PACIFIC DIALOGUE ON WATER AND CLIMATE SYNTHESIS REPORT Dialogue on Water and... · Pacific Dialogue...

PACIFIC DIALOGUEON

WATER AND CLIMATE

SYNTHESIS REPORT

October 2002

by

David Scott, Marc Overmars,Tony Falkland and Clive Carpenter

South Pacific AppliedGeoscince Commission

Pacific Dialogue on Water and Climate Synthesis Report


List of Abbreviations 3Acknowledgements 4INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION 55555The Pacific Dialogue on Water and ClimateThe Pacific IslandsThe Pacific People 7The Pacific Climate 8ISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITY 1010101010IntroductionVulnerability in relation to water and climate 11Climate hazardsNon-climate hazards 14WAWAWAWAWATER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WAAAAATER USE IN THE PATER USE IN THE PATER USE IN THE PATER USE IN THE PATER USE IN THE PACIFICCIFICCIFICCIFICCIFIC 1515151515Types of water resourcesNaturally occurring water resourcesSurface waterGroundwater 16Rainwater‘Non-conventional’ water resources 17DesalinationImportationNon-potable water sourcesSubstitution 18Water supply and useWater supply and usage for human settlementsTourism 19AgricultureHydro-power generationFreshwater resources and use in the participating islands 20MANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYStrategic responsesApplication of seasonal and inter-annual climate forecastsHazard and risk management programmes 21Vulnerability and adaptation assessmentsPriority Actions 23Recommendations for Action from Bonn ConferencePacific HYCOS 24Pacific Climate Information and Prediction SystemDrought assessment and response 25PACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANRegional ConsultationSmall Island Countries at the 3rd World Water Forum 27REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES 2828282828

TTTTTable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contentsable of Contents

i


ii


ADB Asian Development BankAOSIS Association of Small Island StatesBPOA Barbados Programme of ActionCCCCC Caribbean Community Climate Change CentreCEHI Caribbean Environmental Health InstituteCHARM Comprehensive Hazards and Risk ManagementCLIPS Climate Information and Prediction ServicesDWC Dialogue on Water and ClimateEEZ Economic Exclusive ZonesENSO El Niño Southern OscillationESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and

the PacificFMS Fiji Meteorological ServiceGOOS Global Ocean Observing SystemGWP Global Water PartnershipHYCOS Hydrological Cycle Observing SystemIETC International Environmental Technology CentreIGCI International Global Change InstituteIHP International Hydrological Programme (of

UNESCO)IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIRI International Research Institute for Climate

PredictionIWRM Integrated Water Resources ManagementNEMS National Environment Management StrategyNIWA National Institute for Water and Atmospheric

Research New ZealandNZAID New Zealand Agency for International

Development (formerly NZODA)NZODA New Zealand Overseas Development Agency

(now NZAID)PEAC Pacific ENSO Applications CenterPICCAP Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance

ProgrammePICs Pacific Island CountriesSOI Southern Oscillation IndexSOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience CommissionSPREP South Pacific Regional Environment ProgrammeUNDTCD United Nations Department of Technical Co-

operation for DevelopmentUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate ChangeUNGCSIDS UN Global Conference on the Sustainable

Development of Small Island StatesWMO World Meteorological Organisation

List of AbbreviationsList of AbbreviationsList of AbbreviationsList of AbbreviationsList of Abbreviations



AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

Herewith the authors would like to thank theInternational Secretariat for the Dialogue on Waterand Climate, the Dutch Government and the AsianDevelopment Bank for their financial and logisticalsupport for the Pacific Dialogue on Water andClimate. We would also like to express our gratitudetowards the participants of the Sigatoka meetingincluding case study presenters, working groupparticipants, resource persons and participants of thespecial session on the Small Island CountriesDialogue on Water and Climate

We wish to thank our colleagues from the Caribbeanfor their valuable contribution to the PacificDialogue. We sincerely hope to establish a close andfruitful future collaboration with other small islandcountries in Asia, the Indian Ocean and theCaribbean to jointly address problems related toWater and Climate.

This document has been edited for publication.

Published bySouth Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)

October 2002

iii


INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

The PThe PThe PThe PThe Pacific Dialogue on Wacific Dialogue on Wacific Dialogue on Wacific Dialogue on Wacific Dialogue on Water and Climateater and Climateater and Climateater and Climateater and Climate

The economic and social well-being of small islandcountries, particularly those in the Pacific, aredependent upon the quality and quantity of theirwater. However, the ability of small island countriesto effectively manage the water sector is oftenconstrained by their small size and limited humanresource base. In many island countries factors suchas climate variability, increasingly variable rainfall,accelerating storm water runoff and increasingdemand for water are so significant that theythreaten their economic development and the healthof their people.

The vulnerability and particular needs of small islandcountries has been acknowledged by the WorldWater Council by the inclusion of the “Water inSmall Islands Countries” theme in the 3rd WorldWater Forum. The Netherlands based InternationalSecretariat of the Dialogue on Water and Climatehas recognised the significance of water and climateto Small Island Countries by providing support tocollaborative projects from the Pacific and Caribbeanregions which will provide relevant input to thatForum.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the SouthPacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)co-organized a regional consultation meeting onsustainable water management from 29 July - 3August 2002 in Sigatoka, Fiji in preparation for the3rd World Water Forum.

The meeting was organised around six themes:Water Resources Management, Island Vulnerability,Awareness, Technology, Institutional Arrangementsand Financing. The Pacific Dialogue contribution tothe consultation included the Island Vulnerabilitytheme which covered disaster preparedness andhazard management as well as the vulnerabilitiesassociated with climate change and climatevariability.

A special parallel session on the Small IslandCountries Dialogue on Water and Climate was heldon 1 August 2002 in Sigatoka with attendance of,and presentations by, Pacific and Caribbean waterresources specialists, climate specialists,meteorologists and representatives frominternational organisations. In this session, copingstrategies and adaptation strategies werehighlighted, views and experiences exchanged andinter-regional collaboration between small islandcountries of the Caribbean and the Pacific promoted.

This Pacific Dialogue Report draws upon informationmainly derived from the Pacific RegionalConsultation thematic overview papers on WaterResources Management (Falkland, 2002) and IslandVulnerability (Scott, 2002) together with relevantcase studies and components of the Regional ActionPlan which was adopted by the meeting andsubsequently endorsed through the signing of aMinisterial Declaration by 12 Pacific Island Ministersand Secretaries of State (Pacific Regional ActionPlan, 2002).

The Island Vulnerability thematic overview paperdirected attention to the stated goal of the Dialogueon Water and Climate: “to improve the capacity inwater resources management to cope with theimpacts of increasing variability of the world’sclimate, by establishing a platform through whichpolicymakers and water resource managers havebetter access to and make better use of informationgenerated by climatologists and meteorologists”.

The Pacific IslandsThe Pacific IslandsThe Pacific IslandsThe Pacific IslandsThe Pacific Islands

The Small Island Countries involved in the PacificDialogue on Water and Climate include 18 PacificIsland Countries as well as East Timor and theMaldives. The 18 Pacific Island Countries (PICs)considered in this report consist of only 550,000 km2

of land with approximately 7 million inhabitantsspread across 180 million km2 of ocean or about 36%of the world’s surface. The map in Figure 1 showsthe vast Pacific Ocean with the limited land area thatmake up the Pacific islands.

The Economic Exclusive Zones (EEZ) of the PICscover as much as 37.5 million km2 of ocean. Most ofthe islands can be considered as “small”, i.e. islandswith areas less than 2,000 km2 or widths less than10 km (UNESCO, 1991) and most of these fit intothe category of “very small islands”, which are lessthan 100 km2 or have a maximum width of 3 km(Dijon, 1983).

FFFFFigurigurigurigurigure 1: Map of the Pe 1: Map of the Pe 1: Map of the Pe 1: Map of the Pe 1: Map of the Pacific Islands Regionacific Islands Regionacific Islands Regionacific Islands Regionacific Islands Region(Source: MAPgraphics, Brisbane 1995)(Source: MAPgraphics, Brisbane 1995)(Source: MAPgraphics, Brisbane 1995)(Source: MAPgraphics, Brisbane 1995)(Source: MAPgraphics, Brisbane 1995)

1


Excluding Papua New Guinea a non-qualifier as asmall island country but containing many smallislands the figures mentioned above dropdramatically; the land mass amounting to only88,000 km2 occupied by only 2.6 million inhabitants.Many of the populated islands in the Pacific are lessthan 10 km2 while some, especially those on atolls,are less than 1 km2.

Over 30,000 small islands are in the Pacific(UNESCO, 1992) and they vary greatly in theirphysical characteristics including high volcanicislands, low lying atoll islands and uplifted limestoneislands. The high islands are large, consisting mainlyof volcanic rock and are generally forested withfertile soil and usually an ample availability offreshwater. The low islands are usually small withlimited freshwater resources and poor soil. In verysmall islands, surface and groundwater resources aregenerally limited to the supply of water to islandcommunities.

Of the 18 Pacific Island Countries and Territories fiveare in Melanesia, seven are in Polynesia and six arein Micronesia. The Melanesian countries (Fiji, NewCaledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands andVanuatu) are extensions or parts of submergedmountain ranges. The Polynesian and Micronesianislands are made up of small island groups consistingof a mixture of large volcanic islands and small coralatoll islands (American Samoa, Cook Islands,Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia,Guam, Palau, Samoa and Tonga) or consist only ofatolls (Kiribati, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu) or smalluplifted limestone islands which are the only non-archipelagic countries in the Pacific (Nauru, Niue).Variations of volcanic, limestone and coral atoll typeislands in the Pacific are shown in Figure 2.

Large variations in demographic and physicalcharacteristics (total area, number and geology ofislands) are evident. Summary data for each of theisland countries and territories invited to the PacificRegional Consultation Meeting have been collectedas part of the regional consultation on sustainablewater management in the Pacific as shown inTable 1 (Falkland, 2002). The data focuses oncharacteristics which impact on freshwater resourcesand water use in these island countries andterritories.

Almost atoll, Aitutaki, Cook IslandsAlmost atoll, Aitutaki, Cook IslandsAlmost atoll, Aitutaki, Cook IslandsAlmost atoll, Aitutaki, Cook IslandsAlmost atoll, Aitutaki, Cook Islands

FFFFFigurigurigurigurigure 2: Main types of mid-oceanic islands ine 2: Main types of mid-oceanic islands ine 2: Main types of mid-oceanic islands ine 2: Main types of mid-oceanic islands ine 2: Main types of mid-oceanic islands inthe Pthe Pthe Pthe Pthe Pacific. (Wacific. (Wacific. (Wacific. (Wacific. (Woodroodroodroodroodroffe, 1989).offe, 1989).offe, 1989).offe, 1989).offe, 1989).

Raised coral atoll, NauruRaised coral atoll, NauruRaised coral atoll, NauruRaised coral atoll, NauruRaised coral atoll, Nauru

South Pacific?South Pacific?South Pacific?South Pacific?South Pacific?When the Spanish conquistador Balboa gazedsouth from Central America in 1513, he named theocean he had discovered ‘Mar del Sur’, the SouthSeas – a name printed on many maps of the 16thand 17th centuries. Even after Magellan namedthe ocean the ‘Pacific’ in 1521 for the calmness ofits water, the ‘South Seas’ and ‘South SeaIslanders’ were still associated with the tropicalPacific and its people both north and south of theequator. Modern regional institutions havecontinued this tradition, even if they includecountries north of the equator, for example theUniversity of the South Pacific (USP) and theSouth Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission(SOPAC). In 1999 the intergovernmental SouthPacific Forum decided to correct the error,renaming itself the Pacific Islands Forum inrecognition of its northern members.(After: Lonely Planet, 2000).

2


The PThe PThe PThe PThe Pacific Pacific Pacific Pacific Pacific Peopleeopleeopleeopleeople

The cultures of the Pacific islands are very diversebut despite the fact that they are tiny dots of landseparated by enormous distances of open sea theyshow many similarities in their religion, languagesand custom. The history of oceanic voyaging thatproduced these similarities has amazed westernersfrom the time of James Cook.

Advanced navigational skills used in ancient Pacificislanders voyages brought Melanesians,Micronesians and Polynesians to all but the furthest-flung islands of the Pacific by 200 BC. Traditionalknowledge to cope with the elements of sea, windand weather on remote Pacific islands is still beingused in modern times. South TSouth TSouth TSouth TSouth Tarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribati

3


Of the 30,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean only 2,000are inhabited and of the 2.6 million Pacific islanders(excluding PNG) 1.6 million are in Melanesia,600,000 in Polynesia and 450,000 in Micronesia.Individual country populations range from Fiji at785,000 to Niue with only 1,700. The tiny and remoteisland Pitcairn, which is administered by GreatBritain, has a population of only 50.

