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inity

Randomness

Creativity

Lateral Thinking

InterconnectivitySix Degrees of Kevin Bacon

Cyberculture

Meme

Viral

Online Marketing

Alcohol Advertising Beer

it’s justONE THING

AFTER ANOTHER

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• I N F I N I T Y •Infinity (symbol: ∞) refers to something without any limit, and is a concept relevant in a number of fields, predominantly mathematics and physics. The English word infinity derives from Latin infinitas, which can be translated as “unboundedness”, itself derived from the Greek word apeiros, meaning “endless”.[1]

In mathematics, “infinity” is often treated as if it were a number (i.e., it counts or measures things: “an infinite number of terms”) but it is not the same sort of number as the real numbers. In number systems incorporating infinitesimals, the reciprocal of an infinitesimal is an infinite number, i.e., a number greater than any real number. Georg Cantor formalized many ideas related to infinity and infinite sets during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the theory he developed, there are infinite sets of different sizes (called cardinalities).[2] For example, the set of integers is countably infinite, while the set of real numbers is uncountably infinite.

H I S T O R Y

Ancient cultures had various ideas about the nature of infinity. The ancient Indians and Greeks, unable to codify infinity in terms of a formalized mathematical system approached infinity as a philosophical concept.

early greek

The earliest attestable accounts of mathematical infinity come from Zeno of Elea (c. 490 BCE? – c. 430 BCE?), a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy and member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of the dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, described by Bertrand Russell as “immeasurably subtle and profound”.

In accordance with the traditional view of Aristotle, the Hellenistic Greeks generally preferred to distinguish the potential infinity from the actual infinity; for example, instead of saying that there are an infinity of primes, Euclid prefers instead to say that there are more

prime numbers than contained in any given collection of prime numbers (Elements, Book IX, Proposition 20).

However, recent readings of the Archimedes Palimpsest have hinted that at least Archimedes had an intuition about actual infinite quantities.

early indian

The Isha Upanishad of the Yajurveda (c. 4th to 3rd century BCE?) states that “if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity”.

The Indian mathematical text Surya Prajnapti (c. 400 BCE) classifies all numbers into three sets: enumerable, innumerable, and infinite. Each of these was further subdivided into three orders:

• Enumerable:lowest,intermediate,andhighest

• Innumerable: nearly innumerable, trulyinnumerable,andinnumerablyinnumerable

4 5

• Infinite: nearly infinite, truly infinite, infinitelyinfinite

In the Indian work on the theory of sets, two basic types of infinite numbers are distinguished. On both physical and ontological grounds, a distinction was made between asaṃkhyāta (“countless, innumerable”) and ananta (“endless, unlimited”), between rigidly bounded and loosely bounded infinities.

M A T H E M A T I C S

infinity symbol

John Wallis is credited with introducing the infinity symbol, , (sometimes called the Lemniscate) in 1655 in his De sectionibus conicis.[3][4] One conjecture as to why he chose this symbol is that he derived it from a Roman numeral for 1,000, which was in turn derived from the Etruscan numeral for 1,000, which looked somewhat like CIƆ and was sometimes used to mean “many”. Another conjecture is that he derived it from the Greek letter ω (omega), the last letter in the Greek alphabet.[5]

The infinity symbol is also sometimes depicted as a special variation of the ancient ouroboros snake symbol. The snake is twisted into the horizontal eight configuration while engaged in eating its own tail, a uniquely suitable symbol for endlessness.

The symbol is encoded in Unicode at U+221E ∞ infinity (HTML: ∞ ∞) and in LaTeX as \ infty.

Also, but less available in fonts, are encoded: U+29DC Ɔ incomplete infinity (HTML: ⧜ ISOtech entity Ɔ), U+29DD Ɔ tie over infinity (HTML: ⧝) and U+29DE Ɔ infinity negated with vertical

bar (HTML: ⧞) in block Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B.[6]

calculus

Leibniz, one of the co-inventors of infinitesimal calculus, speculated widely about infinite numbers and their use in mathematics. To Leibniz, both infinitesimals and infinite quantities were ideal entities, not of the same nature as appreciable quantities, but enjoying the same properties.[7][8]

real analysis

In real analysis, the symbol , called “infinity”, denotes an unbounded limit. means that x grows without bound, and means the value of x is decreasing without bound. If f(t) ≥ 0 for every t, then

• meansthatf(t)doesnotboundafinitearea

• meansthattheareaunderf(t)isinfinite.

• meansthatthetotalareaunderf(t)isfinite,andequals

• Infinityisalsousedtodescribeinfiniteseries:

• meansthatthesumoftheinfiniteseriesconvergestosomerealvalue.

• meansthatthesumoftheinfiniteseriesdivergesin the specific sense that the partial sums growwithoutbound.

Infinity is often used not only to define a limit but as a value in the affinely extended real number system. Points labeled and can be added to the topological space of the real numbers, producing the two-point compactification of the real numbers. Adding algebraic properties to this gives us the extended real numbers. We can also treat and as the same, leading to the one-point compactification of the real numbers, which is the real projective line. Projective geometry also introduces a line at infinity in plane geometry, and so forth for higher dimensions.

“If you remove a part from infinity

or add a part to infinity, still what

remains is infinity ”

6 7

• R A N D O M N E S S •Randomness has somewhat differing meanings as used in various fields. It also has common meanings which are connected to the notion of predictability (or lack thereof) of events.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines “random” as “Having no definite aim or purpose; not sent or guided in a particular direction; made, done, occurring, etc., without method or conscious choice; haphazard.” This concept of randomness suggests a non-order or non-coherence in a sequence of symbols or steps, such that there is no intelligible pattern or combination.

Applied usage in science, mathematics and statistics recognizes a lack of predictability when referring to randomness, but admits regularities in the occurrences of events whose outcomes are not certain. For example, when throwing two dice and counting the total, we can say that a sum of 7 will randomly occur twice as often as 4. This view, where randomness simply refers to situations in which the certainty of the outcome is at issue, is the one taken when referring to concepts of chance, probability, and information entropy. In these situations randomness implies a measure of uncertainty and notions of haphazardness are irrelevant.

The fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness. In statistics, a random variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events. A random process is a sequence of random variables describing a process whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern, but follow an evolution described by probability distributions. These and other constructs are extremely useful in the calculus.

