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Place, Context and Content Shifts in the 21st Century: Rural and Urban Spaces 21. Yy’da Yer, Bağlam ve Anlam Kaymaları: Kırsal ve Kentsel Mekanlar

1. Introduction "People are building in a certain way because they think in a certain way; they think in a certain way because they are building in a certain way." Umberto Eco

In the intersection of time, space relations and acquired identity over residence, architectural thought is able to find a physical response. In this respect, within the scope of the article, it is intended to discuss the relations between place-space-belonging and 21st century practices and the transformation of these relations. After these concepts are explained, urban and rural relations will be examined and the conflicting and interacting aspects of each other will be analyzed. From the moment that the attempt of people to shelter in a place turns into an attempt to create a power over that place, it also transforms into a context in terms of identity creation. Since being in a space and residing in a place means acquiring identity, it is necessary to look at the forms of this identity status. The identity, therefore the pertain to the place or to the residency, finds its meaning as belonging. In this regard, Christian Norberg-Schulz states that;

"dwelling is the fundamental condition of being human in a qualitative sense. When you are identified with a place, we are committed to a way of being on earth. For this reason, the dwelling makes a request from 'us' and, in the same way, from our 'places' of residence. In order to create an identity, we must have an open mind and places have a rich possibilities ” –(Norberg-Schulz, 1980)

Established with the physical equivalents of the relationship established with the place, belonging produces various forms of existence. Various forms of life gain grounds and survive on earth. This approach, pointing out the 'place' as the context condition, reveals that 'its' character and the time it contains should be discussed. Christian Norberg-Schulz evaluates the opinions about the place through the concept of "genius loci." While Norberg-Schulz examines how a space is transformed into a “place”, he argues that the organic bond between the space and the place originates from the spirit of the place (genious loci). The spirit of the place is a phenomenon analyzed according to the concepts of space and character. According to him, space becomes an entity only through a character. According to this approach, Schulz argues that the context can be defined by the atmosphere, including the existence and action of human beings;

"Architecture aims to revive the spirit of the place, and the task of the architect is to create meaningful places for human beings to reside." (Norberg-Schulz, 1980)

The meaning in this description is reflected in the design in terms of interpreting the conditions in which the designer is influenced as context. The architectural space is always in a context and the context emerges as a tool to hold on to the environment in which the place is located. Bernard Tschumi mentions that the way the designer interprets the context is revealed through the “concept”. Tschumi formulated that the relationship between context and concept can relate in three basic ways. These are, respectively, indifference, reciprocity and conflict (Tschumi, 2005: 11-16). The way Tschumi defines these concepts is as follows;

Indifference: This condition can be defined as in this relationship between concept and context, the designer can be defined as ignoring the context. The

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Mimarlık ve Yaşam Dergisi Cilt: 3, No: 2, 2018 (207-229) Gülhis DUYGUN

context is inevitably present because it is dependent on a place, but the formation of the concept is independent of context. Reciprocity: This condition occurs when the architectural concept and the content interacts closely with one another. In this relationship, the physical space created by contextual data is formed spontaneously and appears to be always there. Conflict: The condition that occurs where architectural concept collide strategically with the context. The form is produced via the contrasts of conflicts. Conflict is defined as a phenomenon that prevents and disrupts the normal. The conflict that this situation creates with the existing contextual conditions can be functional and formal, or as a result of these, it can create conflicts in the social and cultural dimensions (Piquard and Swenarton, 2011, pp. 1-13).