Most of the population in Pacific Island Countrieslive in coastal areas in rural villages and towns andthe peri-urban areas on the fringes of the maincentres (ESCAP, 2000). In many cases, livingconditions in the peri-urban areas (fringes of urbanareas) are poor and normal urban utility services(including water supply) are sparse, inadequate ornon-existent (Chung and Hill, 2002). Often theconditions within Pacific Island Countries varyconsiderably, with outer islands being significantlyless developed than the main islands.

Populations are increasingly concentrated on oneisland or in one main town. This is most prevalent inMicronesia (Nauru being almost exclusively an urbancommunity). Population density varies from as lowas 8 people per km2 in Vanuatu to 430 per km2 onNauru. Ebeye Islet on Kwajalein Atoll in the MarshallIslands has a population density of 40,000 per km2

with over 13,000 people on only 31 hectares of land.

The Pacific ClimateThe Pacific ClimateThe Pacific ClimateThe Pacific ClimateThe Pacific Climate

GeneralGeneralGeneralGeneralGeneral

Apart from the cool highlands of some Melanesianislands the tropical Pacific islands are humid, and airtemperatures are high and generally uniformthroughout the year (21 to 28 °C). The year isdivided into a drier season and a wetter season.South of the equator (Melanesia and Polynesia), thedry season is from May to October and the wet

season (including the cyclone season in part of theregion) is from November to April. North of theequator (Micronesia) seasons are reversed.

In the tropics, air flowing towards the equator isdeflected by the Earth’s rotation. Called the TradeWinds, these winds blow from the southeast in thesouthern hemisphere and from the northeast in thenorthern hemisphere. The climate of islands facingthese cool rain-carrying Trade Winds changes fromone side of the island to the other as the moist aircurrents are forced to rise upwards and condense asrainfall (the orographic effect). The region where thetrade winds meet at the equator is referred to as theDoldrums, and this region gets little or no wind.Around December each year the prevailing easterliesweaken, and reverse for a time and blow from thewest.

Rainclouds over Savaii, SavaiiRainclouds over Savaii, SavaiiRainclouds over Savaii, SavaiiRainclouds over Savaii, SavaiiRainclouds over Savaii, Savaii

Cloud hunting, Mr Abera Timea’s capabilityCloud hunting, Mr Abera Timea’s capabilityCloud hunting, Mr Abera Timea’s capabilityCloud hunting, Mr Abera Timea’s capabilityCloud hunting, Mr Abera Timea’s capabilityto predictto predictto predictto predictto predictRecord of Mr Abera: during the long drought in1967-1968 he displayed the kind of knowledge hehad. When his supply of rain water became low, hesailed off on his 9 metres long canoe for a 2-4days trip to an area in the open sea he hadidentified where there will be rain on a specifictime. He sails away to his selected area, collectshis rain water and sailed back home. He was wellstocked with rain water even though he did nothave a rainwater tank in his place.From: Tungaru Traditional Concepts, a study onTraditional Knowledge of Tungaru (I-Kiribati)people on their weather conditions forecasts inrelation to the scientific views on climate changeand sea level rise (UNESCO, 1997).

The El Niño PhenomenonThe El Niño PhenomenonThe El Niño PhenomenonThe El Niño PhenomenonThe El Niño PhenomenonThe strong El Niño of 1997/1998 increased theattention of this phenomenon considerably. Theeffects of El Niño, and the La Niña that followedhad major implications for small island countries inthe Pacific. Some governments declared a state ofemergency after the prolonged drought seriouslyaffected the lives and wellbeing of the islanders.However, not every weather anomaly in an El Niñoyear is caused by El Niño itself. There is atendency of scientists as well as non-scientists,just to blame about everything that happens duringthe year of an El Niño on that particular ElNiño event (UNESCO, 1998).

4


Climate VClimate VClimate VClimate VClimate Variabilityariabilityariabilityariabilityariability

The climate of small islands within tropical regions isquite variable, depending on geographical location,island size and topography. The climate of smalloceanic islands is governed by the regional climate,while small islands closer to continents or largeislands may also be influenced by local climaticconditions.

Average annual rainfall varies considerably betweenislands in the tropical Pacific Ocean (e.g. Taylor,1973 shows variations between rainfalls in excess of4,000 mm to less than 500 mm). In high volcanicislands, orographic effects can cause much higherrainfall at altitude than in low-lying areas (e.g. VitiLevu, Fiji), while long-term rainfall does not usuallyvary much across individual low-lying islands.

Two of the most important climatic influences onsmall islands in the Pacific region are tropical stormsand El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) episodes.El Niño is the term used for the extensive warming ofthe upper ocean in the tropical eastern Pacific. Thenegative or cooling phase of El Niño is called LaNiña and both events are linked with a change inatmospheric pressure between the western andcentral regions of the Pacific Ocean known as theSouthern Oscillation (SO). A measure of thisvariation, called the Southern Oscillation Index(SOI), is based on the pressure difference betweenTahiti in the south Pacific and Darwin in northernAustralia. The term ENSO (El Niño SouthernOscillation) is widely used to refer to the effects ofthe El Niño and La Niña phases of this natural cycle.

During an El Niño event the lower pressuredifference (when the SOI index is negative) causesweaker trade winds and a lower temperaturedifference in the water of the ocean (refer Figure 3).The low pressure zone which normally bringsabundant rainfall around the western side of thePacific Ocean shifts to the east with the potential tocause catastrophic droughts in Indonesia, PapuaNew Guinea as well as the other Melanesianislands. The warm water, which is accompanied bymoist air shifts to the central part of the Pacificbringing typhoons and storm surges into islands likeHawaii and French Polynesia.

The reverse condition, popularly known as La Niña,occurs when the SOI index is positive and theeastern Pacific is relatively cool. The low equatorialislands of western Kiribati are seriously affectedduring a La Niña. When the SOI is strongly positivedry easterly winds are more dominant than usual andtheir influence may produce prolonged droughts.

ENSO episodes have a significant impact on theclimate of many small islands and can produceextensive wet and dry cycles. The impact of currentclimate variability in PICs, especially in relation todroughts, has been a major focus in recent years(e.g. SOPAC, 1999). This topic has attractedconsiderable attention in the scientific community(e.g. Terry, 1998), the popular media, and by fundingagencies (e.g. World Bank, 2000).

Understanding of the coupled ocean-atmosphericsystem which drives the ENSO cycle is stillincomplete. Nevertheless, considerable progress hasbeen made over the last decade by meteorologists,oceanographers and hydrologists and there havebeen significant improvements in the capacity tomake observations of meteorological and oceanconditions. With this information an El Niño or LaNiña event can be predicted more accurately andadvance measures for mitigation can be taken.

TTTTTrrrrropical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclones

Called hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in theWestern Pacific, tropical cyclones are large systemsof wind rotating around a centre of low atmosphericpressure. Their winds, which can reach as high as200 km/h, torrential rains and high waves can causeextensive damage to the Pacific Island Countries. Inthe Northern Pacific the typhoon season lasts fromMay to October and in the South Pacific the cycloneseason runs from November to April.

Many small islands are affected by random cyclonicevents, which are a major problem for communities,often causing significant storm damage and flooding.Storm surges have inundated land, caused loss of lifeand severely damaged infrastructure in some small

FFFFFigurigurigurigurigure 3: We 3: We 3: We 3: We 3: Water and atmospherater and atmospherater and atmospherater and atmospherater and atmosphere pre pre pre pre processesocessesocessesocessesocessesinfluence rainfall around the Pacificinfluence rainfall around the Pacificinfluence rainfall around the Pacificinfluence rainfall around the Pacificinfluence rainfall around the Pacific(modified after WMO brochure)(modified after WMO brochure)(modified after WMO brochure)(modified after WMO brochure)(modified after WMO brochure)

5


islands, for example, atolls in Tuvalu, the MarshallIslands, Federated States of Micronesia and thenorthern Cook Islands. During these events,freshwater lenses may receive considerable inputsfrom land inundation of seawater and subsequentinfiltration, and many months may pass before theyreturn to a potable condition.

The frequency of tropical cyclones has been relatedto the ENSO cycle. Of the twenty-four tropicalcyclones which developed in the Tuvalu regionbetween 1940 and 1985, twenty-one developed whenthe SOI was negative (Nunn, 1995) making thesuggestion that ENSO influences tropical cycloneformation plausible.

Climate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate Change

In addition to current climatic variability, there is thepossibility of climate change and sea level rise dueto the enhanced greenhouse effect resulting fromworldwide emissions of greenhouse gases. Climatechange scenarios for PICs vary according to locationand the models used. Most models predict anincrease in frequency of El Niño episodes andincreased intensity of cyclones (World Bank, 2000).There is less certainty about changes to rainfall,which could impact on the availability of islandfreshwater resources. Current scenarios indicate arise in sea level over the next century ofapproximately 0.3 - 0.5 m. (IPCC, 2001).

The impact of current sea level rise scenarios onfreshwater resources is likely to be relatively minor,compared with other influences (e.g. present climatevariability, human impacts). The main potentialimpact would be inundation on the edges of low-lyingislands and coastal zones of high islands. Tarawa,Kiribati has been the focus of impact studies underpossible sea level rise and climate change scenarios.Results of groundwater modelling studies to assessthe impacts on a freshwater lens under the combinedeffects of pumping, climate change and sea levelrise, show that impacts of sea level rise on

freshwater lenses are not detrimental provided thatland is not permanently lost by inundation at themargins (World Bank, 2000).

ISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITYISLAND VULNERABILITY

IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction

The vulnerability of Small Island Countries hasreceived increasing attention since 1994 when theBarbados Conference on the SustainableDevelopment of Small Island Developing Statescalled for recognition of their ecological fragility andeconomic vulnerability (United Nations Departmentof Public Information, 1999).

The particular vulnerability of islands is oftendescribed in terms of their remoteness, small sizeand exposure to climatic instability. The significanceof the climatic component of vulnerability has drawnparticular attention to the impacts of climatevariability and change and the Association of SmallIsland States (AOSIS) has been successful ingaining international recognition for those concerns.

The Pacific Regional Consultation planning meetingheld in Port Vila identified “Island Vulnerability” as amajor theme that should receive particular attentionand noted that this should encompass disasterpreparedness and hazard management as well as thevulnerabilities associated with climate change andclimate variability (ADB/SOPAC, 2002a). Bensonand Clay (2000) point out that most disasters arerecurrent rather than one-off events, and so can havea significant cumulative effect on the rate and natureof development. This is particularly true with respectto those disasters resulting from climatic hazards.

Despite broad acceptance of the special needs ofSmall Island Countries there has been some concernthat vulnerability may have been given undueemphasis. For example, at a recent Fiji NationalMulti-Stakeholder consultation workshop it wasnoted that vulnerability had become a contentiousissue at UN meetings on Sustainable Developmentbecause everyone is saying they are vulnerable.

Campbell (1997) suggests that the term“vulnerability” should be used sparingly and that theadaptive capacity of Pacific Island communitiesshould not be underestimated. Barnett and Adger(2001) note that the emphasis on vulnerabilityfocuses on weaknesses and shortcomings rather thanon inherent strengths and opportunities. Theysuggest that work on coping and adaptation shouldbe framed in terms of resilience and that emphasisshould be shifted from impact assessment to riskassessment.

Suva harbourSuva harbourSuva harbourSuva harbourSuva harbour, F, F, F, F, Fijiijiijiijiiji

6


VVVVVulnerability in rulnerability in rulnerability in rulnerability in rulnerability in relation to water and climateelation to water and climateelation to water and climateelation to water and climateelation to water and climate

Vulnerability refers to the risk of being harmed byunforeseen, or unusual, events. There is a widerange of hazards with the potential to impact uponWater in Small Island Countries; a simpleclassification of these is presented below.

Climate hazardsClimate hazardsClimate hazardsClimate hazardsClimate hazardsClimate (or meteorological) hazards occur over avery wide range of spatial and time scales.Nevertheless, they generally occur frequentlyenough in human terms to have allowed thedevelopment of traditional coping strategies. Inaddition, the improved scientific capability toobserve and describe the interaction of the oceanand atmosphere is now providing for useful forecastsof some of these hazards.