Randomness is often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties, such as a lack of bias or correlation. Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input, are important techniques in science, for instance, in computational science.

Random selection is a method of selecting items (oftentimes called units) from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, if we have a bowl of 100 marbles with 10 red (and any red marble is indistinguishable from any other red marble) and

8 9

90 blue (and any blue marble is indistinguishable from any other blue marble), a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with probability 1/10. Note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where the population consists of items that are all distinguishable, a random selection mechanism would require equal probabilities for any item to be chosen. That is, if the section process is such that each member of a population, of say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random. Random selection can be an official method to resolve tied elections in some jurisdictions[2] and is even an ancient method of divination, as in tarot, the I Ching, and bibliomancy. Its use in politics is very old, as office holders in Ancient Athens were chosen by lot, there being no voting.

H I S T O R Y

In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate. Many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness and fate.[3][4]

The Chinese were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance 3,000 years ago. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms. It was only in the sixteenth century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of the calculus had a positive impact on the formal study of randomness. In the 1888 edition of his book The Logic of Chance John Venn wrote a chapter on “The conception of randomness” which included his view of the randomness of the digits of the number Pi by using them to construct a random walk in two dimensions.[5]

The early part of the twentieth century saw a rapid growth in the formal analysis of randomness,

as various approaches to the mathematical foundations of probability were introduced. In the mid- to late-twentieth century, ideas of algorithmic information theory introduced new dimensions to the field via the concept of algorithmic randomness.

Although randomness had often been viewed as an obstacle and a nuisance for many centuries, in the twentieth century computer scientists began to realize that the deliberate introduction of randomness into computations can be an effective tool for designing better algorithms. In some cases such randomized algorithms outperform the best deterministic methods.

R A N D O M N E S S I N S C I E N C E

Many scientific fields are concerned with randomness:

• Algorithmicprobability

• Chaostheory

• Cryptography

• Gametheory

• Informationtheory

• Patternrecognition

• Probabilitytheory

• Quantummechanics

• Statisticalmechanics

• Statistics

in the physical sciences

In the 19th century, scientists used the idea of random motions of molecules in the development of statistical mechanics in order to explain phenomena in thermodynamics and the properties of gases.

According to several standard interpretations of quantum mechanics, microscopic phenomena are objectively random.[6] That is, in an experiment where all causally relevant parameters are controlled, there will still be some aspects of the outcome which vary randomly. An example of such an experiment is placing a single unstable atom in a controlled environment; it cannot be predicted how long it will take for the atom to decay; only the probability of decay within a given time can be calculated.[7] Thus, quantum mechanics does not specify the outcome of individual experiments but only the probabilities. Hidden variable theories are inconsistent with the view that nature contains irreducible randomness: such theories posit that in the processes that appear random, properties with a certain statistical distribution are somehow at work “behind the scenes” determining the outcome in each case.

in biology

The modern evolutionary synthesis ascribes the observed diversity of life to natural selection, in which some random genetic mutations are retained in the gene pool due to the non-random

improved chance for survival and reproduction that those mutated genes confer on individuals who possess them.

The characteristics of an organism arise to some extent deterministically (e.g., under the influence of genes and the environment) and to some extent randomly. For example, the density of freckles that appear on a person’s skin is controlled by genes and exposure to light; whereas the exact location of individual freckles seems to be random.[8]

Randomness is important if an animal is to behave in a way that is unpredictable to others. For instance, insects in flight tend to move about with random changes in direction, making it difficult for pursuing predators to predict their trajectories.

in mathematics

The mathematical theory of probability arose from attempts to formulate mathematical descriptions of chance events, originally in the context of gambling, but later in connection with physics. Statistics is used to infer the underlying probability distribution of a collection of empirical observations. For the purposes of simulation, it is necessary to have a large supply of random numbers or means to generate them on demand.

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D E F I N I T I O N

In a summary of scientific research into creativity Michael Mumford suggested: “Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products” (Mumford, 2003, p. 110).[1] Creativity can also be defined “as the process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile”[2]. What is produced can come in many forms and is not specifically singled out in a subject or area. Authors have diverged dramatically in their precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a hundred different analyses can be found in the literature.[3]

aspects of creativity

Theories of creativity ( p a r t i c u l a r l y investigation of why some people are more creative than others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as “the four Ps” - process, product, person and place.[4] A focus on process is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see below) and in creative ideas framed as successful memes.[5] The psychometric approach to creativity reveals that it also involves the ability to produce more.

[6] A focus on the nature of the creative person considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory behavior and so on. A focus on place considers the circumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.[6]

An article by R.J. Sternberg in the Creativity Research Journal

reviewed the “investment” theory of creativity as well

as the “propulsion” theory of creative contribution, suggesting that there are eight types of creative contribution; replication - confirming that the given field is in the correct place -

redefinition - the attempt to redefine where the field

is and how it is viewed - forward incrementation - a

creative contribution that moves the field forward in the direction in

which it is already moving - advance forward movement - which advances the field past the point where others are ready for it to go - redirection - which moves field in a new, different direction - redirection from a point in the past - which moves the field back to a previous point to advance in a different direction - starting over/ re-initiation - moving the field to a different starting point - and integration - combining two or more diverse ways of thinking about the field into a single way of thinking.[7]

•CREATIVITY•Creativity refers to the invention or origination of any new thing (a product, solution, artwork, literary work, joke, etc.) that has value. “New” may refer to the individual creator or the society or domain within which novelty occurs. “Valuable”, similarly, may be defined in a variety of ways.[citation needed]

The range of scholarly interest in creativity includes a multitude of definitions and approaches involving several disciplines; psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies, and economics, taking in the relationship between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes associated with creativity, the relationships between personality type and creative ability and between creativity and mental health, the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology, and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of learning and teaching processes.

12 13

historical importance

James C. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a

“four C” model of creativity; mini-c (“transformative learning”

involving “personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions

and insights”), little-c (everyday problem solving and creative expression), Pro-C

(exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative though not

necessarily eminent) and Big-C (creativity considered great in the given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analysing creative processes

in individuals.[8]

The contrast of terms “Big C” and “Little c” has been widely used.

