakes and Seismic Waves (wave list is fastest to slowest, least to most

dangerous)

Body Waves (Earth's interior):

P-waves (primary)- compressional/longitudinal wave (think slinky)

-waves (secondary)- shear/transverse waves. Propagate through strike-slip motion, as a result, does not go

through liquid (it's how they found out the outer core is molten)

Surface Waves (Earth's surface...):

Love waves- transverse, but horizontal, so the wave moves left-right, not up-down.

- transverse and vertical, like ocean waves.

Shadow zone- area where body waves aren't detected. S-waves' shadow zone is greater b/c of the liquid thing

Elastic-rebound theory- earthquakes occur due to plates rebounding from strain.


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Sediments

Particle size organized from smallest to largest size: colloid, mud (formed from clay and silt), sand, and gravel

Formation classification:

Authigenic- formed when 2 liquids react in a chemical or biochemical reaction

Biogenic- fine and coarse grains derived from organic decay (shells, skeletal debris), typically form lime

(formed of calcium carbonate) and siliceous (composed of silica) muds

Volcanogenic- particles formed from volcanic ejection.

Cosmogenous- very tiny grains originating from outer space; tend to mix with terrigenous and biogenic

sediment

Terrigenous- fine and coarse grains made by rocks on land weathering and eroding; typically produce sand and

mud

Continents are principle suppliers of terrigenous debris

2 most important factors that determine sediments nature: deposition sites energy conditions and particle-size

distribution

Slow rate erosion and sedimentation- water sorts grains more thoroughly according to shape, size, and density;

results in small grain size variety and uniform appearance

Fast erosion and sedimentation- currents have little time to sort grains, poorly sorted (lots of size differences),

heterogeneous (non uniform) appearance

Average particle size of deposition is a good indicator of environments energy at deposition time High-energy environmentswift and turbulent water; keeps fine particles suspended and resuspends those

momentarily settled; coarse sand deposited under high-energy conditions

Low-energy environment- weak currents and quiet water, muds typically accumulate here

Once buried, grains compacted, cemented and slowly transformed into sedimentary rock

Sand becomes sandstone; mud becomes shale if it contains clay, or limestone if it contains carbonate ooze

Relict sediment-sediments present solely because of earlier accumulation and very different depositional

conditions (under present circumstances, should not be there)

Corers- devices that allow scientists to extract layers of sediment from the ocean floor (basic concept: drop

corer, corer sinks into the ocean floor with gravitys help, extracts sediment, corer sealed with plastic liner,

brought back to surface)

Marine Policy

Hugo Grotius wroteMare Liberum, the freedom of the seas, which said that the ocean could not be

owned by any person or nation, became limited in 1958


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waters that extended from low tide for a distance of 3 nautical miles

area that extends 200 nautical miles from a coast

* note: 1 nautical mile = 1.15 statute (land) miles

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea1958 (2 more, last one in 1982)

-pool resourcecontrolled by a community that imposes limits on the use of it

-pool resourceno limits placed on the resource

total allowable catch

can be achieved by insulating the system and its part from disruptions by human

activities

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972places first 3 nautical miles of ocean within the

jurisdiction of the state

intended to create a unified ocean and coastal policy

Fishing

95M tons in 1995

reported in 2000 that 60% of the worlds fisheries (and of

the top 200 fish species) are becoming depleted due to overfishing

-catching wastes about 27 million tons of fish annually (about 1/3 of total catch)

-access fishing regimes, and poor knowledge about

fisheries


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an idealistic goal to regulate fishing so the greatest amount of fish are taken

without impairing a fisherys ability to produce more fish

establishes a framework in which regional fisheries can

work together to manage fishing and insure fisheries will remain plentiful

allows one state to interfere with the fishing vessels of another

state, only applies to migratory and straddling fish

Whaling

sion (IWC)created in 1946 by the International Convention for the

Regulation of Whaling

is used for sashimi (though in the name of

scientific research.)