DroughtDroughtDroughtDroughtDrought

Drought is an unusual hazard as, by its very nature,its onset is gradual. It has the capacity to have abroad range of impacts and as a result it can bedefined and quantified in a number of different ways.White et al. (1999) list the four most commondefinitions of drought as:· meteorological or climatological drought· agricultural drought· hydrologic data· socio-economic drought.

The nature and severity of any particular droughtepisode is dependent on the duration and magnitudeof the rainfall deficit. The sequence of droughtimpacts is felt first in systems with small waterstorage capacity: shallow soils may be affected by arelatively short period of below average rainfallwhereas an extensive aquifer may have sufficientstorage to be little affected by a drought duration ofseveral years.

Drought is one of the major natural hazards facingPacific Island Countries with agricultural droughtpresenting a particular problem for the atoll nationsand the leeward side of larger islands. The mostvulnerable communities are impoverished peoplesoccupying marginal rural and urban environments(ESCAP, 2000). When associated with an ENSOevent, drought can have severe impacts throughoutthe region as occurred in the 1997/98 El Niño, asillustrated by the following examples:· this event resulted in some of the worst

droughts on record in the Northern MarianaIslands, Guam, the Marshall Islands, Nauru,Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa andAmerican Samoa.

· in the Marshall Islands only eight percent ofnormal rain fell over the period from January toMarch 1998 which led to the governmentdeclaring the country a disaster area andresulted in the controversial installation ofdesalination plants to provide drinking water onMajuro and Ebeye.

· the highlands of PNG experienced one of theworst droughts on record which, together withassociated low temperatures, causedsignificant crop failures and resulted in anational crisis with a need for airlifting ofemergency food and water supplies.

· in Fiji the extended drought was regarded asthe worst in the 20th century and resulted inserious restrictions of water supplies for cropsand hydropower production. The impacts of thedrought were most marked on the leewardsides of the main islands where existing watersupply limitations were exacerbated and manyof those dependent on agriculture for theirlivelihood received emergency food supplies.

The drought impacts of the 1997-98 ENSO eventhave been extensively documented (Glantz, 2001).Lessons learned from Fiji’s experience of thatdrought demonstrate the need for:· effective and timely forecasting and warning

systems,· drought-response strategies,· information on quantitative measures of

drought,· awareness and education programs for drought

preparedness,

Measuring Drought – A Case Study fromMeasuring Drought – A Case Study fromMeasuring Drought – A Case Study fromMeasuring Drought – A Case Study fromMeasuring Drought – A Case Study fromRarotonga (Cook Islands)Rarotonga (Cook Islands)Rarotonga (Cook Islands)Rarotonga (Cook Islands)Rarotonga (Cook Islands)Rarotonga, the largest island and economic centerof the Cook Islands, is entirely dependent onsurface water catchments for its water supply.During drought periods demand increases whilesupply falls and it becomes difficult or impossiblefor the system to satisfy existing uses. Staff fromthe Cook Islands Department of Water Works haveworked with Water Resource Specialists fromthe South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission(SOPAC) to test the appropriateness of alternativemethods for measuring drought severity. Using morethan 70 years of daily rainfall records they havedeveloped adrought index that is simple tounderstand and calculate and can be used tocompare current conditions with previouslyexperienced droughts. This measure of droughtintensity allows monitoring of evolving droughtconditions and will be useful in developing andimplementing drought management plans. Thiseffort to better manage water resources will bestrengthened by a newly developed stream gaugingnetwork and provides a practical example of theDialogue on Water and Climate’s goal of learning tobetter cope with climate variability and change.(Parakoti and Scott, 2002)

7


drought conditions could justify the application ofsuitable forecasting techniques.

FloodFloodFloodFloodFlood

Floods are a significant hazard in those Pacific Islandcountries with high islands. The hazard is greatestwhen these islands are within the zone affected bycyclones and their associated extreme precipitationintensities. Floods can result in loss of life andextensive property damage, especially when riverfloodplains have been settled and/or cultivated. Incyclone conditions the affects of floods are oftenexacerbated by high-intensity rain induced landslideand resulting debris which can obstruct riverchannels and create potentially hazardous temporarydams.

The hazards that floods present to any structure alsothreaten water supply infrastructure (e.g. damage tointake works, treatment plants or distributionnetworks) and river flow monitoring stations. Floodscan also threaten water supplies in a less direct wayby compromising water quality. This range ofhazards has been demonstrated in recent flooding invarious Pacific Island countries:· in 1986 Cyclone Namu caused widespread

property damage in the Solomon Islands andfloods which resulted in the destruction ofseveral highway bridges and the loss of riverflow monitoring sites.

· in 1987 Cyclone Uma hit Vanuatu where it wasreported as being the worst cyclone in livingmemory in South Efate. The resultingwidespread damage included the destruction ofhydrological stations.

· in 1991 Cyclone Val devastated the islands ofAmerican Samoa. Water supplies wereadversely affected when flooding caused bythe accumulation of debris resulted in theinundation of wellheads.

· in 2001 flash floods in Samoa (Upolu) causedby extreme rainfall intensities associated withan unpredictable micro-weather systemresulted in widespread damage including thecontamination of potable water supplies anddestruction of river flow monitoring sites.

· Typhoon Chata’an in 2002 completelydestroyed or badly damaged all 11 flowmonitoring sites in the Guam streamgagenetwork.

The unavoidable susceptibility of river monitoringsites to flood damage compromises efforts toestablish adequate flow monitoring networks. Thishas the potential to discourage capital investment instructures exposed to flood hazards (e.g. bridges,dams, floodplain developments) since thesegenerally require sufficient hydrological information

· improved water management, and· improved crop and stock management.

Country briefing papers (ADB/SOPAC, 2002b)prepared for the Regional Consultation meetingrevealed that American Samoa, Palau and Fiji areeach involved in the development of droughtmanuals. During the meeting participants from thosecountries expressed willingness to share relevantinformation with others. The Tuvalu Country briefingpaper recorded that a survey of water storagecapacity was required to improve water managementduring dry spells and noted that the Water Authoritywill need Government assistance to implement thesurvey programme. The New Caledonia Countrybriefing paper noted that the country was verysensitive to the ENSO cycle and that some irrigationprojects were in place or planned to manage droughtimpacts on agriculture.

A wide range of possible drought managementstrategies used in Pacific Island countries ispresented by Falkland (2001). These include copingstrategies such as those used in traditionalsubsistence situations and measures that can betaken at the individual household level to conservefreshwater supplies and seek substitutes wherepossible. Reliable and timely warnings of droughtwould be of assistance to people who are reliant onthese measures.

At a larger scale, other short-term measures areresorted to e.g. bulk cartage of water anddesalination. Ideally, however, water managementplans should address the inevitability of climatevariability so that droughts do not necessarily requirean emergency response (SOPAC, 1999). However, itshould be noted that this requires adequatehydrological data for analysis and design, as well asthe financial resources for implementation. A WMOworkshop on reviewing national capabilities forWater Resources Assessment in the South Pacificcountries (Nadi, September/October 1999) indicatedsignificant constraints and led to the development ofa proposal for a Pacific Hydrological CycleObserving System (HYCOS) project (WMO, 2000)to address the needed capacity building.

Regardless of the measures taken to safeguard thesecurity of water supplies it is almost certain thatother sectors will remain susceptible to the impactsof drought. Over the last decade the ability toobserve and predict the behaviour of the coupledatmosphere-ocean system has improved to theextent that useable forecasts of drought conditionsare becoming available. The benefits that theagriculture, forestry and environment sectors couldgain from reliable monitoring and predicting of

8


to allow estimates of flood magnitude of a specifiedprobability.

In most situations the practical approach tomanaging flood hazard is to manage the landuse inthose areas subject to flooding. A perception ofincreasing flood hazard may result if landuse controlsare poorly enforced and these areas are allowed tobecome informal settlements. Landuse in rivercatchments (e.g. forestry, agriculture) can also havea significant effect on flooding risk. This range offactors points to the desirability of Integrated WaterResources Management concepts to assist withhazard management.

As with the hazard of drought, it is possible to takeadvantage of flood warnings in some situations.Flood warning systems require near real-time dataon precipitation rates and/or upstream water levelsor flows. In the relatively small and steepcatchments encountered in Pacific Island countriestelemetry systems are likely to be necessary toprovide for timely flood warnings. A floodforecasting system has been operated on the RewaRiver in Fiji since the late 1980’s despite thedifficulties encountered in finding replacements forobsolete equipment and maintaining a telemetrycapability (Raj and Kumar, 2002). A flood warningsystem installed on the Sepik River in Papua NewGuinea is no longer functional. The New CaledoniaCountry briefing paper revealed that a flood warningsystem was currently in operation for a hydropowerdam and that a programme to map flood hazard wasunderway for selected areas of the country. Thisinvolves the use of hydraulic methods and simpler

geomorphological methods. New Caledonia alsoreferred to future plans to develop flood-warningsystems including the acquisition of weather radarand the use of telemetry to provide observationaldata for rainfall-runoff models.

TTTTTrrrrropical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclonesopical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are a serious hazard in most PacificIsland countries but are more frequent in the westernand central Pacific than in the eastern Pacific. Thevery high wind speeds of tropical cyclones are oftenaccompanied by extremely intense rainfall and stormsurge that is likely to be amplified by the associatedlow atmospheric pressures. This combination offactors can result in destruction of buildings andgardens, damage to tree crops, flooding, coastalinundation, and erosion, pollution of water suppliesand destruction of coral reefs.· Tropical cyclones are damaging for low-lying

islands particularly where changes in land usepractices have tended to reduce the naturalresilience of subsistence life styles andincreased the risk of soil erosion:

· in 1980 Cyclone Ofa caused extensive damageto the atoll islands of Tokelau. Public buildingsand houses were extensively damaged,gardens and tree crops were destroyed, andinundation of sea-water washed away orcontaminated the remaining topsoil.

· Cyclone Ofa also caused devastation in bothSamoa and American Samoa where thewidespread property damage was exacerbatedby flooding problems resulting from theaccumulation of debris in streambeds.

· in 1983 a sequence of five cyclones whichstruck French Polynesia had a devastatingeffect on many atoll villagers with storm surgeconditions submerging or totally removingsome villages. Groundwater resources werecontaminated by seawater inundation, boatsand fishing equipment were destroyed andvegetation and tree crops were extensivelydamaged.

· in Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia)large-scale forest clearing for commercial kavaplantations resulted in massive landslides aftera severe cyclone in 1997. The landslidescaused loss of life, destruction of plantations,and damaged coastal coral reef communities.

It is considered likely that global warming may resultin an increase in cyclone wind speeds and moredamaging storm surges. Climate modelling may beable to provide some indication, in a particularcyclone season, of the probability of experiencingmore or fewer cyclones than normal. Theseindications, though still somewhat experimental, maybe helpful in reinforcing the efforts of disaster

Hydrological monitoring, Espiritu Santo,Hydrological monitoring, Espiritu Santo,Hydrological monitoring, Espiritu Santo,Hydrological monitoring, Espiritu Santo,Hydrological monitoring, Espiritu Santo,VVVVVanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatu

9


Non-climate hazardsNon-climate hazardsNon-climate hazardsNon-climate hazardsNon-climate hazards

GeologicalGeologicalGeologicalGeologicalGeological

Non-climate natural (or geological) hazards includevolcano, earthquake, tsunami and landslide. Apartfrom landslide (which is often associated with highintensity rainfall during tropical cyclones) thesehazards have a relatively low frequency and aredifficult to predict with useful reliability.

Volcanic activity can produce a range of hazards towater supplies including contamination resultingfrom the spread of ash from volcanic eruption tocatastrophic damage from volcanic blast. Undersome circumstances vulcanologists are able toprovide a warning of increased risk of volcanicactivity and this can allow evacuation of people andpossessions in advance of an eruption as occurred inRabaul (Papua New Guinea) in 1994.

Many parts of the Pacific Region are subject toseismic activity which is generally localised andunpredictable but can result in very severe damage.The destructive potential of seismic activity wasdemonstrated in 1998 when an offshore earthquakeand subsequent submarine landslide produced atsunami which devastated the low sandy islets atSissano in north-west Papua New Guinea, killingthousands and causing complete villages todisappear. In more developed areas, seismic activityhas the potential to affect water supply catchmentsand to do extensive damage to water supplyinfrastructure.