Kozbelt, Beghetto and Runco use a little-c/Big-C model to review

major theories of creativity [4] Margaret Boden

d i s t i n g u i s h e s

between h- cre a t iv i t y (historical) and p-creativity (personal).

Robinson[10] and Anna Craft[11] have focussed on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between “high” and “little c” creativity.[11] and cites Ken Robinson as referring to “high” and “democratic” creativity. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi[12] has defined creativity in terms of those individuals judged to have made significant creative, perhaps domain-changing contributions. Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative productivity.[13]

E T Y M O L O G Y

The lexeme in the English word creativity comes from the Latin term creō “to create, make”: its derivational suffixes also come from Latin. The word “create” appeared

in English as early as the 14th century, notably in Chaucer, to indicate divine creation[14] (in The Parson’s Tale[15]). However, its modern meaning as an act of human creation did not emerge until after the Enlightenment.[14]

H I S T O R Y O F T H E C O N C E P T

ancient views

Most ancient cultures, including thinkers of Ancient Greece,[16] Ancient China, and Ancient India,[17] lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of discovery

and not creation. The ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to “to create” or “creator” except for the expression “poiein” (“to make”), which only applied to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or “maker”) who made it. Plato did not believe in art as a form of creation. Asked in The Republic, “Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?”, he answers, “Certainly not, he merely imitates.”[16]

It is commonly argued that the notion of “creativity” originated in Western culture through Christianity, as a matter of divine inspiration.[14] According to the historian Daniel J. Boorstin, “the early Western conception of creativity was the Biblical story of creation given in the Genesis.”[18] However, this is not creativity in the modern sense, which did not arise until the Renaissance.

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• L AT E R A L T H I N K I N G •Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic.

The term was invented in 1967 by Edward de Bono.

Lateral thinking is different from our normal perceptions regarding creativity and innovation, and it is an alternative to pure vertical logic/scientism and pure horizontal imagination/spirituality:

Purely horizontal thinking is known as daydreaming, fantasy, mysticism. The purely horizontal thinker has a thousand ideas but puts none of them into action. He or she sees the big picture and all its possibilities but has little interest in linear, step-by-step implementation.

Purely vertical thinking is the classic method for problem solving: from the given data step by step working out the solution

M E T H O D S

Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the true value of statements and seeking errors. Lateral thinking is more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person uses lateral thinking to move from one known idea to creating new ideas. Edward de Bono defines four types of thinking tools:

• Idea generating tools that are designed to breakcurrent thinking patterns—routine patterns, thestatusquo

• Focus tools thatare designed to broadenwhere tosearchfornewideas

• Harvest tools that are designed to ensure morevalueisreceivedfromideageneratingoutput

• Treatmenttoolsthataredesignedtoconsiderreal-worldconstraints,resources,andsupport[1]

Random Entry Idea Generating Tool: The thinker chooses an object at random, or a noun from a dictionary, and associate that with the area they are thinking about. For example, if they are thinking about how to improve a website, an object chosen at random from the environment around them might be a fax machine. A fax machine transmits images over the phone to paper. Fax machines are becoming rare. People send faxes directly to phone numbers. Perhaps this could suggest a new way to embed the website’s content in emails and other sites.

Provocation Idea Generating Tool: The use any of the provocation techniques—wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape, distortion, or arising. The thinker creates a list of provocations and then uses the most outlandish ones to move their thinking forward to new ideas.

Movement Techniques: The thinker develops provocation operations[clarification needed] by the following methods: extract a principle, focus on the difference, moment to moment, positive aspects, special circumstances.

Challenge Idea Generating Tool: A tool which is designed to ask the question “Why?” in a non-threatening way: why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of “Why?” which naturally leads to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not just items which are problems. For example, one could challenge the handles on coffee cups. The reason for the handle seems to be that the cup is often too hot to hold directly. Perhaps coffee cups could be made with insulated finger grips, or there could be separate cup holders similar to beer holders.

Concept Fan Idea Generating Tool: Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider.

Disproving: Based on the idea that the majority is always wrong (as suggested by Henrik Ibsen and John Kenneth Galbraith), take anything that is obvious and generally accepted as “goes without saying”, question it, take an opposite view, and try to convincingly disprove it. This technique is similar to de Bono’s “Black Hat” of the Six Thinking Hats, which looks at the ways in which something will not work.

L A T E R A L T H I N K I N G A N D P R O B L E M S O L V I N G

Problem Solving: When something creates a problem, the performance or the status quo of the situation drops. Problem solving deals with finding out what caused the problem and then figuring out ways to fix the problem. The objective is to get the situation to where it should.

For example, a production line has an established run rate of 1000 items per hour. Suddenly, the run rate drops to 800 items per hour. Ideas as to why this happened and solutions to repair the production line must be thought of, such as giving the worker a pay raise.

Creative Problem Solving: Using creativity, one must solve a problem in an indirect and unconventional manner.

For example, if a production line produced 1000 books per hour, creative problem solving could find ways to produce more books per hour, use the production line, or reduce the cost to run the production line.

Creative Problem Identification: Many of the greatest non-technological innovations are identified while realizing an improved process or design in everyday objects and tasks either by accidental chance or by studying and documenting real world experience.

Lateral Thinking puzzles: This is puzzles that are supposed to demonstrate what lateral thinking is about. However any puzzle that has only one solution “is” not lateral. While lateral thinking may help you construct such puzzles, the lateral thinking tools will seldom help you solve puzzles.

Lateral Problem “Solving”: Lateral thinking will often produce solutions whereby the problems appears as “obvious” in hindsight. That lateral thinking will often lead to problems that you never knew you had, or it will solve simple problems that have a huge potential.

For example, if a production line produced 1000 books per hour, lateral thinking may suggest that a drop in output to 800 would lead to higher quality, more motivated workers etc. etc.