This tripartite approach of Tschumi can be observed in the production of physical space that forms the present world. However, the conflict situation is seen as an auxiliary approach to convey the relationships of ground, context and semantics in 21st century practices. In contemporary life forms, it is possible to say that the contradictions between the nature and environment of human have turned into a conflict. The most significant example of this is being experienced between nature and the city. Due to the effect of globalization, what shapes the daily life relations is not nature anymore. What the body relates to, although it takes its raw material from nature, are transformed into the world of unnatural objects following the transformation of their structure. The inorganic structures of the surrounding objects are most resistant to time. The natural cycle of man is unable to adapt in such a temporality. At this point, a new global interaction is formed which is shaped around human quest for immortality. On the one hand, these environments where perceptual boundaries are formed through globalization are experienced, while on the other hand, classical representations of the relationships with the existing environment are still encountered on a wide scale from tribal communities to crowded societies. However, it is seen that classical context relations fall short in understanding today's practices. Especially, the current chaotic state of cities is thought to be due to inadequate knowledge about new formed contexts. Another effect of this state becomes evident as a tendency to move away from the cities. Investigating the causes of these situations is seen as a method to understand the present world and to produce ideas on the future. In the foreword of Marc Augé's book non-places where he discussed the space and place, it is said: "The concepts of ‘place’ and ‘space’ are one of the most controversial concepts of the architectural world in recent years. The main axis of this discussion is the differences of these concepts and the transformations that they undergo in the process of modernization. The transformation caused by the modernization process emerges especially in the relation of architecture and the place. Place as one of the leading components defining architecture begins to bear a declining determinism. At the last point of the modernization process (Marc Augé calls it "superior modernism"), the new architecture programs brought by the world of globalization make the relationship with the place absolutely contingent. Spaces such as airports, motorways and shopping malls are frequently experienced as non-places begin to occur independent of their environment." The disappearance of the determinism of the 'place' detaches the structures that located in different places from their locations and the contexts in which they are located, makes them independent, and makes these places readable only through the programs and concepts defined by the world of globalization.

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One of these concepts is ‘security’, which is more prominent than any other component and becomes the bearer of the relationship the subject has established with that space.” Marc Augé, who defines these spaces as ‘non-places’ in the global world, has identified one of the most controversial issues of architectural society in recent years with this conceptualization (Augé, 2017). While the definition of place by Marc Augé is based on a general literature, the “non-places” 2 are defined through the programs produced by the post-modern process. The emergence of these new programs as an architectural act transforms the architectural design approach. At this point, the article argues that there is an alternative third form of architecture that corresponds to space and non-space. Because, in addition to the new needs produced by globalization, the intertwining of the old and the new are observed. This is reflected in everyday life practices and becomes an experience where the boundaries of spatial definitions become ambiguous. This kind of shifts in meaning and loss of belonging leads to profound changes in the structure of the space. According to this third form of architecture, when Marc Augé's non-place concept refers to the program, the space is now in a way of contextually generating a non-place in variety of forms. Since being in a space and residing in a place means acquiring identity, it is necessary to look at the forms of this identity status. The identity, therefore the pertain to the place or to the residency, finds its meaning as belonging. The belonging established by the physical equivalents of the relationship established with the place reflects these forms in architectural products. The principles that constitute the architectural mind emerge with the relations of place, context and meaning. The environment for the production of these principles as an area of architecture is mostly the cities. The city, which is in different ways but equally belonging to everyone as an open cultural area, is being discussed as the cultural (natural) habitat of human beings created by them and formed human beings over time. In the countryside, life is not dominated by what is demanded from the place but it is dominated by what is demanded by the space (nature). Accordingly, unlike the countryside, the city, as the first artistic and cultural artifact that man transforms and adapts to itself, becomes the nature of the self-expressing human beings residing and surviving in it. (Erzen, 2015).3 This nature does not have a natural cyclical time, like the traditional rural. The city, which bears different layers of history, also offers the memory of the past in a physical or relational sense. Thus, it offers knowledge of the past and knowledge of a culture in a local sense. This memory promises to be a part of the future while displaying the 2 “While examining the typologies peculiar to the supermodernity era, Marc Augé, considers that places such as airports, highways, supermarkets, shopping malls, hotel rooms include or describe non-lieu, meaning non-place. Places such as express roads, atms, airports, or large shopping malls which are designed for accelerated circulation of people and goods are the non-places. Non-place does not resemble any of the categories of space we get used to. Memories cannot be accumulated in non-places, and it is not possible to talk about historicity in them. There are two main features related to a non-place: First of all, these places are almost always came up for a specific purpose. Second, the use of these places requires specific instructions for use of the place. Non-place offers designer the flexibility to reveal his/her creativity, and it remains weak compared to other space organizations. Because the functionality of space and structure is mechanical. It is so mechanical that the architect's activity in design reflects the same mechanics. The need to require user instructions for the user as a feature within the definition of the non-place also creates the need of planning instructions for the designer. Non-place transforms the region it is located. It is contrary to the idea of physical space which contains the geographical and cultural characteristics of the region. It is independent of geography, topography, or local values. Non-lieu spaces are, in some cases, the common spaces shared by the cities of the world as another area of representation of electronic technology." Source: http://www.boyutpedia.com/1613/69627/mimarlikta-non-lieu-kavrami-ve-terminal and Auge, M. 2017. Non-leieux (non-places) , Daimon Publishing House ,İstanbul 3 The nature here is used in the sense of the cultural nature of man, not in its the biological meaning.