Though monitoring and prediction of these hazardsmay improve in future, from the perspective of theIsland Vulnerability – Water & Climate theme thesegeological hazards are similar to cyclones in thatthey require development of appropriate riskmanagement plans.

management offices to promote public awareness ofcyclone response plans.However, the main focus of cyclone warning systemsis at the near-time scale and depends upon acapacity to observe and track the spawning andevolution of individual cyclones: a capacity which hasbeen transformed by the use of weather satelliteswhich provide meteorologists with real-time views ofweather systems. Recent progress in computermodelling of atmospheric systems has made itpossible for meteorologists to predict cyclones, windspeeds, expected sea level rise and wave heights forseveral days in advance.

Several Country briefing papers reported oninitiatives to develop disaster management plans(ADB/SOPAC, 2002b). These had often beenundertaken or reinforced in response to particulardisasters e.g. the creation in American Samoa of theNational Disaster Preparedness Plan followingCyclone Tusi in February 1987. Samoa noted thatthe creation of a permanent National DisasterManagement Council to coordinate early warningprogrammes and respond to extreme events was ahuge improvement from the earlier ad hoc DisasterManagement Committee which apparently onlybecame active in times of extreme events. ThePapua New Guinea National Disaster ManagementOffice coordinates all reports and any responses tomajor disasters in conjunction with ProvincialDisaster in each Province. However, as the Countrybriefing paper notes, despite many disasters hittingPNG the country is poorly prepared largely as aresult of resources constraints and the lack of acoordinated National Response Plan.

A regional network of disaster management teamsexists to develop and promote suitable emergencyresponses. This disaster management effort issupported by the Nadi Tropical Cyclone WarningCentre in Fiji which was designated as a WMORegional Specialized Meteorological Centre in 1995to provide advisory services on tropical cyclonedetection, monitoring and forecasting to the NationalMeteorological Services of the South Pacific. Betterstorm prediction should reduce the risk of loss of lifeand damage to property by enabling governments tomobilise emergency response teams to assistcommunities with food, medicine, and shelter. Thevulnerability of water supply systems to damage bycyclones makes it a priority for water utilities to haveappropriate risk management plans in place (Mearnsand Overmars, 2001).

Samoa ObserSamoa ObserSamoa ObserSamoa ObserSamoa Observatorvatorvatorvatorvatoryyyyy

10


Human hazardsHuman hazardsHuman hazardsHuman hazardsHuman hazards

There is a wide range of hazards created by humanactivity which are capable of causing considerableharm to water supply infrastructure and to havenegative impacts on water quality. Some of thesehazards can be unpredictable and difficult tomanage. Others are quite predictable but mayrequire measures that are difficult to implement.Examples relevant to Pacific Island situationsinclude:· Civil unrest (e.g. in East Timor following the

popular vote for independence in 1999 anoutbreak of violence resulted in widespreaddamage including the destruction of watersupply and sanitation facilities)

· Land disputes (e.g. vandalism of water intakeslocated on customary land)

· Land use (e.g. inappropriate planting practices,use of agricultural chemicals, poor sanitationand waste disposal methods).

· The degradation of water quality thoughinadequate sanitation and waste disposal isarguably the largest hazard to Pacific Islandwater resources. The need for public educationand effective land use controls to deal withthese issues was noted in the Country briefingpapers of Vanuatu and American Samoa(ADB/SOPAC, 2002b).

Another category of human hazard is created bywhat might better be called human inactivityhuman inactivityhuman inactivityhuman inactivityhuman inactivitywhere a lack of resources creates a risk. Examplesinclude:· Inadequate human resources or technical

capacity (e.g. loss of trained personnel maycompromise delivery of a critical service)

· Inadequate information may limit investment inwater resources development or exposeprojects to poorly understood risks

· Budgetary limitations (e.g. communicationsdisrupted though lack of financial resources)

· Institutional (e.g. lack of legislative oradministrative control.

WAWAWAWAWATER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WTER RESOURCES AND WAAAAATER USE INTER USE INTER USE INTER USE INTER USE INTHE PACIFICTHE PACIFICTHE PACIFICTHE PACIFICTHE PACIFIC

TTTTTypes of water rypes of water rypes of water rypes of water rypes of water resouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces

Freshwater resources in small islands can beclassified in two main categories as follows:o Naturally occurring water resources requiring a

relatively low level of technology in order todevelop them. This category, which issometimes referred to as ‘conventional’ waterresources, includes surface water, groundwater

and rainwater.o Water resources involving a higher level of

technology (sometimes referred to as “non-conventional” water resources). This categoryincludes desalination, importation andwastewater reuse.

Other “non-conventional” water resources includeuse of seawater or brackish water for selected non-potable requirements (e.g. wastewater disposal orfire-fighting) and substitution (e.g. coconut water hasbeen used as a substitute for fresh drinking water).

Where available, the naturally occurring waterresources are inevitably more economic to developthan the “non-conventional” water resources(Falkland, 2002). The main water resources in bothcategories are described in more detail below, aswell as the major influences on the occurrence anddistribution of the naturally occurring waterresources.

Naturally occurring water resourcesNaturally occurring water resourcesNaturally occurring water resourcesNaturally occurring water resourcesNaturally occurring water resources

Surface waterSurface waterSurface waterSurface waterSurface water

Where conditions are favourable, surface water canoccur on small high islands in the form of ephemeraland perennial streams and springs, and as freshwaterlagoons, lakes and swamps.

Perennial streams and springs occur mainly in highvolcanic islands where the permeability of the rock islow. Many streams are in small, steep catchmentsand are not perennial (e.g. Rarotonga, Cook Islands).Some streams flow for several hours or days afterheavy rainfall, while others flow for longer periodsbut become dry in droughts.

Freshwater lagoons and small lakes are not commonbut are found on some small islands. These canoccur in the craters of extinct volcanoes ordepressions in the topography. Low-lying coralislands rarely have fresh surface water resourcesexcept where rainfall is abundant. Many small islandlakes, lagoons and swamps, particularly those at orclose to sea level, are brackish.

Brackish surface waterBrackish surface waterBrackish surface waterBrackish surface waterBrackish surface water, T, T, T, T, Tarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribatiarawa, Kiribati

11


The term ‘freshwater lens’ can be misleading as itimplies a distinct freshwater aquifer. In reality, thereis no distinct boundary between freshwater andseawater but rather a transition zone (refer Figure 4).The base of the freshwater zone can be defined onthe basis of a salinity criterion such as chloride ionconcentration or electrical conductivity.

Freshwater lenses often have asymmetric shapeswith the deepest portions displaced towards thelagoon side of the island, as shown in Figure 4.Typically, the freshwater zone of a thick freshwater

lens on a small coral island is about 10-20 m thick,with a transition zone of a similar thickness (e.g.Tarawa, Majuro). Where the freshwater zone is lessthan about 5 m thick, the transition zone is oftenthicker than the freshwater zone. The freshwaterand transition zone thicknesses are not static butvary according to fluctuations in recharge and thesustainability of the groundwater abstraction.

RainwaterRainwaterRainwaterRainwaterRainwater

Rainwater collection systems are common on manyislands. In small islands with high rainfall (e.g. theislands of Tuvalu), rainwater catchments using theroofs of individual houses and some communitybuildings, are the primary source of freshwater(Taulima, 2002).

In other small islands, rainwater is used as a sourcefor essential water needs (e.g. drinking and cooking).In drought periods, when rainfall can be very little, ornil for many months, household rainwater storagesare susceptible to being severely depleted unlessvery strict rationing is imposed. Common materialsfor rainwater tanks are ferrocement, fibreglass andplastic. Steel tanks are generally not used, owing to

GroundwaterGroundwaterGroundwaterGroundwaterGroundwater

Groundwater occurs on small islands as eitherperched (high-level) or basal (low-level) aquifers.

Perched aquifers commonly occur over horizontal orsub-horizontal confining layers (aquicludes). Dyke-confined aquifers are a less common form of perchedaquifer, which are formed when less permeablevertical volcanic dykes trap water in the interveningcompartments (e.g. on some of the islands of Hawaiiand French Polynesia).

Basal aquifers consist of unconfined, partiallyconfined or confined freshwater bodies, which format or below sea level. On many small coral andlimestone islands, the basal aquifer takes the form ofa ‘freshwater lens’ (or ‘groundwater lens’), whichunderlies part of the island.

Basal aquifers tend to be more important thanperched aquifers because they are more common andgenerally have larger storage volumes. Basalaquifers are, however, vulnerable to saline intrusionowing to the freshwater-seawater interaction, andmust be carefully managed to avoid over-exploitationand consequent seawater intrusion.

FFFFFigurigurigurigurigure 4: Cre 4: Cre 4: Cre 4: Cre 4: Cross section thross section thross section thross section thross section through a small coralough a small coralough a small coralough a small coralough a small coralisland showing main features of a freshwaterisland showing main features of a freshwaterisland showing main features of a freshwaterisland showing main features of a freshwaterisland showing main features of a freshwaterlens (exaggerated vertical scale) and locationlens (exaggerated vertical scale) and locationlens (exaggerated vertical scale) and locationlens (exaggerated vertical scale) and locationlens (exaggerated vertical scale) and locationof an infiltration gallerof an infiltration gallerof an infiltration gallerof an infiltration gallerof an infiltration galleryyyyy.....

Groundwater monitoring and assessment – AGroundwater monitoring and assessment – AGroundwater monitoring and assessment – AGroundwater monitoring and assessment – AGroundwater monitoring and assessment – ACase Study frCase Study frCase Study frCase Study frCase Study from Tom Tom Tom Tom Tarawa (Kiribati)arawa (Kiribati)arawa (Kiribati)arawa (Kiribati)arawa (Kiribati)South Tarawa, the capital of Kiribati, is largelydependent for water on relatively thin freshwaterlenses which float in a fragile equilibrium within thesurrounding seawater. As in any atoll environmentthese freshwater reserves are vulnerable toseawater intrusion resulting from excessivepumping or insufficient rainfall. The rainfall inKiribati is strongly correlated to the El NiñoSouthern Oscillation (ENSO) and the resultingvariability results in extended periods of low andinfrequent rainfall. These conditions have promoteda series of groundwater investigations over the lastfew decades which have provided the basis forprogressively more reliable estimates of thesustainable yield of the freshwaterlenses.

On-going monitoring and analysis havedemonstrated that initial estimates of groundwaterpotential were conservative and have made itpossible to plan future use with increasingconfidence. The value of this groundwater resourceknowledge can be gauged with reference to aWorld Bank study which indicated that the costimpacts on Tarawa’s groundwater due to climatechange is between US$1 to 3 million per year.These high potential costs justify substantialinvestment in hydrological investigations andmonitoring to ensure sustainable groundwater use.(Metai, 2002)

12


corrosion problems, unless they are well painted.Ferrocement tanks are commonly used in somePacific islands (e.g. Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati,Federated States of Micronesia) as they can beconstructed by local contractors and communitygroups which often contributes to the sustainabilityof their operation and maintenance. In recent years,plastic tanks have become popular for householdrainwater collection in many islands of the Pacificand in Maldives.

In addition to roof catchments, rainfall is sometimescollected from specially prepared surfaces.Examples are paved airport runways (e.g. Majuro,Marshall Islands) and specially prepared surfaceswith adjacent storage tanks or artificially linedreservoirs (e.g. some islands in Torres Strait,between Australia and PNG). Simple rainwatercollection systems consisting of containers (e.g.plastic barrels) located under the crown of coconuttrees where rainfall concentrates, are still used insome islands (e.g. some outer islands of PNG).

‘Non-conventional’ water resources‘Non-conventional’ water resources‘Non-conventional’ water resources‘Non-conventional’ water resources‘Non-conventional’ water resources

DesalinationDesalinationDesalinationDesalinationDesalination

Desalination is another, but less common method offreshwater production. Desalination systems arebased on a distillation or a membrane process.Distillation processes include multi-stage flash(MSF), multiple effect (ME) and vapour compression(VC). Membrane processes include reverse osmosis(RO) and electrodialysis (ED). Descriptions of theseprocesses are provided, together with approximatecosts and a comprehensive reference list, in IETC(1998). The most common method used in smallisland countries is RO.

Desalination is a relatively expensive and complexmethod of obtaining freshwater for small islands(UNESCO, 1991). The cost of producing desalinated

water is almost invariably higher than ‘conventional’options (e.g. pumping of groundwater) due to thehigh energy and operating expenses.

The main drawback of desalination however, is theshortage of trained individuals and spare parts tomaintain such systems. There are numerousexamples of abandoned desalination plantsthroughout the Pacific. However, its selected use,especially in tourist resorts, can reduce the demandput upon conventional water resources.