16 17

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•Interconnectivity is a concept th

at is used in numerous fields such as cybernetics, biology, ecology, netw

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marized as that all parts of a system

interact with

and rely on one another simply by the fact that they occupy the sam

e system, and that a system

is difficult or som

etimes im

possible to analyze through its individual parts considered alone. The concept is closely linked to

the observer effect and the butterfly effect.[1] It is often linked to the concepts of interconnectedness which is

used to refer to the spiritual, and interdependence which refers to the m

oral, rather than physical or scientific

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D I F F E R E N T I A T I O N F R O M T H E B U T T E R F L Y E F F E C T

The key difference between interconnectivity and the butterfly effect is that while the butterfly effect deals with chain reactions and events, interconnectivity deals with systems in dynamic equilibrium, such as ecosystems, economies, societies, etc. While the two are often substituted incorrectly for one another, they are two similar but separate concepts.

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• S I X D E G R E E S O F K E V I N B AC O N •Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon is a variation on “six degrees of separation” which posits that any two people on Earth are, on average, about six acquaintance links apart. That idea moved into the pop culture mainstream when it spawned a popular play and movie by the same name. It later morphed into a parlor game, wherein movie buffs challenge each other to find the shortest path between an arbitrary actor and veteran Hollywood character actor Kevin Bacon. It can also be described as a trivia game based on the concept of the small world phenomenon and rests on the assumption that any individual involved in the Hollywood, California film industry can be linked through his or her film roles to Kevin Bacon within six steps. The name of the game is a play on the “six degrees of separation” concept. The game requires a group of players to try to connect any individual to Kevin Bacon as quickly as possible and in as few links as possible. In 2007, Bacon started a charitable organization named SixDegrees.org.

H I S T O R Y

In a January 1994 Premiere magazine interview about the film The River Wild, Kevin Bacon commented that he had worked with everybody in Hollywood or at least someone who has worked with them.

Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon first surfaced at about the same time. On April 7, 1994, a lengthy newsgroup thread headed “Kevin Bacon is the Center of the Universe” appeared.[1]

The game was created in early 1994 by three Albright College students, Craig Fass, Brian Turtle, and Mike Ginelli. According to an interview with the three in the spring 1999 issue of the college’s magazine, The Albright Reporter, they were watching Footloose during a heavy snowstorm. When the film was followed by The Air Up There, they began to speculate on how many movies Bacon had been in and the number of people he had worked with.

In the interview, Brian Turtle said, “It became one of our stupid party tricks, I guess. People would throw names at us, and we’d connect them to Kevin Bacon.”

The quartet wrote talk show host Jon Stewart a letter telling him that “Kevin Bacon was the center of the entertainment universe” and explaining the game.[2] They appeared on The Jon Stewart Show and The Howard Stern Show with Bacon to explain the game. Bacon admitted that he initially disliked the game because he believed it was ridiculing him, but he eventually came to enjoy it. The three inventors released a book, Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon (ISBN 9780452278448), with an introduction written by Bacon.[2] A board game based on the concept was released by Endless Games.

“Kevin Bacon was the center of the entertainment universe ”

20 21

Bacon also appeared in a commercial for the Visa check card that parodied the game. In the commercial, Bacon wants to write a check to buy a book, but the clerk asks for his ID, which he does not have. He leaves and returns with a group of people, then says to the clerk, “Okay, I was in a movie with an extra, Eunice, whose hairdresser, Wayne, attended Sunday school with Father O’Neill, who plays racquetball with Dr. Sanjay, who recently removed the appendix of Kim, who dumped you sophomore year. So you see, we’re practically brothers.”[3]

The concept was also presented in an episode of the TV show Mad About You dated November 19, 1996 in which a character expressed the opinion that every actor is only three degrees of separation from Kevin Bacon. Bacon spoofed the concept himself in a cameo he performed for the independent film, We Married Margo.[4] Playing himself in a 2003 episode of Will and Grace, Bacon connects himself to Val Kilmer through Tom Cruise and jokes “Hey, that was a short one!”.[5]

The October 30, 2002 headline of The Onion, a satirical newspaper, is “Kevin Bacon Linked To Al-Qaeda”.[6]

Bacon provides the voice-over commentary for the NY Skyride attraction in the Empire State Building in New York City. At several points throughout the commentary, Bacon alludes to his connections to Hollywood stars via other actors with whom he has worked.

In 2009, Bacon narrated a National Geographic Channel show ‘The Human Family Tree’[7] – a program charting the work of the Genographic Project and their work on the genetic interconnectedness of all humans.

In 2011, James Franco made reference to Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon while hosting the 83rd Academy Awards.

In the summer of 2012, Google began to offer the ability to find an actor’s Bacon number on their main page, by searching for the actors name preceded by the phrase, “bacon number”.

B A C O N N U M B E R S

The Bacon number of an actor or actress is the number of degrees of separation he or she has from Bacon, as defined by the game. This is an application of the Erdős number concept to the Hollywood movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the farther away from Kevin Bacon the actor is.

The computation of a Bacon number for actor X is a “shortest path” algorithm:

• KevinBaconhasaBaconnumberof0.

• Those actors who have worked directly withKevin Bacon have a Baconnumberof1.

• IfthelowestBaconnumberofanyactorwithwhomXhasappearedinamovieisN,X’sBaconnumberisN+1.

Here is an example, using Elvis Presley:

• ElvisPresleywasinChangeofHabit(1969)withEdwardAsner

• EdwardAsnerwasinJFK(1991)withKevinBacon

• ThereforeAsner has aBacon number of 1, andPresley (who has neverappearedinafilmwithBacon)hasaBaconnumberof2.

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M A N I F E S T A T I O N S O F C Y B E R C U L T U R E

Manifestations of Cyberculture include various human interactions mediated by computer networks. They can be activities, pursuits, games, places and metaphors, and include a diverse base of applications. Some are supported by specialized software and others work on commonly accepted web protocols. Examples include but are not limited to:

• Blogs

• BulletinBoardSystems

• Chat

• Cybersex

• E-Commerce

• Games

• Internetmemes

• Peer-to-peerfilesharing

• Socialnetworks

• Usenet

• Virtualworlds

Q U A L I T I E S O F C Y B E R C U L T U R E

First and foremost, cyberculture derives from traditional notions of culture, as the roots of the word imply. In non-cyberculture, it would be odd to speak of a single, monolithic culture. In cyberculture, by extension, searching for a single thing that is cyberculture would likely be problematic. The notion that there is a single, definable cyberculture is likely the complete dominance of early cyber territory by affluent North Americans. Writing by early proponents of cyberspace tends to reflect this assumption (see Howard Rheingold).[9]

The ethnography of cyberspace is an important aspect of cyberculture that does not reflect a single unified culture. It “is not a monolithic

or placeless ‘cyberspace’; rather, it is numerous new technologies and capabilities, used by diverse people, in diverse real-world locations.” It is malleable, perishable, and can be shaped by the vagaries of external forces on its users. For example, the laws of physical world governments, social norms, the architecture of cyberspace, and market forces shape the way cybercultures form and evolve. As with physical world cultures cybercultures lend themselves to identification and study.