Commission (NAMMCO)est. in 1992, want to reclaim commercial

whaling under scientific wildlife management models

Sea-Level Rise

1800s

to increase by another 1.4-5.8 C in the

next 100 years

piece of Antarctic ice sheet the size of CT broke offcollapsesea levels could rise 20 or 200 ft (west or east ice sheets); w/o ice sheet collapse, could

rise 1 meter in 100 years

-dwellers would all be in danger

levels

United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate Changenations had to come up with a plan to

reduce global emissions, later introduced the Kyoto Protocol in 1997

Physics

are deflected to the right, and to the left in the

Southern Hemisphere. Due to the rotation of the earth.

* Note:Winds are named after their origins, ie North wind comes from North and heads South. Currents on

other hand are named after their traveling direction, so Southern current would be heading south.


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Ocean circulation

Two types: Surface: wind-driven, 10% of volume; Deep-ocean: density-driven

Surface

Causes: 1) wind: Atmospheric Circulation; 2) pressure gradient: waves & sea-surface topography create

gradients; 3) Coriolis deflection

Short-term response to wind create Langmuir Circulation: "corkscrew" like circulation

Ekman: long-term response to wind. Can extend hundreds of meters into the water. Has a net water

transportation of 90 degrees to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere (Ekman transport)

the ocean = low biological productivity. Converse, upwellings are areas of high biological productivity.

Geostrophic currents- mound of moving water formed from the dynamic balance between Coriolis Deflection

(CD) & Pressure gradient (PG)

estern-boundary intensification- rotation of Earth pinches the Western current so it's narrower, deeper and

stronger than those in the East side

Deep-Ocean

Thermohaline Circulation- temperature gradient + salinity gradient = density gradient => motion

Sun changes ocean's temperature, processes can add/subtract freshwater and change salinity Seawater at the bottom is generally stable and uniform 5deg C and 35 ppt Subsurface water comes from dense surface polar waters sinking as they move equatorward It takes roughly 1000 years for the water to reach the surface once again.

Large-scale Circulation- "conveyor belt" water flow. Sinking at N. Atlantic and upwelling at Pacific/Indian

Ocean. Somewhat accurate but oversimplified


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Shutdown of thermohaline circulation- salinity is important in the sinking of surface water in the N. Atlantic

Ocean. Global warming can melt ice, releasing freshwater and decreasing salinity. This could slow and

eventually stop THC.

Water masses are categorized by composition. Important ones listed:

o NADW- North Atlantic Deep Water

o

AADW- Antarctic Deep Water

o NABW- North Atlantic Bottom Water

o AABW- Antarctic Bottom Water

Waves

Definition: an undulation of the sea surface (usually created by the wind)

Wave crest: highest part of wave Wave trough: lowest part wave height: vertical distance between crest and trough

wavelength: horizontal distance between crest of one wave and crest of next wave wave period: time for two consecutive crests to pass a fixed point wave frequency: number of times one complete wave will occur per unit time (1 cycle per sec= 1

Hertz)

wave celerity: a.k.a. phase speed; speed the wave crest moves horizontally across the ocean surface(measured in meters/second)

Wave Classifications by increasing periods:

Capillary wave: ripples; smallest, generated by small puffs of wind, restored by surface tension;period= less than 0.1 of a second


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Chop: locally generated; period= 1 second. Restored by gravity (as are all of the following) Swell: period=10 seconds Seiches: back & forth sloshing of water in harbors; period= minutes & tens of minutes Tsunamis; caused by geological effects, not visible in deep water due to small height and long

wavelength; period= minutes & tens of minutes

Tides: longest waves, generated by sun & moon, restored by bottom friction & Coriolis force; period=12 hours & 24 hours

Can use (CST)2 to aid in memory

Classification by water depth:

Wave celerity (c) is directly proportional to wavelength (L) or period (T) & water depth (d)

-deep water waves: d> or equal to L

-intermediate water waves: 1/20 L> d >1/2 L

-shallow water waves: d< or equal to 1/20 L.