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past. The city often provides a space through witnessing any social, cultural, artistic or economic development, and becomes a reference for the future. Thus, the urban dwellers feels equal to the period in which they lived and accordingly this city becomes a significant representation of the culture. The physical environment of this representation is the fabric produced by the built environment. In addition to the monads4 (Akarsu, 1975) that form the city, it is necessary to mention a whole that will be formed by the communities. This built environment creates a physical environment shaped by urban culture, starting from the smallest unit to the scale of the community. Most of the time, the urban becomes the center of an order against the spontaneity of the rural. The urban regulator at this point are sometimes managing powers, sometimes architects and city and regional planners, sometimes, even not as strong as in the rural, the actors who gained their places in the city on their own (homeless, migrants, etc.). The search for this order corresponds to a condition demanded by the urban dwellers. Therefore, the disorder in a physical environment that shapes everyday life is often found disturbing. Human consciousness is closely intertwined and influenced by the material and intellectual texture of its own creation and the environment in which it lives. At this point, the relationship between the urban and human is twofold. Therefore, the cities have a dual behavior that is formed by the subjects that shape it, such as both being demanding and being disturbed. In Robert Park's words, this interaction is explained as follows;

"The city is man’s most successful attempt to remake the world he lives in more after his heart’s desire. But, if the city is the world which man created, it is the world in which he is henceforth condemned to live. Thus, indirectly, and without any clear sense of the nature of his task, in making the city man has remade himself." (Robert Park, 1967, p.3)

The structure of the city affects the people who live in it in every moment of the process of social change, while the people who produce in this process also change their environment and their city. For this reason, while human is creating the city, the city is creating the human. The philosophy of consumption society, which is the last creation of humanity, affects architecture and urban design and creates the result that cities resemble each other. With the expansion of multi-story buildings with similar architectural styles using the same kind of construction technology and materials, the cities increasingly resemble each other. While prototype structures, which are produced with the same construction technology and the same construction material, having similar designs, perceptually bringing the world cities closer together, they destroy the urban identities created by the localities. At the end of such a disidentification process, the world becomes perceptibly smaller and a loss of belonging is experienced (Yaylı, 2012). At this point, the loss of belonging caused by the disappearance of locality also leads to a perceptual distance.