That said, there are several qualities that cybercultures share that make them warrant the prefix “cyber-“. Some of those qualities are that cyberculture:

• IsacommunitymediatedbyICTs.

• Isculture“mediatedbycomputerscreens.”[10]

• Relies heavily on the notion of information andknowledgeexchange.

• Depends on the ability to manipulate tools to adegreenot present in other forms of culture (evenartisanculture,e.g.,aglass-blowingculture).

• Allows vastly expanded weak ties and has beencriticized for overly emphasizing the same (seeBowlingAloneandotherworks).

• Multiplies the number of eyeballs on a givenproblem,beyondthatwhichwouldbepossibleusingtraditionalmeans,givenphysical,geographic,andtemporalconstraints.

• Isa“cognitiveandsocialculture,notageographicone.”[11]

• Is “the product of like-minded people finding acommon‘place’tointeract.”[12]

• Isinherentlymore“ fragile”thantraditionalformsofcommunityandculture(JohnC.Dvorak).

• C Y B E R C U LT U R E •Cyberculture is the culture that has emerged, or is emerging, from the use of computer networks for communication, entertainment, and business. It is also the study of various social phenomena associated with the Internet and other new forms of network communication, such as online communities, online multi-player gaming, social gaming, social media, and texting.[1]

O V E R V I E W

Since the boundaries of cyberculture are difficult to define, the term is used flexibly, and its application to specific circumstances can be controversial. It generally refers at least to the cultures of virtual communities, but extends to a wide range of cultural issues relating to “cyber-topics”, e.g. cybernetics, and the perceived or predicted cyborgization of the human body and human society itself. It can also embrace associated intellectual and cultural movements, such as cyborg theory and cyberpunk. The term often incorporates an anticipation of the future.

The Oxford English Dictionary lists the earliest usage of the term “cyberculture” in 1963, when A.M. Hilton wrote the following, “In the era of cyberculture, all the plows pull themselves and the fried chickens fly right onto our plates.”[3] This example, and all others, up through 1995 are used to support the definition of cyberculture as “the social conditions brought about by automation and computerization.”[3] The American Heritage Dictionary broadens the

sense in which “cyberculture” is used by defining it as, “The culture arising from the use of computer networks, as for communication, entertainment, work, and business”.[4] However, what both the OED and the American Heritage Dictionary miss is that

cyberculture is the culture within and among users of computer networks. This cyberculture may be purely an online culture or it may span both virtual and physical worlds. This is to say, that cyberculture is a culture endemic to online communities; it is not just the culture that results from computer use, but culture that is directly mediated by the computer. Another way to envision cyberculture is as the electronically enabled linkage of like-minded, but potentially geographically disparate (or physically disabled and hence less mobile) persons.

Cyberculture is a wide social and cultural movement closely linked to advanced information science and information technology, their emergence, development and rise to social and cultural prominence between the 1960s and the 1990s. Cyberculture was influenced at its genesis by those early users of the internet, frequently including the architects of the original project. These individuals were often guided in their actions by the hacker ethic. While early cyberculture was based on a small cultural sample, and its ideals, the modern cyberculture is a much more diverse group of users and the ideals that they espouse.

Numerous specific concepts of cyberculture have been formulated by such authors as Lev Manovich,[5][6] Arturo Escobar and Fred Forest.[7] However, most of these concepts

“In the era of cyberculture, all

the plows pull themselves and the

fried chickens fly right onto our plates.”

24 25

A meme ( /ˈmiˈm/; meem)[1] is “an idea, behavior or style that spreads from person to person within a culture.”[2] A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols or practices, which can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals or other imitable phenomena. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate and respond to selective pressures.[3]

The word meme is a shortening (modeled on gene) of mimeme (from Ancient Greek μίμίμί Greek pronunciation: [míίmίίma] mίmίma, “something imitated”, from μίμίίίίίί mimeisthai, “to imitate”, from μίμίί mimos “mime”)[4] and it was coined by the British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (1976)[1][5] as a concept for discussion of evolutionary principles in explaining the spread of ideas and cultural phenomena. Examples of memes given in the book included melodies, catch-phrases, fashion and the technology of building arches.[6]

Proponents theorize that memes may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition and inheritance, each of which influence a meme’s reproductive success. Memes spread through the behaviors that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread and (for better or for worse) mutate. Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts.[7]

A field of study called memetics[8] arose in the 1990s to explore the concepts and transmission of memes in terms of an evolutionary model. Criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically. However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible.[9] Some commentators[who?] question the idea that one can meaningfully categorize culture in terms of discrete units. Others, including Dawkins himself, have argued that this usage of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal.[10]

MEMEThis is the definition

26 27

H I S T O R Y

origins

The word meme originated with Richard Dawkins’ 1976 book The Selfish Gene. Dawkins cites as inspiration the work of geneticist L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, anthropologist F. T. Cloak [11] and ethologist J. M. Cullen[12]. To emphasize commonality with genes, Dawkins coined the term “meme” by shortening “mimeme”, which derives from the Greek word mimema (“something imitated”).[1] He said that he wanted “a syllable that sounds a bit like ‘gene’”.

Dawkins wrote that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self-replicating unit of transmission—in the case of biological evolution, the gene. For Dawkins, the meme exempli http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons /4 /41 / Ha r r y_W h it t ier_ Frees _ -_What%27s_Delaying_My_Dinner.jpg fied another self-replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution.