For intermediate and shallow water waves, the celerity is regulated by water depth since bottomfriction comes into play

Factors that influence formation:

wind speed length of fetch: area that wind has blown over; reason why waves are bigger in the ocean than in ponds

duration: how long the wind has blown over an area original sea state.

The greater these variables, the larger the waves

Wave interference:

interaction of several waves of different sizes, direction, & celerity constructive wave interference: several wave crests or troughs coincide, results in a composite wave

with crests of different waves building up on one another, & composite troughs building down

wave. Can create rogue waves: unusually large breaking waves composed of several large waves that

have merged momentarily

Destructive wave interference: crest of one wave coincides with trough of second wave & cancellationresults, producing composite wave that is smaller than individual component waves

Shore breakers:

Wave steepness= H/L : helps predict when and where waves will become unstable and break. As waves enter shallow water, height (H) increases & steepness increases, wavelength (L) decreases Critical wave steepness: H/L = 1/7, crest is oversteepened & unstable & collapses. spilling breaker: most common breaker; loses energy across surf zone; forms along shores having great


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deal of sand spread out over gently sloping sea bottom

plunging breaker: entire wave front steepens, curls, & collapse, or plunges forward; releases much ofits energy instantaneously; happens in medium steep beaches

Surging breaker: flat, low waves dont become oversteepened or break, but move smoothly up & downthe face of beach; reflects much of their energy seaward; occurs off steep beaches & seawalls & sea

cliffs

Standing waves:

Do not move horizontally, oscillate back & forth about a node: a fixed point. Water level raised at one end, simultaneously causing water level to drop at other side. Antinodes: maximum vertical displacement, opposite of nodes Standing wave in a lake, harbor, or estuary = seiche

Internal wave- progressive waves, occurs underwater; moves along the pycnoclines (surfaces

that separate water masses having different densities). Travel at much slower speeds than surface

waves and can attain and exceed 100 meters

Tsunamis:

travel around 760 km/hr in open ocean, slows down in shallow water not dangerous to vessels in open ocean since energy (not mass) is traveling: ocean swell

would hide presence of flat, low seismic waves can grow to height greater than 10 meters when they reach shallow shoreline, flood the

shoreline causing catastrophic destruction

Light attenuation


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Social Sciences

Select, notable Maritime Adventures *note: knowing exact dates is not necessary

325 B.C.Pytheas becomes the first to circumnavigate England and estimate the length of its shoreline.Possibly reached Norway and Iceland.

982Eric the Red becomes the first to cross the Atlantic, and discovered Baffin Island in Canada. 1487-1488Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope 1492Christopher Columbus discovers North America, but believed it was India 1498Vasco de GamaSails around the Cape of Good Hope all the way to India 1499-1502Amerigo Vespucci makes trips to South America and discovers that it extends further than

originally believe. The Americas are named after him

1500Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered and explored Brazil 1519Ferdinand Magellan attempts to circumnavigate the globe, but dies in the Phillipines, and

Sebastian del Cano completes the voyage in 1522. The only remaining ship was the HMS Victoria

1768James Cook makes his first major voyage on the HMS Endeavour, and charted the coast of NewZealand. He also reached as far as Australia.

1772-1775James Cook, this time aboard the HMS Adventure and the HMS Resolution, sails aroundthe Cape of Good Hope and circumnavigates the globe, staying around 60 degrees south latitude.

1778-1779James Cooks final voyage, he discovers many islands, including the Hawaiian Islands,and then north to the Bering Sea. In doing so, be became the first man to sail the polar seas of both

hemispheres.

1831-1836The HMS Beagle, captained by Robert Fitzroy, with Charles Darwin aboard as anaturalist, made a five year voyage, where Darwin developed his idea of natural selection through the

study of the Galapagos Islands and other life around South America.