ImportationImportationImportationImportationImportation

Water importation has been employed for a numberof islands, especially as an emergency measureduring severe drought situations. Water has beenimported by sea transport (boats, or barges) duringdroughts, for instance, to outer islands of Fiji andTonga. Sometimes people on islands with a watershortage will travel by boat or canoe to nearbyislands with more plentiful water sources.

In many small islands, bottled water has become analternative source of drinking water (either importedor made locally by desalination plants). Invariably,its cost is higher than water supplied by local waterauthorities.

Non-potable water sourcesNon-potable water sourcesNon-potable water sourcesNon-potable water sourcesNon-potable water sources

Non-potable water sources include seawater,brackish groundwater and treated wastewater.

There are many examples of the use of seawater andbrackish waters in order to conserve valuablefreshwater resources on small islands. For example,reticulated seawater is used for toilet flushing and asa source for fire-fighting in densely populated partsof Tarawa and Majuro. Dual pipe systems are usedto distribute water to houses and other connections –one pipe system is for freshwater supply and theother for seawater. Seawater, or brackish well water,is often used for bathing and some washing purposes

Runway rainwater catchment, Majuro,Runway rainwater catchment, Majuro,Runway rainwater catchment, Majuro,Runway rainwater catchment, Majuro,Runway rainwater catchment, Majuro,Marshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall Islands

‘Bottled water‘Bottled water‘Bottled water‘Bottled water‘Bottled water’ for Ebeye fr’ for Ebeye fr’ for Ebeye fr’ for Ebeye fr’ for Ebeye from Kwajalein,om Kwajalein,om Kwajalein,om Kwajalein,om Kwajalein,Marshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall IslandsMarshall Islands

13


on small islands. Seawater is also used on someislands for cooling of electric power generationplants, for ice making and in swimming pools.

Treated wastewater is not a common non-potablesource in small islands, but is sometimes reused forirrigation of garden and recreational areas at touristresorts and hotels on some small islands (e.g. Fiji,Maldives).

SubstitutionSubstitutionSubstitutionSubstitutionSubstitution

During severe drought conditions, or after naturaldisasters, coconut water has been used as asubstitute for fresh drinking water. People on someof the smaller outer islands in Fiji, Kiribati, MarshallIslands and PNG, for instance, have survived oncoconuts during drought periods. The coconut tree isvery salt-tolerant and can continue to producecoconuts even when groundwater has turnedbrackish.

WWWWWater supply and useater supply and useater supply and useater supply and useater supply and use

As part of water resources management in smallislands, it is important to understand the amount andpattern of water usage. The main uses of freshwaterin small islands of the Pacific are:· Water supply for human settlements, both

urban and rural.· Industrial activities (mainly in larger urban

centres) and mining.· Tourism.· Agriculture and forestry.· Environmental needs.

Additional non-consumptive uses are hydropowergeneration (e.g. Fiji, Samoa and Vanuatu),navigation and recreation.

The primary use for freshwater on small islands iswater supply to urban and rural communities.Additional freshwater supplies are required in someislands to support tourist facilities, limited industryand farm and domestic animals. Overall, there isonly minor utilisation of freshwater for industrialpurposes, including mining, on small islands.Irrigated agriculture is not common on most smallislands due to the limited water resources andabundant direct rainfall.

Further details of some of the more important wateruses are outlined below.

WWWWWater supply and usage for humanater supply and usage for humanater supply and usage for humanater supply and usage for humanater supply and usage for humansettlementssettlementssettlementssettlementssettlements

Potable freshwater is used for drinking and cookingand may also be used for bathing, washing andcleaning. Other applications may include toiletflushing, cooling, freezing, drinking water for animalsand garden watering.

The types of water supplies and associatedmanagement systems vary from centralised watersupply systems in urban areas to village andhousehold systems in rural areas. The centralisedsystems most commonly consist of source works(groundwater abstraction systems and/or surfacewater collection and storage), transmission pipelinesand networks of distribution pipe systems toconsumers. These water supplies are sometimesmetered so that water usage can be monitored.

At the village level on many small islands, freshwateris generally obtained in traditional ways and waterusage tends to be reasonably low, on a per capitabasis. Methods of obtaining freshwater includerainwater collection at the household level,groundwater withdrawal from privately owned wellsand, on high islands, collection of water from smallstreams and springs. In addition to fresh (potable)water, non-potable water (brackish water andseawater) is utilised on some islands in order toconserve valuable freshwater reserves.

During droughts, private wells that normally supplyfresh groundwater may become brackish. This watercontinues to be used for some purposes, for exampleclothes washing and bathing. In some islands, whereresidents have no access to freshwater, seawater isused for bathing.

Typical rural water supplies consist of communalsystems and/or individual household systems.Communal systems have a distribution pipe networkbased on either surface water or groundwatersources. Surface water systems normally use gravityflow pipelines from streams or springs to tanks orstandpipes in the village. Groundwater systemsgenerally consist of a pump, which is operated for anumber of hours each day supplying water to anoverhead tank feeding standpipes within the village.Individual household water supply systems typicallyconsist of a well, a rainwater catchment (e.g. roof) orcollection from a spring or stream source near thevillage. In some cases, water is extracted fromshallow wells dug at low tide on the beach.

14


Communal water supply systems are often managedby village or community ‘water committees’. Thismay include collection of revenue to provide foroperating costs (e.g. in Tonga, most rural watersupplies use groundwater, and village watercommittees raise revenue to pay for pump operationand maintenance costs). Village water committeesare also the basis of rural water supplyimplementation and operation in the Melanesiancountries. In other PICs, communal water suppliesare operated by island councils (e.g. Kiribati) ormunicipal administrations (e.g. Federated States ofMicronesia). This may or may not include thecollection of revenue from households benefitingfrom the water supply.

On Funafuti, the main island of Tuvalu, rainwater iscollected in both household and communal tanksusing church, schools and government buildings roofcatchments. Where shortages are experienced athousehold tanks during extended dry periods, wateris delivered by small tanker from the communaltanks. This service is provided by government and afee is charged.

Per capita freshwater usage varies considerablybetween islands and within islands depending onavailability, quality, type and age of waterdistribution systems, cultural and socio-economicfactors and administrative procedures. Water usagevaries from low values of approximately 20-50 litresper person per day (L/p/d), where water is verylimited, to more than 1,000 L/p/d on some islandswhere water resources are plentiful. Water usagecan be high where piped water supply systems arenot kept in a good state of repair (leading to highleakage rates). Typical water usage in well-managedpipe systems is in the order of 50-150 L/p/d.

Water usage tends to be higher in urban than in ruralareas for a number of reasons, including the use ofwater consuming devices (e.g. washing machines)and the inevitable leakage and wastage fromdistribution systems.

TTTTTourismourismourismourismourism

Water supply to tourist resorts may represent areasonably high proportion of total waterconsumption in some small islands, or parts of theseislands. Water usage rates of 500 L/p/d are notuncommon (UNESCO, 1991).

In some islands however, the presence of touristresorts actually enables local communities to benefitfrom higher technological solutions than otherwisecould be financially sustained by the local populationalone (e.g. Bora Bora, French Polynesia).

AgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgricultureAgriculture

Many small islands, particularly coral atolls andsmall limestone islands, generally do not have eithersufficient water resources or suitable soil conditionsfor irrigated agriculture. In some of the high volcanicislands where water is more prevalent and soils aresuitable for agriculture Irrigation is possible and ispractised on a relatively small scale.

Agricultural prAgricultural prAgricultural prAgricultural prAgricultural products Loducts Loducts Loducts Loducts Luganville, Vuganville, Vuganville, Vuganville, Vuganville, Vanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatu

Cultivation of root and tuber crops is practised inmany Pacific islands. One important example is thecultivation of swamp taro on some coral atolls bydigging pits to the water table. The production ofcash crops, such as rice and sugarcane, involve highwater use. Rice is grown with irrigation schemes inFiji whereas sugarcane farming is predominantlyrainfed.

Hydro-power generationHydro-power generationHydro-power generationHydro-power generationHydro-power generation

There are a number of small high islands wherehydroelectric power generation schemes have beenimplemented (e.g. French Polynesia and Pohnpei).Some larger islands have extensive hydroelectricpower generation schemes (e.g. Viti Levu, Fiji,Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu and Upolu, Samoa). Manyother high islands have the potential for hydroelectricpower generation. Hydro-power usage however, isnot a consumptive use (i.e. the water is still availabledownstream of the structure).

HydrHydrHydrHydrHydropower dam, Espiritu Santo, Vopower dam, Espiritu Santo, Vopower dam, Espiritu Santo, Vopower dam, Espiritu Santo, Vopower dam, Espiritu Santo, Vanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatu

15


Strategic responsesStrategic responsesStrategic responsesStrategic responsesStrategic responses

Application of seasonal and interApplication of seasonal and interApplication of seasonal and interApplication of seasonal and interApplication of seasonal and inter-annual-annual-annual-annual-annualclimate forecastsclimate forecastsclimate forecastsclimate forecastsclimate forecasts

Research into the interaction of the ocean andatmosphere over the last two decades has resulted inan impressive ability to observe and account formany of the factors governing climatic variability atthe seasonal and inter-annual time scale. This hasled to the development of techniques that are able toproduce climate forecasts of modest skill(Ropelewski and Lyon, 2002). A number ofinitiatives are underway within the Pacific region toprovide useful information from the availableforecasts to support decision makers:· The Pacific ENSO Applications Center

(PEAC), which was established in 1994 toconduct research and produce information onclimate variability for the U.S. affiliated PacificIslands, produces a quarterly bulletin (thePacific ENSO Update) providing a summary ofclimate conditions, forecasts and localvariability http://lumahai.soest.hawaii.edu/Enso/subdir/update.dir/update.html. PEAChas taken an active role in disseminatingcritical climate forecasts to decision makers, anactivity that has depended upon goodunderstanding of local climate variability andhow it relates to larger scale climate cycles.PEAC’s role in warning governments in theU.S. affiliated Pacific Islands of the expectedimpacts of the 1997-98 El Niño contributed tothe interest in developing a similar capability inthe South Pacific.

· In response to a recommendation made at theSixth SPREP Meeting of RegionalMeteorological Services (Tahiti, FrenchPolynesia, 2000), Directors the AustralianBureau of Meteorology collates anddisseminates a South Pacific SeasonalOutlook Reference Manual. This document isdirected at National Meteorological Servicesand provides a summary of currentobservations and seasonal and long-rangeforecasts of sea surface temperatures andrainfall.

· The National Institute of Water andAtmospheric Research, New Zealand (NIWA)publishes a monthly climate bulletin for thePacific region which provides an overview ofthe present climate with an outlook for thecoming three months. The Island ClimateUpdate (ICU), which is distributed in hard copyand made available on the web at http://www.niwa.cri.nz/NCC/ICU, is designed to beuseful to users of climate data as well as toNational Meteorological Services.

FFFFFrrrrreshwater reshwater reshwater reshwater reshwater resouresouresouresouresources and use in theces and use in theces and use in theces and use in theces and use in theparticipating islandsparticipating islandsparticipating islandsparticipating islandsparticipating islands

A summary of the main freshwater resources anduses for each of the island countries and territoriesinvited to the Regional Consultation Meeting isshown in Table 2.

As previously mentioned, the principal use offreshwater is for water supply purposes in villagesand towns.

Table 2 Summary of freshwater resources inparticipating islands

MANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITYMANAGING VULNERABILITY

The terms coping and adaptation are often used todescribe alternative types of response to hazards.Coping tends to be used in the sense of “copingwith” and may imply a reactive approach whereasadaptation tends to be expressed as “adapting to”implying a more proactive approach. Thesedistinctions are, to some extent, rather arbitrary andthere is considerable overlap between the two terms.An alternative classification can be based onconsideration of whether or not the response isbased on a forecast. The following examples ofsystematic responses to hazards illustrate bothtypes of approach. They are chosen to represent thebroad range of responses at a strategic level.

16


From the perspective of water resourcesmanagement the principal interest in long-termclimate forecasts is their potential to provide earlywarning of the onset, severity and persistence of theprecipitation anomalies leading to droughtconditions. The SOPAC workshop on ENSO Impacton Water Resources in the Pacific Region (SOPAC,1999) demonstrated the growing demand from usersof climate information for seasonal and inter-annualforecasts. However, as Stern and Easterling (1999)note “the effectiveness of forecast informationdepends strongly on the systems that distribute theinformation, the channels of distribution, recipients’modes of understanding and judgement about theinformation sources, and the way in which theinformation is presented”. They reinforce PEAC’sconclusions regarding the significance of localknowledge by suggesting that forecasts will be mosteffective when “organised to meet recipients’ needsin terms of their coping strategies, cultural traits andspecific situations; that participatory strategies arelikely to be most useful in designing effective climateforecast information systems”.

