David Phillips

Public Relations is frequently the ethical heart of an organisation. Arguably “internal and external PR

communications control of the flow of good and bad news to the staff and community”

The PR team copes with company crises. PR pros sit at the elbows of top officers drafting a company's mission statements, its strategies, its vision.

PR people are often put on the spot — if not to determine the morality of a course, at least to help envision the fallout.

Steven R. Van Hook.

The tools that help ethical behavioursEthics is a universal issue and affects PR.We can study Bentham, Kant, R

awls and Machiavelli.Ethics theories range

from Utilitarianism ("The greatest good for the greatest number") to Deontology ("Do what is right, though the world should perish").

Aristotle’s Ethics Aristotle’s EthicsGood is that at which

all things aim.The proper function

or excellence of a things is its arete (virtue).

The human arete or virtue is activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

Human virtue (arete)Humans have two kinds of virtue:

Intellectual virtues: these relate particularly to our professions, i.e., they will differ for a truck driver, cook, lawyer, farmer, doctor, etc.

Moral virtues: This virtue is common to all humans, but it may vary in degree according to our capacities.

Both intellectual and moral virtues are needed for us to achieve happiness (eudaemonia)

Happiness: The Self-sufficient EndMost of the ends (goals) we seek are

instrumental steps toward some ultimate goal.

Aristotle identifies happiness (eudaemonia) as that which we seek as a goal that is an end in itself.

Happiness: The Self-sufficient End

Happiness comes from developing a good character.

A good character comes from the development of good habits.

Good CharacterPeople have a natural capacity for good character, but it must be developed through constant practice. Good leaders are necessary to guide us in the development of good habits.

Virtue (arete) as the mean, the correct balanceThe mean is the right balance between two

extremes, the extreme of excess and the extreme of deficiency.

Examples:Defect Mean ExcessCowardliness courage rashness Humility pride vanityStingy giving spendthrift

Virtue (arete) as the mean (inbetween)The mean varies according to individualsThe mean of courage is different for a

marine, a college student, and an eight-year old child

The mean of charitable giving is different for a billionaire, a college teacher, and a student.

The Categorical Imperative

Kant’s One RightThe one absolute right that humans have is the right to be left alone.

KANTIAN ETHICS: OBLIGATIONSDEONTOLOGICAL/NONCONSEQUENTIALISTBASED ON REASON AND WILLREQUIRES DISCIPLINE AND SELF CONTROLREQUIRES DOING THE RIGHT THING FOR THE

RIGHT REASONETHICS IS NOT CONTINGENT UPON ONE’S

FEELINGS NOR UPON THE CULTURE; RATHER, IT IS ABSOLUTE (CATEGORICAL)

KANTIAN ETHICSASKS “WHAT IF EVERYBODY DID THAT?”

(and he assumes we will all get the same answer if we are disciplined and honest)

Proposes an ideal world of self-directed individuals -- “THE KINGDOM OF ENDS”

Hypothetical ImperativesIMPERATIVES OF PRUDENT CONDUCT -- FRIENDSHIP, KINDNESS, APPRECIATION

Prudence Example: If I wish to have customers continue to come to my store, then I should charge them fair prices.

TYPES OF IMPERATIVES (“SHOULDS”)

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE OR MORAL IMPERATIVE--ABSOLUTE, A PRIORI, RATIONAL (NO IF’S, AND’S, OR BUT’S)I should not lieI should not kill innocent peopleI should not steal

Universalisability & MaximsKantinan ethics posits that if the action could

be universalised (i.e., everyone could do it), then it is morally acceptable. Otherwise, it is not.

Kant suggested that ethical proposition are a maxim which is a subjective principle or rule that the will of an individual uses in making a decision.

THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVETHREE TESTS

THE MAXIM MUST NOT BE SELF-CONTRADICTORY

THE MAXIM MUST BE universalisableTHE MAXIM MUST BE ONE WHICH

COULD BE WILLED A PRIORI BY A RATIONAL PERSON

(Galen Strawson wrote that an a priori argument is one of which "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch)

Kant’s Examples: # 1

A man reduced to despair contemplates suicide:

Is suicide universalisable? No!Does it treat oneself as a means or as an end? As a means.