1872-1876C. Wyville Thomson, on the HMS Challenger, refuted Edward Forbes claim that lifecould not exist at depths below 550m. After 360+ soundings and twenty-three years of research, their

findings were published into fifty volumes.

1893Fridtjof Nansen on the Fram attempted to be the first to reach the North Pole. They weretrapped in Siberia, 400 km from the pole. Frederick Johansen left with Nansen to reach the pole, but

failed. The Fram is now on display in Oslo, Norway.

1925-1927The Meteor, which became an expedition of 3 German ships, decided to sound the oceanfloor. Their efforts were the most complete examination of the sea floor of their day, and their pattern

is still copied today.

1958The submarine, the USS Nautilus, reaches the North Pole, from under the ice. 1960The submersible Trieste becomes the first and only craft to reach Challenger Deep (10,900m) 1970sInternational Decade of Ocean Exploration supported by the UN and NSF. 1968-1975The Deep Sea Drilling Project aimed to confirm sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics by

drilling into sediments. The Glomar Challenger had the latest equipment and performed much of the

drilling.


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1985Joides Resolution replaces the Glomar Challenger 1986Alvin, a submersible, discovers the wreck of the RMS Titanic. It also discovered the USS

Scorpion, a Skipjack class submarine.

2008China launches the largest expedition to date, with 145 scientists for a 250 expedition to explorethe deep-sea bottom and diversity in the Indian Ocean.

Explorers

Robert Ballard (1942present day)Best known for discovering Titanic, pioneer in early use of

deep-diving submarines

Polynesians (1800 BC700 AD)used navigation to routinely make long voyages of thousands of miles of

open ocean, journeying to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed down

through oral tradition from navigator to apprentice.

Vikings (late 8 to early 11th century)used longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and Volga

River in Russia and as far west as Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland.

Bartholomew Diaz (1450-1500)first European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco de Gama (1460-1524)He was the first to sail to India.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)He became the first person to lead an expedition across the Pacific Ocean

and this was also the first successful attempt to circumnavigate the Earth (well, his sailors finished it for him).

Named the Pacific Ocean, though he technically wasnt the first person to see it.

Sebastian del Cano (1476-1526)Accompanied Magellan in 1519 and led the expedition after Magellans

death. He completed the first world circumnavigation which had been led by Ferdinand Magellan after Magellan

died.

Scientists

Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930)Norwegian explorer. Attempted to reach the North Pole onboard the Fram;

Fram designed to deliberately drift north through the sea ice and this journey took more than 3 years.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)known for natural selection or survival of the fittest and making a 5-year

voyage on HMS Beagle along with Robert Fitzroy. In 1859, wrote a book called On the Origin of Species about

evolution theory through natural selection. Also formed theory about atoll formation.

James Cook (1728-1779)an English explorer, navigator, and cartographer. He was the first to map

Newfoundland and achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian

islands as well as being the first to circumnavigate New Zealand. Ultimately rose to the rank of captain of the

British Royal Navy and in 1766 became commander of HMS Endeavour.

Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806-1873)His nicknames included Pathfinder of the Seas, Father of modern

Oceanography and Naval Meteorology, and Scientist of the Seas. He wrote the first extensive and

comprehensive book on oceanography to be published, titled Physical Geography of the Sea in 1855.

Charles Wyville Thompson (1830-1882)He persuaded the Royal Navy to let him use HMS Lightning and

HMS Porcupine for deep sea dredging in the summers of 1868 and 1869. He became chief scientist of the HMS

Challenger in 1872, and collected a vast amount of data on this particular voyage, which was compiled to fill a


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50-volume Challenger Report.

Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)Known for his continental drift and plate tectonics theory. He proposed that

the continents had drifted or rifted apart gradually from the supercontinent of Pangea over time, and his first

edition of The Origins of Continents and Oceans outlined this theory and was published in 1915

Other

Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997)He was commonly known as le Commandant Cousteau orCaptain Cousteau. He and Emile Gagnan developed the aqualung in 1943; the aqualung was the

original name for the first open-circuit scuba diving equipment.

Shale Niskininventor of the Niskin bottle, which was the successor to the Nansen bottle. Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857)Creator of the Beaufort scale for indicating wind force. Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt (1892-1973)Considered the inventor of radar; Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)He became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns

and he learned enough to chart the Gulf Stream; it got published in 1770.

Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521)He was also the first one to describe the powerful Florida current. Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519)He is best known for crossing the Isthmus of Panama in 1513,

becoming the first European to see the Pacific Ocean.

Robert Fitzroy (1805-1865)He was the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins voyage. Sylvia Alice Earle (1935-present day)From 1990-1992, she was the chief scientist of NOAA. She is

sometimes called Her Deepness or The Sturgeon General. She set a womens depth record of 1250

feet (381 meters), as well as holding the womens record for a solo dive in a deep submersible of 3,280feet (1000 meters).

Ed Ricketts (1897-1948)an American marine biologist, friend of author John Steinbeck. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)a British scientist, he is noted for discovering hydrogen, which he

called inflammable air.

James Clark Ross (1800-1862)a British naval officer and explorer. Located the position of the NorthMagnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada.\

Harald Sverdrup (1888-1957)a Norwegian oceanographer and meteorologist who made manyimportant theoretical discoveries in these fields. The sverdrup, a unit of volume flux, was named after

him.

George Hadley (1685-1786)English lawyer and amateur meteorologist who proposed theatmospheric mechanism by which Trade Winds are sustained.

Jacques Piccard (1922-2008)Swish oceanographer and engineer known for developing underwatervehicles for studying ocean currents. He is the only other person besides Don Walsh to have explored

Challenger Deep.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)British scientist. He is probably most famous for Boyles Law, whichstates that as pressure increases, volume increases; pressure and volume are inversely related.

Rachel Carson (1906-1964)an American marine biologist. She is most famous for her book Silent


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Spring, published in 1962 that documented the horrors caused by pollution in the living world.

Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)He is the most famous in ocean management for popularizing the termfreedom of the seas through his treatise Mare Liberum.

Technology

Instrumentation

Acoustic Recording Packages (ARPs) - long-term, autonomous devices which record marine mammalcalls

ASIMET - Air-Sea Interaction METeorology, set of seven very precise sensors that measure howenergy and water move between the ocean and atmosphere

BIOMAPER I/II - set of sensors on a long aluminum frame that resembles the tail of a World War IIairplane, towed, used to study phytoplankton and zooplankton over areas that are too large to study

with the traditional net-and-microscope method

(bongo paired) zooplankton net - one of the simplest biological samplers, advantages =lightweight/easy to operate, disadvantages = nets do not open/close

echo sounding - measuring depth by timing reflection of sound wave from seabed triangulation - locating craft measuring time to reach 2 other crafts Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) antisubmarine warfare system established by U. S. Navy consists

of network of hydrophones in Northern Hemisphere (so sensitive can detect # of propellers),

geophysical applications include seismic reflection / refraction

swallow floats - instruments that sink to predefined depth then follow current sending signals with

pinger

acoustic Doppler current profilerUse sound to profile currents acoustic tomography - uses acoustic travel time to determine physical character of oceanic region of

propagation

bathythermograph (BT) - torpedo-shaped instrument used to record temperature changes of seawaterwith depth while ship is underway; expendable BT (XBT) in greater use today

box corer - heavy boxes with cylinders on the bottom which collect sediment samples up 100 cm deep(when lead weights are added); little perturbation

chronometer - mechanical clock engineered to high precision and used to keep time over sea; JohnHarrison famously built 4 models

Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) - satellite remote sensing instrument flown aboard U. S. satelliteNimbus 7between 1978-86. Detected absorption of wavelengths by chlorophyll, apped suspended

sediments, and measured changing surface temperatures

Compass - origins unknown, used in China / Europe by 12th century, magnetized needles point north,magnetic north pole not lined up perfectly with true north; early 12th century saw gyrocompass, 2

gyroscopes detect motion, orienting 3rd to true north

CTD profiler - measures conductivity (by induction), temperature (by resistance thermometers or


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thermosistors), and depth (strain gauge) as it descends towards seabed

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) - first program to conduct worldwide sampling of sediments & rocksdeep beneath the seafloor; began 1968

Desalination - types include distillation (boiling to separate, most productive), reverse osmosis (forcingsolution through membrane that eliminates solute), freezing & thawing, electrodialysis (electric

potential difference transfers salt ions through ion-exchange membrane)

Dredge - device for scraping or sucking the seabed Drift net - allowed to drift free in a sea or lake; controversial, up to 50 km; when lost become 'ghost

nets'.

Earth Observing System - program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions andscientific instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations; inludes Jason 1

(TOPEX/Posiedon follow-up), ICESat (Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite), Aquarius (global sea

surface salinity)

flow cytometer - measures amount of microscopic particles in flow fluorometer - device which measures parameters of fluorescence in turn giving presence and the

amount of specific molecules in a medium.

grab sampler - double-shovel maw. Use to obtain sediment samples hydrophone - underwater microphone to record / listen to sounds light-dark bottle method - measuring photosynthesis of e.g. phytoplankton by placing 2 samples in

light/dark bottles

long-lining: thousands of hooks single line for fishing.

magnetometer - instrument used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in thevicinity

MOCNESS - Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System, much-improved,high-tech version of the humble sampling net

moored profiler - makes repeated measurements of ocean currents and water properties up and downthrough almost the entire water column, attached to cable

Nansen bottle - device for obtaining samples of seawater at a specific depth; superceded by Niskinbottle

Nootka buoy - offers scientists the equivalent of a wireless hotspot in the middle of the deep ocean Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) - measure movement in the Earth's crust, since about 90 percent of

all natural earthquakes occur underwater, use inertia

Ocean Drilling Program - 1985 successor to DSDP. In 2004, became "Integrated Ocean DrillingProgram "

piston corer - along with gravity corer (shallowest) and platform drilling (deepest) quadrat: measured and marked rectangle, often 100 squares, used in ecology to isolate a sample. radar altimeter - measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft radiometric dating - isotopes, long-term (uranium-lead) to short-term (carbon-14)


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RAFOS - SOFAR spelled backwards, floats which use acoustic tracking to map mean currents; alsocalled Deep Lagrangian Drifters, or DLDs.

reversing thermometer - as long as it's upside down, keeps current temperature until flipped upright Rosette sampler - probably the most commonly used water sampler salinometer - measures salinity using: electrical conductivity (ec meter), specific gravity (hydrometer) SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) - Jacques-Yves Cousteau & Emile Gagnan

made Aqualung, 40 min casual, rebreather & stuff -> 7.5 hrs if soda lime scrubber (which prevents CO2

poisoning) lasts

SEASAT - first satellite designed for remote sensing of oceans and had onboard the first spacebornesynthetic aperture radar (SAR) - form of radar in which the large, highly-directional rotating antenna

used by conventional radar is replaced with many low-directivity small stationary antennas scattered

over some area near or around the target area

Secchi disk - measures water clarity, drop it down and wait until its not visible (Secchi depth), patternalternating shaded quadrants, nephelometer - light beam / particle measurer more accurate

sediment traps - containers that scientists place in the water to collect marine snow falling toward thesea floor.

seine - large net that hangs vertically in the water by attaching weights along the bottom edge andfloats along the top

sextant - instrument generally used to measure the altitude of a celestial object above the horizon side-scan sonarefficiently creates an image of large areas of the sea floor