2. Context and Content in Urban Space

4 Monad as a word literally means a particle, a granule. Also in Leibniz's philosophy, it means the infinitesimal units which encapsulates finite reality, and in ancient Greek philosophy, it means the indivisible unity in which its material characteristics are derived. Each monad is a single, indestructible, dynamic substance that differs from the other monads according to their degree of consciousness. There is no true causality relationship between monads, but each bears a principle of change within itself. Dictionary Of Philosophical Terms - Bedia Akarsu 1975. TDK

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With this discourse, Khoury describes a new environment in which he does not remain loyal to a general context approach. Consequently, if the architectural space is now shaped by which points and places of the global balances, the context creates content accordingly. This creates a new type of content that differs from the conventional practices of place. The concept of context, which bears different contents according to the periodical priorities, produces a new character that is contemporary for its period (Figure 5). The concern to develop an avant-garde architecture for the era turns architecture into a system of rational values in the pattern of economy and technology. On the other hand, a series of action attitude emerged following the rise of local values. Therefore, “context” is in the position to produce a new combination of content according to the pattern of relations. Shaping this process of transformation in the concept of “place” and “space” via consumption is a result of capitalist globalization. This situation can create different contexts in different geographies and different forms of interaction with different identities. Regarding this approach Jean Baudrillard (2004) makes a detailed examination of the phenomenon of consumption in the field of architecture. He states that consumption is an effective form of relationship established not just with objects, but with collectivism and the world, a systemic activity in which our entire cultural system is established and a form of global response. Baudrillard emphasizes that consumption cannot only be regarded as satisfying the natural needs. In addition, it is mentioned that consumption is not just meeting the natural need, it can be accepted as a phenomenon that is acquired and learned regardless of the nature and value of use, where people are educated socially to feel desirable (Baudrillard, 2004). Many factors, such as civil wars, cultural degeneration, economic problems, simultaneously change the patterns of production and consumption. With modernism, fields of architecture and engineering began to intertwine, and space production is no longer considered separate from material science and information systems. This multidisciplinary structure, on the other hand, produces a new field of discussion, apart from the relatively naive and conventional contextual data. For example, security becomes a serious problem especially in urban life. In the Middle East there are masses separated from their lands due to civil wars. In the west, the increases in the number of homeless due to economic and cultural imbalances are too much to be underestimated. For example, people in Istanbul tend to live in high-security residential settlements (sites or residences) where they feel safe, rather than experiencing the city as flaneur (Figure 6). This becomes the vital promise of the global capitalism.

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exposed to the negative effects of global warming. Glaciers in the high mountains melt, creating new topographic and climatic formations, and some of them poses dangers. (URL-15) This climate change is the basis for various disasters and destructions (Figure 22). Therefore, the spatial environment they see as a source of happiness is in danger! It is critical that even Bhutan, which is the only country that can be carbon neutral, cannot avoid the effects of increased consumption to generate happy people. On 19 July 2011, the General Assembly of the United Nations unanimously approved that happiness is an independent goal for all countries. In this way, the UN is on the way to encourage world countries to seek a more holistic approach to development. But what has been increasing since 2011 is not the acceleration of happiness, but the rapid loss of the unique nature of the earth. (URL-15) Conclusion: To the present day, the discipline of architecture discusses the existing environment in two main contexts: urban and rural. In this process, cities are seen as the center of development and the center of various urban equipment that enriches life. The rural areas represent a condition that its production activities are based on agriculture and can be read in relation to nature. However, as can be seen in the way we live in the 21st century, the distinction between the city and the countryside is blurred. People, who are now overwhelmed by the chaotic state of cities, tend to form their own rural spaces within the city. In rural areas, especially under the pressure of industrialization and technology, although it is physically in rural, life forms that resembles structural and daily life-practices of the urban are formed. At this point, the opposition between urban and rural also becomes ambiguous. Considered in the light of the discussions, the new environment and meanings produced by this ambiguity have a negative effect. Therefore, thinking about the urban and rural or focusing on the relationship between each other reminds us that nature is an indispensable element at every point. In this case, it is the responsibility of all disciplines as well as architectural thinking and production to seek the methods of converting the negativity created by the ambiguity of urban or rural opposition into a positive ground.

227


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P d Content Shifts in the 2 ury: Rural and Urban Spaces

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