Therefore, the categorical imperative dictates that suicide is morally wrong.

Kant’s Examples: # 2

A man in need of money thinks about borrowing money and realizes he will have to promise to repay it even though he knows he cannot.

Is such behavior universalisable?Would he be using the person as a

means or as an end?

Kant’s Examples: # 3A person has a talent which he could develop to benefit himself and others, but he prefers not to work to improve the talent.

Is such behavior universalisable?Would he be using himself as a means

or as an end?

Kant’s Examples: # 4A prosperous person is asked for charitable help. He considers not helping.

Is such behavior universalisable?

Would he be using the person as a means or as an end?

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

Four Theses of Utilitarianism

Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is determined solely by their consequences.

Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek and that we should seek.

Maximalism: A right action produces the greatest good consequences and the least bad.

Universalism: The consequences to be considered are those of everyone affected, and everyone equally.

Ethical JudgmentsEthical philosophy differs from the

sciences because it is normative or prescriptive, rather than descriptive.

In other words, ethics tell us how we ought to act or what we should do, while the sciences are more likely to observe how things are in nature or society.

Areas of Emphasis in Making Moral Judgments

Purpose or Motive

Act, Rule, or Maxim

Results or Consequences

Making Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism says that the Result or the Consequence of an Act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad.

This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.

Theories, like this one, that emphasize the results or consequences are called teleological or consequentialist.

Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory

Principle of Utility: The best action is that which produces the greatest happiness and/or reduces pain.

Greatest Happiness: We ought to do that which produces the greatest happiness and least pain for the greatest number of people.

Two Types of Utilitarianism

Rule: An action is right if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general acceptance of which would produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number. (John Stuart Mill)

Act: An Action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number. (Jeremy Bentham)

Application of Utilitarian Theory

A) You attempt to help an elderly man across the street. He gets across safely.

Conclusion: the Act was a good act.

B) You attempt to help an elderly man across the street. You stumble as you go, he is knocked into the path of a car, and is hurt.

Conclusion: The Act was a bad act.

Application of Utilitarian Theory

If you can use eighty soldiers as a decoy in war, and thereby attack an enemy force and kill several hundred enemy soldiers, that is a morally good choice even though the eighty might be lost.

If lying or stealing will actually bring about more happiness and/or reduce pain, Act Utilitarianism says we should lie and steal in those cases.

Application of Utilitarian TheoryActual Cases

The decision at Coventry during WWII. The decision was made not to inform the town

that they would be bombed.The Ford Pinto case: A defective vehicle would

sometimes explode when hit.The model was not recalled and repaired by Ford

because they felt it was cheaper to pay the liability suits than to recall and repair all the defective cars.

Criticisms of Bentham’s theory

Bentham’s theory could mean that if 10 people would be happy watching a man being eaten by wild dogs, it would be a morally good thing for the 10 men to kidnap someone (especially someone whose death would not cause grief to many others) and throw the man into a cage of wild, hungry dogs.

John Stuart Mill’s Adjustments to Utilitarianism

Mill argues that we must consider the quality of the happiness, not merely the quantity.

For example, some might find happiness with a pitcher of beer and a pizza. Others may find happiness watching a fine Shakespearean play. The quality of happiness is greater with the latter.

Criticisms of Utilitarianism

If I am to bring the greatest happiness to the greatest number, not putting my own happiness above others, that may lead to a dilemma. I live in a neighborhood where 83% of my neighbors use drugs. I could make them most happy by helping supply them with cheap drugs, but I feel uncomfortable doing that. What should a utilitarian do?

Criticisms of Utilitarianism

Bernard Williams criticizes the implied “doctrine of negative responsibility” in Utilitarianism. For example, a thug breaks into my home and holds six people hostage, telling us he will kill all of us. “However,” the thug says, “if you will kill two of your family, I will let you and the other three live.”