These requirements place demands on the users ofclimate information (water resource managers,disaster managers) as well as the developers anddistributors of forecasts. Without an adequateappreciation of the nature of a forecast and aneffective response strategy it is likely that timelywarnings will go unheeded. For example, Glantz(2001) records that in May 1977 the FijiMeteorological Service provided a drought forecastthat gained little response from users. He suggeststhat this was most probably because of thedifficulties of using information presented inmeteorological terms. However, it is also likely thata lack of effective response strategies would alsohave played a role.

Such needs are widespread. In a review of RegionalClimate Outlook Forums IRI (2001) reported for theCaribbean, Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia that“capacity is needed to develop and enhance theapplication of climate information. Currently, climateinformation users include disaster managers,hydrologists and water managers, and, in the case ofSoutheast Asia, environment ministries. Pilotprojects and workshops are needed to develop betterunderstanding of user needs and to develop anunderstanding of the value of climate forecasts andinformation in agriculture, water resourcemanagement, health and other sectors.”

Hazard and risk management programmesHazard and risk management programmesHazard and risk management programmesHazard and risk management programmesHazard and risk management programmes

The recognition that vulnerabilities should beaddressed by risk management has been reflected intwo guidelines recently developed by SOPAC:· Guidelines for water and sanitation utilities

risk management planning (Mearns andOvermars, 2001) provides a framework foridentifying and analysing the hazards toutilities and promotes the development ofspecific plan required to prepare for, mitigateand respond to disasters. The RegionalConsultation meeting will provide anopportunity for feedback on theimplementation of these guidelines.

· A more comprehensive set of guidelines forComprehensive Hazard and Risk Management(CHARM) has been developed as part of theSOPAC Disaster Management Unit’s workprogramme. CHARM is defined as acomprehensive hazard and risk managementtool and/or process within the context of anintegrated national development planningprocess (SOPAC, 2002b).

VVVVVulnerability and adaptation assessmentsulnerability and adaptation assessmentsulnerability and adaptation assessmentsulnerability and adaptation assessmentsulnerability and adaptation assessments

Vulnerability and adaptation assessments in relationto climate change are required of signatory countriesto the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCC). The Pacific IslandsClimate Change Assistance Programme (PICAPP)was developed to assist with the reporting, trainingand capacity building required under the convention.Climate Change Country Teams established underPICAPP undertook to:· prepare inventories of greenhouse gas sources

and sinks,· identify and evaluate emission reduction

strategies· assess vulnerability to climate change· develop adaptation options· develop a national implementation strategy for

mitigating and adapting to climate change overthe long term.

Majuro atoll, Marshall IslandsMajuro atoll, Marshall IslandsMajuro atoll, Marshall IslandsMajuro atoll, Marshall IslandsMajuro atoll, Marshall Islands

17


Ten Pacific Island Countries have concludedpreliminary national vulnerability assessments. In asynthesis of these assessments Hay and Sem (2000)note the following adaptations with relevance towater resources:· Improved management and maintenance of

existing water supply systems has beenidentified as a high priority response, due tothe relatively low costs associated withreducing system losses and improving waterquality.

· Centralised water treatment to improve waterquality is considered viable for most urbancentres but at the village level it is argued thatmore cost-effective measures need to bedeveloped.

· User pay systems may have to be morewidespread.Catchment protection and conservation arealso considered to be relatively low costmeasures that would help ensure that suppliesare maintained during adverse conditions.Such measures would have widerenvironmental benefits, such as reducederosion and soil loss and maintenance ofbiodiversity and land productivity.

· Drought and flood preparedness strategiesshould be developed, as appropriate, includingidentification of responsibilities for pre-definedactions.

· While increasing water storage capacitythrough the increased use of water tanks and/or the construction of small-scale dams isacknowledged to be expensive, the addedsecurity in the supply of water may well justifysuch expenditure.

· Development of runways and otherimpermeable surfaces as a water catchment isseen as possible, but an extreme measure inmost instances. Priority should be given tocollecting water from the roofs of buildings.

· Measures to protect ground-water resourcesneed to be evaluated and adopted, includingthose that limit pollution and the potential forsalt-water intrusion.

· The limited ground-water resources that are asyet unutilised in the outer islands of manycountries could be investigated and, whereappropriate, measures implemented for theirprotection, enhancement and sustainable use.

· The development of desalination facilities isconsidered to be an option for supplementingwater supplies during times of drought, but inmost instances the high costs are seen aspreventing this being considered as awidespread adaptation option.

Amongst the many assessment findings summarisedby Hay (2000) the following are most relevant to theIsland Vulnerability – Water and Climate theme:

· climate variability, development and socialchanges and the rapid population growth beingexperienced by most PICs are already placingpressure on sensitive environmental and humansystems; and these impacts would beexacerbated if the anticipated changes inclimate and sea level (including extremeevents) did materialise;

· land use changes, including settlement and useof marginal lands for agriculture, aredecreasing the natural resilience ofenvironmental systems and hence their abilityto accommodate the added stresses arisingfrom changes in climate and sea level;

· given the limited area and low elevation of theinhabitable lands the most direct and severeeffects of climate and sea level changes will beincreasing risks of coastal erosion, flooding andinundation; these effects are exacerbated bythe combination of seasonal storms, high tidesand storm surges;other direct consequences of anticipatedclimate and sea level changes will likelyinclude: reduction in subsistence andcommercial agriculture production of suchcrops as taro and coconut; decreased securityof potable and other water supplies; increasedrisk of dengue fever, malaria, cholera anddiarrhoeal diseases; and decreased humancomfort, especially in houses constructed inwestern style and materials;

· groundwater resources of the lowlands of highislands and atolls may be affected by floodingand inundation from sea level rise; watercatchments of smaller, low-lying islands will beat risk from any changes in frequency ofextreme events;

· the overall impacts of changes in climate andsea level will likely be cumulative anddetermined by the interactions and synergiesbetween the stresses and their effects; and

· the current lack of detailed regional andnational information on climate and sea levelchanges, including changes in variability andextremes resulted in most assessments beinglimited to using current knowledge to answer“what if” questions regarding environmentaland human responses to possible stresses.

The first of these findings is particularly significantsince it implies that in most parts of the Pacificregion present problems resulting from increasingdemand for water and increasing pollution of watermay be much more significant than the anticipatedeffects of climate change.

18


The final finding is also significant in that it refers toclimate variability. The UNFCC reporting obligationsreferred specifically to climate change (rather than toclimate variability and change) possibly reflectingthe perspective of climate change science current atthe time the Convention was drafted. A greaterappreciation of the role of variability has developedand it is now generally recognised that the impactsof climate change are likely to be experiencedthrough changes in variability. These considerationssuggest that managing water resources for variabilityand extremes is fundamental to the issue of adaptingto climate change in the longer term.

That conclusion is also supported by the vulnerabilityand adaptation assessments completed for Fiji andKiribati (World Bank, 2000) which provide examplesof climate change impacts on water resources onhigh islands and low islands and reach theconclusions that:· Pacific Islands countries are already

experiencing severe impacts from climateevents,

· island vulnerability to climate events is growingindependently of climate change,

· climate change is likely to impose majorincremental social and economic costs onPacific Island countries, and

· acting now to reduce present-day vulnerabilitycould go a long way toward diminishing theeffects of future climate change.

Some key recommendations derived from theseconclusions include:· the adoption of a “No Regrets” adaptation

policy,development of a broad consultative processfor implementing adaptation.

· requiring adaptation screening for majordevelopment projects.

· strengthen socio-economic analysis ofadaptation options.

These recommendations reflect the need for themainstreaming of climate change adaptation policies.

Priority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority ActionsPriority Actions

Recommendation for action emerging from theInternational Conference on Freshwater (Bonn,2001) include several which are particularly relevantto the Island Vulnerability theme and the Dialogue onWater and Climate, and these are listed below. Inaddition, existing proposals for capacity developmentin relation to water resources assessment andclimate information and prediction are outlined belowalong with some additional agreed priority actions asdetermined by the regional consultation.

Recommendations for Action from BonnRecommendations for Action from BonnRecommendations for Action from BonnRecommendations for Action from BonnRecommendations for Action from BonnConferenceConferenceConferenceConferenceConference

The Bonn Conference adopted a comprehensive setof recommendations for action many of which areparticularly relevant to Island Vulnerability andWater and Climate as listed below:· Water management arrangements should take

account of climate variability and expand thecapacity to identify trends, manage risks andadapt to hazards such as floods and droughts.Anticipation and prevention are more effectiveand less expensive than having to react toemergencies. Early warning systems shouldbecome an integral part of water resourcesdevelopment and planning.

· Knowledge is the foundation of understandingand decision-making. Shared knowledge, andrespect for different forms of knowledge, arethe basis for building consensus and resolvingconflicts. Decisions can only lead to effectivemanagement actions if the actors have theright knowledge and skills. Enhancing humancapacities at all levels is a key for wise watermanagement. This needs to be based onintegrating the distinct and complementarycontributions of local, traditional knowledge,knowledge from different professionals anddisciplines and the hands-on experience ofpractitioners. All can and should learn fromeach other. Practical actions to buildpartnerships and create channels for sharinginformation at all levels are a key first step indeveloping integrated water management.

· The knowledge and skills needed for watermanagement change as new knowledge isgenerated and new needs emerge.Mechanisms to disseminate knowledge,change curricula, exchange teaching materialsand create partnerships between educators andtrainers around the world should be developedand funded.Knowledge must be shared globally andpackaged appropriately for intended targetaudiences. This includes the provision by allcountries of basic data for research andassessment. Information management mustprovide information to decision makers at theright time and in a form they understand.

· Capacity building and technical assistance areamong the essential elements for institutionalchange for integrated water management. Thisis a long-term process, which should be basedon gradual, practical steps. It must be flexible,as needs are constantly changing.Collaboration and international partnershipsare particularly needed in many developingcountries, where reform is most needed butresources are most limited.

19


· There are many positive experiences ofinstitutional change throughout the developingworld. Specific initiatives to develop models ofgood practice and improve South-South sharingof experiences are needed.

· The wealth of available experience in allcountries and sectors needs to be tapped in asystematic fashion. Donor agencies andindustry need to cooperate for the transfer andadaptation of the best available technologies.South-South technical transfer is alsoimportant.

PPPPPacific HYacific HYacific HYacific HYacific HYCOSCOSCOSCOSCOS

The development of a Hydrological Cycle ObservingSystem for the South-West Pacific region (PacificHYCOS) was considered at a meeting of experts on“Hydrological Needs of Small Islands” held in Nadi,Fiji in October 1999. A project proposal, developedin collaboration with the countries and inconsultation with Regional organizations, wascirculated in February 2001 to the countriesconcerned in the region. The project has beenendorsed for implementation by eight countries andterritories (Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, NewCaledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea, SolomonIslands and Vanuatu).

The Pacific HYCOS has been developed on the basisof a detailed needs analysis and has a strongemphasis on regionally coordinated capacitybuilding. The stated purposes of the project are:· To assist the participating countries to establish

the human and institutional capacity to assessstatus and trend of national water resourcesand to provide adequate warnings of water-related hazards.To establish basic hydrological monitoring anddata capture systems, using technology thatbalances modernity, economy, robustness, andsuitability for Pacific Island circumstances.

· To establish hydrological databases andinformation systems that provide users with theinformation they require, to the standards theyneed, and that provide a secure repository ofinformation for the indefinite future.

The project proposes to deliver six distinctcomponents which are designed to meet the range ofneeds of Pacific Island countries as follows:· Flood forecasting capability,· Water resources assessment in major rivers,· Water resources databases,· Drought forecasting,· Groundwater monitoring and assessment, and· Water quality monitoring and assessment.

This project addresses one of the critical areasrelevant to Island Vulnerability and in recognition ofthis a working group was constituted during theRegional Consultation meeting in Sigatoka thatresulted in the endorsement of the proposal as partof the consideration to be included in the ministeriallevel declaration of the meeting.