C O N C E P T

Dawkins used the term to refer to any cultural entity that an observer might consider a replicator. He hypothesised that one could view many cultural entities as replicators, and pointed to melodies, fashions and learned skills as examples. Memes generally replicate through exposure to humans, who have evolved as efficient copiers of information and behaviour. Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time. Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the natural selection of genes in biological evolution.[6]

Dawkins defined the meme as a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication, but later definitions would vary. Memes, analogously to genes, vary in their aptitude to replicate; memes that are good at getting themselves copied tend to spread and remain, whereas the less good ones have a higher probability of being ignored and forgotten. Thus “better” memes are selected. The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what typically makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics.[13] In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the biological functions of DNA. Meme transmission does not necessarily require a physical medium, unlike genetic transmission.

T R A N S M I S S I O N

Life-forms can transmit information both vertically (from parent to child, via replication of genes) and horizontally (through viruses and other means). Malcolm Gladwell wrote, “A meme is an idea that behaves like a virus--that moves through a population, taking hold in each

person it infects.” Memes can replicate vertically or horizontally within a single biological generation. They may also lie dormant for long periods of time. Memes spread by the behaviors that they generate in their hosts. Imitation counts as an important characteristic in the propagation of memes. Imitation often involves the copying of an observed behaviour of another individual, but memes may transmit from one individual to another through a copy recorded in an inanimate source, such as a book or a musical score. McNamara has suggested that memes can be thereby classified as either internal or external memes, (i-memes or e-memes).[9] Researchers have observed memetic copying in just a few species on Earth, including hominids, dolphins and birds (that learn how to sing by imitating their parents or neighbors).[14]

Some commentators have likened the transmission of memes to the spread of contagions.[15] Social contagions such as fads, hysteria, copycat crime, and copycat suicide exemplify memes seen as the contagious imitation of ideas. Observers distinguish the contagious imitation of memes from instinctively contagious phenomena such as yawning and laughing, which they consider innate (rather than socially learned) behaviors.

Aaron Lynch described seven general patterns of meme transmission, or “thought contagion”:[16]

• Quantity of parenthood: an idea that influencesthenumber of children onehas.Children respondparticularlyreceptivelytotheideasoftheirparents,andthusideasthatdirectlyorindirectlyencouragea higher birthrate will replicate themselves ata higher rate than those that discourage higherbirthrates.

• Efficiency of parenthood: an idea that increasesthe proportion of childrenwhowill adopt ideas oftheirparents.Culturalseparatismexemplifiesonepractice in which one can expect a higher rate of

meme-r epl i cati on—because the meme forseparation creates abarrier from exposuretocompetingideas.

• Proselytic: ideasgenerallypassedtoothersbeyondone’sownchildren.Ideas that encourage the proselytism of a meme,asseen inmanyreligiousorpoliticalmovements,can replicatememeshorizontally throughagivengeneration,spreadingmorerapidlythanparent-to-childmeme-transmissionsdo.

• Preservational:ideasthatinfluencethosethatholdthemtocontinuetoholdthemforalongtime.Ideasthat encourage longevity in their hosts, or leavetheirhostsparticularlyresistanttoabandoningorreplacingtheseideas,enhancethepreservabilityofmemesandaffordprotection fromthe competitionorproselytismofothermemes.

• Adversative: ideas that influence those that holdthemtoattackorsabotagecompetingideasand/orthose that hold them. Adversative replication cangiveanadvantageinmemetransmissionwhenthememe itself encourages aggression against othermemes.

• Cognitive: ideas perceived as cogent by most inthe population who encounter them. Cognitivelytransmittedmemes dependheavily ona cluster ofotherideasandcognitivetraitsalreadywidelyheldin the population, and thus usually spread morepassivelythanotherformsofmemetransmission.Memes spread in cognitive transmission do notcountasself-replicating.

• Motivational: ideas that people adopt becausethey perceive some self-interest in adopting them.Strictly speaking, motivationally transmittedmemes do not self-propagate, but this mode oftransmission often occurs in association withmemes self-replicated in the efficiency parental,proselyticandpreservationalmodes.

“A meme is an idea that behaves like a virus--that moves through a population, taking hold in each person it infects.”

28 29

• V I R A L •The adjective or adverb viral and the noun virality may refer to any viral phenomenon, that is, an object or pattern that is able to induce some agents to replicate it, resulting in many copies being produced and spread around. For example, virality relating to social, cultural, emotional and affective contagions that spread through sociotechnical networks.

In medical terminology “viral” means pertaining to a virus.

More specifically, the terms may be used in reference to:

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• viralmarketing,theuseofexistingsocialnetworkstospreadamarketingmessage

• viralphenomenon,relatingtocontagiontheoryorthe“virality”ofnetworkculture

• a viral video, a video that quickly attains a highpopularitythroughtheInternet

•VIRAL•The adjective or adverb viral and the noun virality may refer to any viral phenomenon, that is, an object or pattern that is able to induce some agents to replicate it, resulting in many copies being produced and spread around. For example, virality relating to social, cultural, emotional and affective contagions that spread through sociotechnical networks.

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30 31

• O N L I N E M A R K E T I N G •Internet marketing, also known as web marketing, online marketing, webvertising, or e-marketing, is referred to as the marketing (generally promotion) of products or services over the Internet. Internet marketing is considered to be broad in scope[citation needed] because it not only refers to marketing on the Internet, but also includes marketing done via e-mail and wireless media. Digital customer data and electronic customer relationship management (ECRM) systems are also often grouped together under internet marketing.[1]

Internet marketing ties together the creative and technical aspects of the Internet, including design, development, advertising and sales.[2] Internet marketing also refers to the placement of media along many different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine marketing (SEM), search engine optimization (SEO), banner ads on specific websites, email marketing, mobile advertising, and Web 2.0 strategies.[citation needed]

In 2008, The New York Times, working with comScore, published an initial estimate to quantify the user data collected by large Internet-based companies. Counting four types of interactions with company websites in addition to the hits from advertisements served from advertising networks, the authors found that the potential for collecting data was up to 2,500 times per user per month.[3]

T Y P E S O F I N T E R N E T M A R K E T I N G

Internet marketing is broadly divided in to the following[4] types:

• Display advertising: the use of web banners orbanneradsplacedonathird-partywebsiteorblogto drive traffic to a company’s own website andincreaseproductawareness.[4]

• Search engine marketing (SEM): a form ofmarketing that seeks to promote websites byincreasing their visibility in search engine resultpages (SERPs) through the use of either paidplacement, contextual advertising, and paidinclusion,orthroughtheuseoffreesearchengineoptimizationtechniques.[5]