With Utilitarianism, the good thing to do is to kill two members of my family.

Criticisms of Utilitarianism

If lying, stealing, or killing could lead to an increase of happiness for the greatest number, utilitarianism posits that we should lie, steal or kill.

Is this right?Is it right to heap taxes on the next two generation

to save a banking system and save 10,000 jobs and 20th century jobs?

Remember Kant?A Prime Minister in need of money thinks about borrowing money and

realises he will have to promise to repay it even though he knows it will tax the next generation.Is such behavior universalisable?Would he be using the next generation as a: means or as an end?

Mill’s “Rule” Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mills “ . . . Mankind must by this time have acquired positive beliefs as to the effects of some actions on their happiness; and the beliefs which have thus come down are the rules of morality for the multitude, and for the philosopher until he has succeeded in finding better.” Mill concludes, however, that we should always seek improvements.

Rights and UtilitarianismMany philosophers hold that we have

certain rights, either from God, nature, or from a social contract

Can the idea of rights be made compatible with Utilitarianism?

If ignoring rights brings about more happiness to the greatest number, should we ignore so-called rights?

Mill’s rule-based view in On Liberty; having a right to liberty will bring the greatest happiness

Consequences of Unethical PracticesBaucus & Baucus (2000) Singled out 67 companies out of the

Fortune 500 that had at least one illegal act – ex: antitrust, product liabilities, discrimination

Performance of the convicted firms were compared to unconvicted firms (five year after the fraud was committed)

Convicted firms experienced significantly lower return on sales (three year lag)

Multiple convictions are more disastrous Unethical activities can affect long term

performance

CIPR Code CIPR Principles

1. Members of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations agree to: Maintain the highest standards of professional endeavour, integrity,

confidentiality, financial propriety and personal conduct; Deal honestly and fairly in business with employers, employees,

clients, fellow professionals, other professions and the public;  Respect the customs, practices and codes of clients, employers,

colleagues, fellow professionals and other professions in all countries where they practise;

Take all reasonable care to ensure employment best practice including giving no cause for complaint of unfair discrimination on any grounds;

Work within the legal and regulatory frameworks affecting the practice of public relations in all countries where they practise; 

Encourage professional training and development among members of the profession;

Respect and abide by this Code and related Notes of Guidance issued by the Institute of Public Relations and encourage others to do the same.

http://www.cipr.co.uk/direct/membership.asp?v1=code

Perceptions and realityMany people perceive public relations as

something less than respectable — as clever strategies to convince the public that what's wrong is right.

Some see public relations professionals as manipulators of the public mind, rather than conveyors of truth.

That is likely the reason most every code of conduct, especially those targeted at the PR profession, stresses honesty above all else.

Too often our conduct falls short of the code. Spin substitutes for truth.

Perception substitutes for reality. Victory substitutes for success.

Are we strong enough?

Public relations is a two way street: not only do we represent our organization to the public, but we must also present the public back to our organization. We should help our colleagues understand how the public perceives our actions. 

Which way to turn – are we just utlitarian?In some specific instances, a client's true interest may

lie in complete openness, transparency and disclosure in their communications, and even in tub-thumping to draw attention to their story and message. In such situations, we have every reason to be candid, open and forthcoming.

In many instances, however, the client's interest may lie in seeing that particular facts never see the light of day, and if they do burst forth for all to see, to minimize the impact, duration and even the clarity of any resulting reporting and public communications.

This is called crisis avoidance, and damage control. It is also what many clients most value of our work as

PR practitioners.Is it ethical?

The true role?If PR is about creating and sustaining good,

long term relationships with publics, what is the role of a PR manager in a bank?

In 2009, the relationships between banks was so bad that they did not trust each other enough to lend money inter-bank.

Was this a failure of PR?What would you do?

Do you like the idea?Do you like the idea of explaining why an

organisation should be ethical to a CEO?Do you like the idea of questioning ordinary

mundane activities from an ethical viewpointLooking back on the last essay you wrote for

this degree, do you think you were ethical in its preparation?