Pacific Climate Information and PredictionPacific Climate Information and PredictionPacific Climate Information and PredictionPacific Climate Information and PredictionPacific Climate Information and PredictionSystemSystemSystemSystemSystem

The potential for a regional approach to the provisionof climate information and predictions has beenrecognised for several years. Basher (1997)developed a comprehensive proposal to build PacificIsland countries’ capacity for management andapplication of climate data with multiple objectivesincluding support for the application of climateforecasting in the region. Though that proposalfailed to gain support, interest in the potential forclimate systems has continued to grow and anInformal Working Group on a Pacific ClimateInformation and Prediction System was organisedunder the auspices of SPREP in 1999. At its initialmeeting the group adopted the goal “to combine theunique assets and special expertise of a number ofnational, regional and international institutions andprograms to develop and strengthen a PacificClimate Information and Prediction System designedto support practical decision making in the context ofclimate variability and change”.

The experience of the 1997-98 El Niño developedmuch broader appreciation of the value of climateinformation and forecasting and a Regional workshopon ENSO impacts on water resources (SOPAC,1999) called for the development of appropriateprogrammes to deliver climate information andforecast services. The meeting, which was attendedby representatives from 23 Pacific Island countrieswith backgrounds in water resources management,disaster management and meteorological services,

WWWWWambu Riverambu Riverambu Riverambu Riverambu River, Espiritu Santo, V, Espiritu Santo, V, Espiritu Santo, V, Espiritu Santo, V, Espiritu Santo, Vanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatu

20


highlighted the need for more interaction betweennational agencies and urged WMO and SPREP towork closely with SOPAC and the Pacific ENSOApplications Centre (PEAC).

The concept of a regional climate system gainedsome support, initially from the Italian Governmentand subsequently from NZODA (now NZAID), whichhas provided for the production of The Island ClimateUpdate. This climate bulletin is produced by NIWA(National Institute of Water and AtmosphericResearch, New Zealand) and provides an overviewof present climate in the tropical South Pacific withan outlook for coming months (http://www.niwa.cri.nz/NCC/ICU). The possibility ofsustaining and developing this service receivedattention at the recent meeting of the WMORegional Association for South-West Pacific (RA V)which recorded support for the establishment ofRegional Climate Centres in the region. It should benoted that this is likely to require the closecollaboration of SPREP and SOPAC.

Drought assessment and responseDrought assessment and responseDrought assessment and responseDrought assessment and responseDrought assessment and response

A drought forecasting capability is one of thecomponents of the Pacific HYCOS. Nevertheless, ifthat project does not proceed or is delayed, it wouldbe quite feasible to undertake an independentproject to implement procedures to monitor andforecast drought in Pacific Island countries. Relevantpreliminary work has already been undertaken in acase study of Tarawa Atoll, Kiribati (White et al.,1999) and led to the following recommendations:· standard, broadly applicable drought indices be

developed for all small island nations subject todrought as a method of identifying the severityof drought and as a trigger for waterconservation and relief strategies;

· the characteristics of the various waterstorages in small islands be assessed and thatthe demand functions for those storages beidentified;

· the relation between agricultural productivityand drought be examined particularly forcoconut trees;

· the use of the decile rainfall ranking method toprovide warnings of droughts be examined;

· the relation between the Southern OscillationIndex and ranked accumulated rainfalls beexamined for periods longer than 12 months;

· a risk analysis be undertaken of small islandwater supplies in dry periods in relation topower failure;

· that routine monitoring of the salinity of arange of domestic water wells and largefreshwater lenses be undertaken to test theassumptions in this analysis;

· given the frequency of drought relevant to rainwater tanks and domestic water wells,educational and planning policy be developedto minimise use and maximise storages.

The potential value of developing procedures andextending their application to other island countrieswas recognised at the ENSO workshop in Fiji(SOPAC, 1999) and a draft project proposal hasbeen prepared.

PACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLANPACIFIC REGIONAL ACTION PLAN

Regional ConsultationRegional ConsultationRegional ConsultationRegional ConsultationRegional Consultation

As part of the regional consultation and preparationfor the “Water in Small Island Countries” and“Dialogue on Water & Climate” themes of the 3rd

World Water Forum, during the “Pacific RegionalMeeting on Water in Small Island Countries”, held inSigatoka, Fiji from 29 July to 3 August 2002,Ministers, Heads of Delegation and representativesof civil society groups with responsibilities for wateraffairs from 16 small island countries in the Pacific,as well as East Timor and the Maldives agreed uponthe implementation of the “Pacific Regional“Pacific Regional“Pacific Regional“Pacific Regional“Pacific RegionalAction Plan for Sustainable WAction Plan for Sustainable WAction Plan for Sustainable WAction Plan for Sustainable WAction Plan for Sustainable WaterateraterateraterManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement”.

The consultation process included the identificationof national priority actions as determined by theparticipating countries on the basis of their nationalwater strategies, national assessments andstakeholder consultations undertaken for the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development and the 3rd

World Water Forum and the development of agreedregional actions through the consultation meetingprocess of plenary discussion, working group reviewand delegation approval.

Raingauge, Espiritu Santo, VRaingauge, Espiritu Santo, VRaingauge, Espiritu Santo, VRaingauge, Espiritu Santo, VRaingauge, Espiritu Santo, Vanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatuanuatu

21


Relevant to the Dialogue on Water and Climate, theregional action plan contained three key messagesas follows:

Key Message 1:Key Message 1:Key Message 1:Key Message 1:Key Message 1: Strengthen the capacityStrengthen the capacityStrengthen the capacityStrengthen the capacityStrengthen the capacityof small island countries to conduct waterof small island countries to conduct waterof small island countries to conduct waterof small island countries to conduct waterof small island countries to conduct waterresources assessment and monitoring as a keyresources assessment and monitoring as a keyresources assessment and monitoring as a keyresources assessment and monitoring as a keyresources assessment and monitoring as a keycomponent of sustainable water resourcescomponent of sustainable water resourcescomponent of sustainable water resourcescomponent of sustainable water resourcescomponent of sustainable water resourcesmanagement.management.management.management.management.

Because of the significant overlap between theWater Resources Management and IslandVulnerability themes this key message was adoptedin collaboration between the two theme workinggroups. Supporting statements recorded for this keymessage are all immediately relevant to the IslandVulnerability theme as follows:1. Many small island countries have noted

significant deficiencies in their national andlocal capacity to conduct essential waterresources assessment and monitoring in theircountry papers at this meeting and at previousregional and inter-regional meetings over thepast decade and more.

2. These deficiencies prevent small islandcountries from conducting proper planning,development and sustainable management oftheir limited and vulnerable water resources.

3. Despite this fact, there continues to be nosystematic, co-ordinated approach toaddressing these deficiencies.

4. Most small island countries do not haveadequate baseline data that is readily availablefor planning and development and lack ofreliable hydrological databases.

5. There are similarities between needs which canbe addressed at regional, as well as nationallevel, through targeted training and capacitybuilding.

6. Proposals for capacity building and training oftechnicians in Pacific island countries havebeen prepared in recent years by regional andinternational agencies with expertise inhydrology, water resources and water quality.

Amongst the priority actions proposed in response tothis key message the following are particularlyrelevant to the Island Vulnerability theme:· Implement actions to strengthen national

capacity (equipment, training, etc) using themodel outlined in the Pacific-HYCOS proposal(WMO, 2000) and recommendations regardingwater quality in WHO (2001).

· Implement hydrological training for techniciansin line with the recommendations presented inthe proposal to meet training needs inSOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001).

· Develop and/or implement minimum standardsfor conducting island water resourcesassessment and monitoring.

· Strengthen and enhance communication andinformation exchange between nationalagencies involved with meteorological,hydrological and water quality data collectionprogrammes (including water supply agenciesand health departments) and with users.

Key Message 2:Key Message 2:Key Message 2:Key Message 2:Key Message 2: There is a need forThere is a need forThere is a need forThere is a need forThere is a need forcapacity development to enhance thecapacity development to enhance thecapacity development to enhance thecapacity development to enhance thecapacity development to enhance theapplication of climate information to copeapplication of climate information to copeapplication of climate information to copeapplication of climate information to copeapplication of climate information to copewith climate variability and change.with climate variability and change.with climate variability and change.with climate variability and change.with climate variability and change.

Supporting statements adopted in support of this keymessage were as follows:1. There has been growing recognition of the

importance of climate variability and theimpact of extreme climatic events and the needfor climate forecasting to respond to theseevents.

2. Significant progress has been made in thedevelopment and dissemination of climateinformation and prediction in the Region based,in part, on observations of the coupledatmospheric/ocean system (e.g. GOOS).

3. WMO/CLIPS (Climate Information andPrediction Services) Program has establisheda framework of CLIPS focal points withinNational Meteorological/HydrologicalServices.

4. A Pacific Climate Information and PredictionSystem has been proposed and endorsed at theRegional ENSO workshop (SOPAC, 1999).

5. Pacific Island Countries have recognised thesignificance of drought as a major hazard thatneeds to be planned for and that climateprediction allows a much more effectiveresponse.

Priority actions proposed in response to this keymessage are to:

Enable WMO CLIPS/HYCOS with regionalpartners to develop and enhance theapplication of climate information and tostrengthen links between meteorological andhydrological services by:

- working with existing climate informationservices in the region,

- formalising efforts to build climate informationand forecasting capacity,

- ongoing development of analysis, forecastingand application tools,

- including participation by end users (e.g. waterproviders, hazard managers, health officials,agriculture and public).

22


· Develop rainfall and drought predictionschemes for Pacific Island Countries by:

- adaptation of existing models to Pacific Islandcountries (e.g. see below “Rainfall Forecasting- A Case Study from Fiji Islands”),

- future development of drought monitoring andprediction methods.

Enable regional support to develop waterapplications of Climate Information andPrediction through:

- training- applied research- technology transfer

Rainfall FRainfall FRainfall FRainfall FRainfall Forororororecasting - A Case Study frecasting - A Case Study frecasting - A Case Study frecasting - A Case Study frecasting - A Case Study from Fom Fom Fom Fom FijiijiijiijiijiIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsRainfall in Fiji is highly variable with distinct wetand dry seasons which can have serious impacts onthe nationally important sugar industry. Thisvariability is closely related to the El Niño SouthernOscillation (ENSO) as demonstrated by the severedrought impacts on sugarcane resulting from the1997-98 El Niño.The Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS) has in recentyears made significant progress in developing aseasonal rainfall forecasting scheme based on theSouthern Oscillation Index (SOI) and have beenpromoting the application of forecasts in a numberof sectors. A recent study carried out by FMS inpartnership with the Fiji Sugar Corporation and theUniversity of the South Pacific has produced amanagement strategy for the sugar industry usingthe rainfall forecast.This example of a seasonal rainfall predictionscheme has generated interest in the possibility ofadapting the method to other Pacific Islandcountries.(Pahalad and McGree, 2002)

Key Message 3:Key Message 3:Key Message 3:Key Message 3:Key Message 3: Change the paradigm forChange the paradigm forChange the paradigm forChange the paradigm forChange the paradigm fordealing with Island Vdealing with Island Vdealing with Island Vdealing with Island Vdealing with Island Vulnerability frulnerability frulnerability frulnerability frulnerability from disasterom disasterom disasterom disasterom disasterresponse to hazard assessment and riskresponse to hazard assessment and riskresponse to hazard assessment and riskresponse to hazard assessment and riskresponse to hazard assessment and riskmanagement, particularly in Integrated Wmanagement, particularly in Integrated Wmanagement, particularly in Integrated Wmanagement, particularly in Integrated Wmanagement, particularly in Integrated WaterateraterateraterResource Management.Resource Management.Resource Management.Resource Management.Resource Management.

Supporting statements adopted in support of this keymessage were as follows:1. A shift is taking place in disaster management

generally from a disaster response approach tohazard assessment and risk management.

2. Most disaster management has not addressedthe risk of droughts and few governments haveattempted to manage the risk of droughts inthe Pacific Islands.

3. Climate change may result in more climatevariability and the risk of extreme weather andclimate events may increase. SPREP’s current

work on climate and PICAPP have provided aframework for assessing the potential impactsof climate variability and change.

4. Population growth and development are goingto increase the vulnerability of island societiesto droughts and other climate and extremeweather events.

5. The Disaster Management Unit at SOPAC hasmade strides in the development of CHARM. Itprovides an approach to shifting the approachfrom vulnerability to hazard assessment andrisk management.

6. WMO, SPREP, SOPAC, ADB and otherregional and international organization cancontribute a shift to hazard assessment andrisk management.

7. There are similarities between needs which canbe addressed at regional, as well as nationallevel, through targeted training and capacitybuilding.

Priority actions proposed in response to this keymessage are to:· Implement actions to strengthen national

capacity to use hazard assessment and riskmanagement using CHARM and othervulnerability assessment and risk managementtools.

· Provide high-level briefings for political leadersfrom the region on the value of CHARM as atool for planning and decision-making.