• Searchengineoptimization(SEO):theprocessofimprovingthevisibilityofawebsiteorawebpagein search engines via the “natural” or un-paid(“organic”or“algorithmic”)searchresults.[6]

• Social media marketing: the process of gainingtraffic or attention through socialmedia websitessuchasFacebook,TwitterandLinkedIn.[7]

• Email marketing: involves directly marketing acommercial message to a group of people usingelectronicmail.[8]

• Referral marketing: a method of promotingproducts or services to new customers throughreferrals,usuallywordofmouth.[9]

• Affiliatemarketing:amarketingpracticeinwhichabusinessrewardsoneormoreaffiliates for eachvisitororcustomerbroughtaboutbytheaffiliate’sownmarketingefforts.[10]

• Inbound marketing: involves creating and freelysharing informative content as a means ofconvertingprospectsintocustomersandcustomersintorepeatbuyers.[citationneeded]

• Video marketing: This type of marketingspecializesincreatingvideosthatengagetheviewerinto a buying state by presenting informationin video form and guiding them to a product orservice[citationneeded]Onlinevideoisincreasinglybecomingmorepopularamong internetusersandcompanies are seeing it as a viable method ofattractingcustomers.[11]

B U S I N E S S M O D E L S

Internet marketing is associated with several business models:

• E-commerce: amodel whereby goods and servicesare sold directly to consumers (B2C), businesses(B2B), or from consumer to consumer (C2C)usingcomputersconnectedtoanetwork.[12]

• Lead-based websites: a strategy whereby anorganization generates value by acquiring salesleadsfromitswebsite.[citationneeded]Similartowalk-incustomersinretailworld.Theseprospectsareoftenreferredtoasorganicleads.

• AffiliateMarketing: a process wherein a productor service developed by one entity is sold by otheractivesellersforashareofprofits.[citationneeded]Theentitythatownstheproductmayprovidesomemarketing material (e.g., sales letters, affiliatelinks, tracking facilities, etc.); however, the vastmajorityofaffiliatemarketingrelationshipscomefrom e-commerce businesses that offer affiliateprograms.[citationneeded]

• Local Internet marketing: a strategy throughwhich a small company utilizes the Internet tofindandtonurturerelationshipsthatcanbeused

for real-world advantages.[citation needed] LocalInternetmarketingusestoolssuchassocialmediamarketing,localdirectorylisting,[13]andtargetedonlinesalespromotions.

one-to-one approaches

In a one-to-one approach, marketers target a user browsing the Internet alone and so that the marketers’ messages reach the user personally.[14] This approach is used in search marketing, for which the advertisements are based on search engine keywords entered by the users. This approach usually works under the pay per click (PPC) method.[citation needed]

appeal to specific interests

When appealing to specific interests, marketers place an emphasis on appealing to a specific behavior or interest, rather than reaching out to a broadly defined demographic.[citation needed] These marketers typically segment their markets according to age group, gender, geography, and other general factors.[citation needed]

niche marketing

In conventional niche marketing, clusters of consumers (the niche) are identified in order to more economically and efficiently target them.[15] Similarly, niche internet marketing attempts to create a more direct advertising message for those who are seen as most likely to buy the product being advertised (see Target audience and Conversion rate).[citation needed]

Niche internet marketing focuses on marketing products and services which are, or can appear, tailor-made for a specific subset of consumers who are expected to buy the product or service with a specific motivation. The online advertising message (or product web site) can then be similarly tailor-made to target that assumed

32 33

• A L C O H O L A DV E R T I S I N G •Alcohol advertising is the promotion of alcoholic beverages by alcohol producers through a variety of media. Along with tobacco advertising, it is one of the most highly-regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of alcohol advertising is banned in some countries.

Scientific research, health agencies and universities have, over decades, been able to demonstrate a correlation between alcohol beverage advertising and alcohol consumption. However, it has not been proven that alcohol advertising causes higher consumption. It is in the alcohol industry’s interest to demonstrate that effective alcohol campaigns only increase a producer’s market share and also brand loyalty.[1]

A D V E R T I S I N G

Many advertising campaigns have tried to increase consumption and loyalty.

target marketing

The intended audience of the alcohol advertising campaigns have changed over the years, with some brands being specifically targeted towards a particular demographic. Some drinks are traditionally seen as a male drink, particularly beers and whiskies, while others are drunk by females. Some brands have allegedly been specifically developed to appeal to people that would not normally drink that kind of beverage.

One area in which the alcohol industry has faced criticism and tightened legislation is in their alleged targeting of young people. Central to this is the development of alcopops – sweet-tasting, brightly coloured drinks with names that may appeal to a younger audience. However, numerous government and other reports have failed to support that allegation.[2]

There have been several disputes over whether alcohol advertisements are targeting teens.

There happens to be heavy amounts of alcohol advertising that appears to make drinking fun and exciting. Alcohol advertisements can be seen virtually anywhere, they are especially known for sponsoring sporting events, concerts, magazines, and they are found anywhere on the internet.[citation needed] Most of the vendors’ websites require an age of 21 to enter, but there is no restriction besides simply entering a birth date. With the catchy slogans, the idea that drinking is trendy, and no mention of the negative side of excessive use such advertising could be very harmful. A study done by the American Journal of Public Health concluded that Boston train passengers between the ages of 11 and 18 saw an alcohol related advertisement everyday. There have been studies similar to this, which supports the allegation that underage consumption of alcohol is in correlation with the exposure of alcohol ads. In response, many cities have recognized the effect of alcohol related ads on adolescents and in some cities these advertisements have been banned on public transportation. It is difficult to make definite allegations regarding youth exposure to these

34 35

types of advertisements but it is necessary to find ways in which these allegations may be limited.