SOFAR (sound fixing and ranging) - sofar bomb is a long-range position-fixing system which usesexplosive sound; sofar channel is where sound speed is minimum and sound carries thousands of miles

SONAR (sound navigation and ranging): technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater)to navigate, communicate or to detect other vessels

spray glider - robotic submarines used to take vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and turbidity TED: Turtle Exclusion Device, really effective transmissiometer - measures beam attenuation coefficient trawl: large net dragged behind fishing trolling (angling): multiple lines fishing for pelagic fish trepanging - collection / harvesting of sea cucumbers Eulerian measurement: fixed place. finds current direction w/ wind vanes, velocity w/ impeller

(rotating propeller)

Lagrangian measurement: tracking buoys to measure water flow and velocity. makes spaghettidiagrams

otter board: means for opening net mouths


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Satellites

AVHRR - advanced very high resolution radiometer. sense sea-surface temperatures using infraredradiation

JERS- Japanese Earth Resource Satellites. environmental and resource observation program ERS - European Environmental Remote Sensing. all-weather radar and microwave systems that can see

even when satellite's view is obscured by clouds and darkness

SEASTAR - carries a color scanner known as SeaWiFS or sea-viewing wide-field-of-view sensor(works like CZCS)

TOMS - Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer SEASAT (1978) - first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth's oceans and

had onboard the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

TOPEX/Poseidon (1992) - joint satellite mission between to map sea surface topography, Walter Munkdescribed it as most successful ocean experiment ever, radar altimeter provided the first continuous

global coverage of the surface topography of the oceans \

Jason-1 (2001) - satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation, study the tiesbetween the ocean and the atmosphere, improve global climate forecasts and predictions, and monitor

events such as El Nio and ocean eddies. Successor to TOPEX/Poseidon

Aqua (2002) - multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth, studying theprecipitation, evaporation, and cycling of water

Aquarius - planned NASA satellite mission to measure global sea surface salinity to better predictfuture climate conditions; scheduled for launch on September 5, 2009

National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) - US next-generationsatellite system that will monitor the Earth's weather, atmosphere, oceans, land and near-space

environment

Terra: NASA scientific research satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth, flagship of theEarth Observing System (EOS); holds ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and

Reflection Radiometer), CERES (Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System), MISR (Multi-angle

Imaging SpectroRadiometer), MODIS (Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), and

MOPITT (Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere)

Stations & Underwater Habitats

- place that keeps careful track of the North Atlantic, day

and night, every day of the year

- underwater habitat located in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, one of the only

underwater research facilities in the world

- experimental underwater habitats developed by the United States Navy to prove the

viability of saturation diving and humans living in isolation for extended periods of time, 1964, -65, -69


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Miscellaneous (some repetition from previous)

Acronyms

DOM=Dissolved Organic Matter

DSDP=Deep Sea Drilling Program; organized 1968 to core through sediments and rocks of the oceans. Later

became IODP in 1975.

ENSO=El Nio Southern Oscillation

EPA=Environmental Protection Agency; 1988; to preserve the Gulf of Mexico

GOES=Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

GPS=Global Positioning System

IDOE=International Decade of Ocean Exploration; 1970s, improve our scientific knowledge of all aspects of the

oceans.

ITCZ=Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

NOAA=National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration; oversee and

ROV=Remotely Operated Vehicle

SOFAR=SOund Fixing and Ranging

SONAR=SOund Navigation and Ranging

SOSUS=Sound SUrveillance System

TAC=Total Allowable Catch

UNCLOS=United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

Also Some Dates 1903=Scripps Institution of Biological Research, later Scripps Institution of Oceanography, founded at

UC San Diego. First Oceanographic Institute established. \

1912=Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift and the Titanic sank. 1985=JOIDES Resolution replaced the Glomar Challenger. 1998= International Year of the Ocean

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