· Implement a programme of climate analysis forregional countries that can assess the risk ofclimate-related extreme event, particularlydroughts and floods, and tropical cyclones.

· Develop and/or implement minimum standardsfor conducting island risk and vulnerabilityassessments and development of droughtmitigation and response plans.

· Build on the climate analysis and forecastingcapacity provided by Fiji MeteorologicalService, the Pacific ENSO ApplicationsCenter, the Australia Bureau of Meteorology,and the National Institute for Water andAtmospheric Research to develop riskreduction strategies through the use of climateforecasting in conjunction with riskmanagement.

Small Island Countries at the 3Small Island Countries at the 3Small Island Countries at the 3Small Island Countries at the 3Small Island Countries at the 3rrrrrddddd W W W W World World World World World WaterateraterateraterFFFFForumorumorumorumorum

As mentioned before the vulnerability and particularneeds of Small Island Countries has beenacknowledged by the global water community, by theinclusion of a ‘Water in Small Islands Countries’theme at the 3rd World Water Forum to be held inKyoto, Japan, 16-23 March 2003.

23


The outcomes of the Pacific regional consultationmeeting have been incorporated in a Partnershiparrangement under the so-called Type II initiativesthat were part of the Pacific submission to theCommission for Sustainable Development inJohannesburg during the World Summit forSustainable Development in August 2002.

A similar process took place in the Caribbean whereduring the 11th Caribbean Water and WastewaterAssociation Conference and 1st CaribbeanEnvironmental Forum & Exhibition held in St Lucia 7-11 October 2002 a regional forum was provided forpresentation, discussion and planning for theimplementation of the outcomes of the WorldSummit for Sustainable Development and the inputtowards the World Water Forum in Kyoto within aCaribbean context. The Caribbean EnvironmentalHealth Institute (CEHI) played a leading role infacilitating these meetings as well as the CaribbeanDialogue on Water and Climate which was facilitatedby the Organisation of American States (OAS).

The outcomes of both Pacific and CaribbeanDialogues will be taken to the World Water Forumand will contribute to a session organised by theInternational Secretariat for the Dialogue on Waterand Climate as well as the Water in Small IslandCountries session convened by the AsianDevelopment Bank.

Whereas during the Pacific consultation meeting inSigatoka “Island Vulnerability” was identified as amajor theme that should receive particular attentionin Kyoto, the meeting in St Lucia provided the basisfor a joint Programme of Action for Small IslandCountries that can be presented during the WorldWater Forum.

Despite the different approaches both regionsadopted in its consultations and dialogues it isobvious that there are many commonalities betweenthe Pacific and Caribbean in addressing problemsrelated to water and climate and collaborationbetween the small island countries will contribute toa successful implementation of concrete actions inthe future.

The following recommendations can be made toenhance this collaboration:

! Use should be made of the solid base providedby the combined capacity of institutions likeCEHI, OAS and the Caribbean CommunityClimate Change Centre (CCCCC) in theCaribbean and SOPAC, SPREP, PEAC andIGCI in the Pacific.

! The idea of an Island States Water Partnershipshould be fully explored, possibly within theframework of the Global Water Partnership(GWP).

! Initiatives in both regions on Integrated WaterResources Management (IWRM) can beexchanged and a joint Programme of Actioncan be developed and endorsed during thesmall island countries session at Kyoto.

! The programme of action can be submitted toAOSIS and tabled at the follow-up Conferenceon the UN Global Conference on theSustainable Development of Small IslandStates (UNGCSIDS or Barbados +10).

24


REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES

ADB/SOPAC (2002a). Minutes Planning Meetingfor Water in Small Island Countries Theme Preparingfor the 3rd World Water Forum, 31 January – 1February, 2002, Port Vila, Vanuatu.

ADB/SOPAC (2002b). Proceedings RegionalConsultation Meeting on Sustainable WaterManagement in the Pacific, 29 July – 3 August 2002,Sigatoka, Fiji Islands.

Barnett, J. and W.N. Adger (2001). Climate Dangersand Atoll Countries, Tyndall Centre Working PaperNo. 9, available on line at:

http://www/tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/working_papers.shtml

Basher, R.E. (1997). Climate data resources forenvironment and sustainable development. NationalInstitute of Water and Atmospheric Research(NIWA), New Zealand.

Benson, C. and Edward J. Clay (2000). ‘DevelopingCountries and the Economic Impacts of NaturalDisasters’. In Managing Disaster Risk in EmergingEconomies Ed. A. Kreimer and M. Arnold. DisasterRisk Management Series 2. Washington, D.C.: WorldBank. pp11-21.

Bonn (2001). The International Conference onFreshwater (Water – A key to sustainabledevelopment), available on line at

http://www.water-2001.de/outcome/BonnRecommendations/.

Campbell, J.R. (1997). Economic and socialdimensions of climate change: Implications forPacific Island countries. Proceedings of the ThirdSPREP meeting on Climate Change and Sea LevelRise in the South Pacific Region. Noumea, NewCaledonia, 18-22 August 1997.

Chung, M. and Hill, D. (2002). Urban informalsettlements in Vanuatu: Challenge for equitabledevelopment. Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat andESCAP.

Dijon, R. (1983). Some aspects of water resourcesplanning and management in smaller islands, NaturalResources Forum, United Nations. 7(2): 137-144.

ESCAP (2000). Ministerial Conference onEnvironment and Development in Asia and thePacific, Kitakyushu, Japan, September 2000,available on line at http://www.unescap.org/mced2000/pacific/background/.

Falkland, A. (2001). Synopsis of information onfreshwater and watershed management issues in thePacific Islands region. Strategic Action Programmefor International Waters, SPREP.

Falkland A. (2002). From Vision to Action: Towardssustainable water management in the Pacific, Theme1 overview report, Water resources management,Ecowise Environmental, Canberra, Australia, 76pp.

Glantz, M. ed. (2001). Once burned, twice shy?Lessons learned from the 1997-98 El Niño. TheUnited Nations University.

Hay, J.E. (2000). Climate change and small islandstates: A popular summary of science-based findingsand perspectives, and their links with policy.Presentation to 2nd Alliance of Small Island States(AOSIS) workshop on climate change negotiations,management and strategy, Apia, Samoa.

Hay, J.E. and G. Sem (2000). Vulnerability andadaptation: evaluation and regional synthesis ofnational assessments of vulnerability and adaptationto climate change. South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme.

IETC (1998). Source book of alternativetechnologies for freshwater augmentation in SmallIsland Developing States. InternationalEnvironmental Technology Centre, UNEP incollaboration with South Pacific Applied GeoscienceCommission and the Water Branch of UNEP,Technical Publication Series No .8.

IPCC (2001). Climate Change 2001: The ScientificBasis, available on line at http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/.

IRI (2001). Coping with the Climate: A way forward.Summary and proposals for action. InternationalResearch Institute for Climate Prediction,Publication IRI-CW/01/2.

Lonely Planet (2000). South Pacific. Lonely PlanetPublications, Victoria, Australia.

MAPgraphics (1995). Map of the Pacific IslandsRegion, Brisbane, Australia.

Mearns, A and Overmars M. (2001). Guidelines forwater and sanitation utilities: Risk managementplanning. A disaster preparedness approach forSmall Island Developing States. SOPACMiscellaneous Report 397.

Metai, E. (2002). Vulnerability of freshwater lens onTarawa –the role of hydrological monitoring indetermining sustainable yield. Case study presentedas part of Theme 2, Island Vulnerability, at thePacific Regional Consultation Meeting on Water inSmall Island Countries Sigatoka, Fiji Islands, 29 July– 3 August 2002.

Nunn, P. (1995). Oceanic Islands. BlackwellPublishers, Oxford, UK.

Pacific Regional Action Plan on Sustainable WaterManagement. (2002). Sigatoka, Fiji Islands.

25


Pahalad, J and S McGree (2002). Rainfallforecasting and its applications (Fiji Case Study).Case study presented as part of Theme 2, IslandVulnerability, at the Pacific Regional ConsultationMeeting on Water in Small Island Countries,Sigatoka, Fiji Islands, 29 July – 3 August 2002.

Parakoti, B and D.M. Scott (2002). Drought indexfor Rarotonga (Cook Islands). Case study presentedas part of Theme 2, Island Vulnerability, at thePacific Regional Consultation Meeting on Water inSmall Island Countries, Sigatoka, Fiji Islands, 29July – 3 August 2002.

Raj, R. and Kumar, A. (2002). Rewa River floodforecasting system. Public Works Department, Fiji.

Ropelewski, C.F and B. Lyon (2002). Climateinformation systems and their applications.International Research Institute for ClimatePrediction, Columbia University, available on line at:http://iri.columbia.edu/outreach/publication/book/ENSOsystem/chapter.html

Scott, D. (2002). From Vision to Action: Towardssustainable water management in the Pacific, Theme2 overview report, Island Vulnerability, Christchurch,New Zealand, 25pp.

SOPAC (1999). ENSO Impact on Water Resourcesin the Pacific Region Workshop Report. Proceedingsof Workshop, Nadi, Fiji, November 1999,Miscellaneous Report 336.

SOPAC/WMO/UNESCO (2001). A programme tomeet hydrological training needs of small islandcountries in the Pacific, April 2001. Prepared bySOPAC in collaboration with WMO and UNESCO.

SOPAC (2002a). Country Information, Welcome tothe Pacific Preparations for the 3rd World WaterForum “Water in Small Island Countries”. Website:http://www.sopac.org.fj/Secretariat/Units/Wru/3rd_world_water_forum/index.html

SOPAC (2002b). Regional Comprehensive Hazardand Risk Management (CHARM): Guidelines forPacific Island Countries.

Stern, P.C. and W.E. Easterling (eds.) (1999).Making Climate Forecasts Matter, NationalAcademy Press, available on line at http://www.nap.edu

Taylor R.C. (1973). An atlas of Pacific islandsrainfall. Hawaiian Institute of Geophysics. Univ.Hawaii, Hawaii, U.S.A. Data Rpt. No. 25, HIG-73-9.

Taulima F. (2002). Water management in Tuvalu withspecial emphasis on rainwater harvesting. Casestudy presented as part of Theme 1, WaterResources Management, at the Pacific RegionalConsultation Meeting on Water in Small Island

Countries, Sigatoka, Fiji , 29 July - 3 August 2002.

Terry J.P., ed. (1998). Climate and EnvironmentalChange in the Pacific. School of Social andEconomic Development, The University of the SouthPacific.

UNESCO (1991). Hydrology and water resources ofsmall islands, a practical guide. Studies and reportson hydrology No 49. prepared by A. Falkland (ed.)and E. Custodio with contributions from A. DiazArenas and L. Simler and case studies submitted byothers. Paris, France, 435pp.

UNESCO (1992). Small Tropical Islands, waterresources of paradises lost. InternationalHydrological Programme, Humid Tropics ProgrammeSeries No. 2. Paris, France.

UNESCO (1997). Climatic Changes and Sea LevelRise, Tungaru Traditional Concepts. Compiled byTekirua Riinga et. al., UNESCO Apia Office, Samoa.

UNESCO (1998). UNESCO Jakarta Office AnnualReport 1998. Jakarta, Indonesia.

United Nations Department of Public Information(1999). Barbados Programme of Action (BPOA) forSmall Island States (SIDS).

UNDTCD (1983). Groundwater in the PacificRegion. United Nations Department of Technical Co-operation for Development, Natural resources/WaterSeries No 12, 289pp.

UNEP (1999). Pacific Islands Environment Outlook.Compiled by Gerald Miles, SPREP. United NationsEnvironment Programme, funded by the EuropeanCommunity.

UNEP (2000). Overview on Land-based PollutantSources and Activities affecting the Marine, Coastaland Freshwater Environment in the Pacific IslandsRegion. United Nations Environment Programme incooperation with SPREP, UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No 174.

White, I., A. Falkland and D. Scott (1999). Droughtsin small coral islands: Case study, South Tarawa,Kiribati. IHP-V, Technical Documents in HydrologyNo. 26, UNESCO.

Woodroffe, C. (1989). Salt water intrusion intogroundwater: an assessment of effects on smallislands due to rising sea level. Small StatesConference on Sea Level Rise, 14-18 November1989, Republic of Maldives.

World Bank (2000). Adapting to Climate Change.Vol. IV in Cities, Seas and Storms, ManagingChange in Pacific Island Economies. Papua NewGuinea and Pacific Island Country Unit, The WorldBank.

26

Date post:	29-May-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	2 times
Download:	0 times