On the other hand, vendors do not see their ads as a target for teens, and claim they should not be held responsible if they indirectly target minors.[citation needed] Their argument is that companies and businesses rely heavily upon advertising, and they cannot help it if minors see these advertisements.[citation needed] Vendors also invest money in alcohol prevention and awareness programs each year.[citation needed]

Whether young people are directly targeted by alcohol advertisers or not, they are exposed to alcohol advertising on television, in print media, and on radio. In fact, 45% of the commercials that young people view each year are advertisements for alcohol. A first question to be answered through rigorous research, therefore, is whether alcohol advertising does have an impact on alcohol consumption amongst young people. The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse reports the rates of binge alcohol use in 2008 were 1.5 percent among 12 or 13 years old, 6.9 percent among 14 or 15 years old, 17.2 percent among 16 or 17 years old, 33.7 percent among persons aged 18 to 20. In 2009, the rates for each group of underage alcohol usage increased by a fourth.

According to 2001 College Alcohol Study (CAS), continuous alcohol promotions and advertisements including lowering prices on certain types of alcohol on a college campus have increased the percentage of alcohol consumption of that college community.Alcohol advertising on college campuses have also shown to increase binge drinking among students. However, it is concluded that the consistency of these special promotions and ads could also be useful in reducing binge drinking and other related drinking problems on campus. (Kuo, 2000, Wechsler 2000, Greenberg 2000, Lee 2000).

Kuo, Meichun, Henry Wechsler, Patty Greenberg, and Hang Lee. “ScienceDirect - American Journal of Preventive Medicine : The marketing of alcohol to college students: The role of low prices and special promotions.” ScienceDirect - Home. N.p., 3 Oct. 2000. Web. 22 Sept. 2011. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379703002009>.

Did you know?

• Results from one study indicate that beeradvertisements are a significant predictor of anadolescent’sknowledge,preference,andloyaltyforbeer brands, aswell as current drinking behaviorandintentionstodrink(Gentile,2001).

• Television advertising changes attitudes aboutdrinking. Young people report more positivefeelings about drinking and their own likelihoodto drink after viewing alcohol ads (Austin, 1994;Grube,1994).

• Thealcoholindustryspends$2billionperyearonallmediaadvertising(Strasburger,1999).

• The beer brewing industry itself spentmore than$770millionontelevisionadsand$15milliononradioadsin2000

(Center for Science in the Public Interest, 2002).

Research clearly indicates that, in addition to parents and peers, alcohol advertising and marketing have a significant impact on youth decisions to drink. (The Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth [CAMY]).

“While many factors may influence an underage person’s drinking decisions, including among other things parents, peers and the media, there is reason to believe that advertising also plays a role.” (Federal Trade Commission, Self-Regulation in the Alcohol Industry, 1999)

Parents and peers have a large impact on youth decisions to drink. However, research

clearly indicates that alcohol advertising and marketing also have a significant effect by influencing youth and adult expectations and attitudes, and helping to create an environment that promotes underage drinking.

A D V E R T I S I N G A R O U N D T H E W O R L D

The European Union and World Health Organization (WHO) have both specified that the advertising and promotion of alcohol needs to be controlled. In September 2005, the WHO Euro Region adopted a Framework for Alcohol Policy for the Region. This has 5 ethical principles which includes “All children and adolescents have the right to grow up in an environment protected from the negative consequences of alcohol consumption and, to the extent possible, from the promotion of alcoholic beverages” [2]. Cross-border television advertising within the EU is regulated by the 1989 Television without Frontiers Directive.[4] Article 15 of this Directive sets out the restrictions on alcohol advertising:

• “ itmaynotbeaimedspecificallyat minors or, in particular,depictminors consuming thesebeverages;

• itshallnotlinktheconsumptionofalcoholtoenhancedphysicalperformanceortodriving;

• it shall not create theimpression that theconsumption of alcoholcontributes towards social orsexualsuccess;

• itshallnotclaimthatalcoholhas therapeutic qualitiesor that it is a stimulant,a sedative or a means ofresolvingpersonalconflicts;

• it shall not encourageimmoderate consumptionof alcohol or presentabstinence or moderationinanegativelight;

• itshallnotplaceemphasison high alcoholic contentasbeingapositivequalityofthebeverages.”

This article on alcohol advertising restrictions is implemented in each EU country largely through the self-regulatory bodies dealing with advertising.

The EU law ‘TV without Frontiers’ Directive is currently being revised to broaden the scope to new media formats such as digital television.

36 37

• B E E R •Beer is the world’s most widely consumed[1] alcoholic beverage; it is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea.[2] It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage.[3][4][5][6] Beer is produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat.[7] Unmalted maize and rice are widely used adjuncts to lighten the flavour because of their lower cost. The preparation of beer is called brewing. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included.

Some of humanity’s earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours,[8] and “The Hymn to Ninkasi”, a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.[9][10] Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.

The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (abv) although it may vary between 0.5% (de-alcoholized) and 20%, with some breweries creating examples of 40% abv and above in recent years.

Beer forms part of the culture of beer-drinking nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals, as well as a rich pub culture involving activities like pub crawling and pub games such as bar billiards.

H I S T O R Y

Beer is one of the world’s oldest prepared beverages, possibly dating back to the early Neolithic or 9500 BC, when cereal was first farmed,[11] and is recorded in the written history of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.[12] Archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations.

The earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran.[14][15] Some of the earliest Sumerian writings found in the region contain references to a type of beer; one such example, a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi, known as “The Hymn to Ninkasi”, served as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for

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beer in a culture with few literate people.[9][10] The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria and date back to 2500 BC, reveal that the city produced a range of beers, including one that appears to be named “Ebla” after the city.[16] A fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mold was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by mastication or malting,[17][18]

Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch, independently invented beer. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technology and contributed to the building of civilizations.

Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC,[23] and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.[24] The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs.[25] What they did not contain was hops, as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot[26] and again in 1067 by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen.[27]

In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the Reinheitsgebot (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops and barley-malt.[28] Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced

and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.[29] The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results.

Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.[30] As of 2006, more than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons), the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion).[31]

In 2010, China’s beer consumption hit 450 million hectoliters (45 billion liters) or nearly twice that of the United States but only 5 percent sold were Premium draught beers, compared with 50 percent in France and Germany.[32]

B R E W I N G

The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of its history. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made in the home. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, which from the late 19th century largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the USA in 1978.

The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast.

The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as “mashing”. Hot water (known as “liquor” in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as “grist”) in a mash tun.[34] The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours,[35] during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are now washed in a process known as “sparging”. This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is lautering, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium. Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow a more finely ground grist.[36] Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not

Axel Spendrup