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SAN IGNACIO DE LOYOLA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE
Business administration career
University Students’ motivation
Course: General Psychology
Professor: Diego Llontop Céspedes
Choquez Millan, Maria Fresia (U1020565)
Lima – Perú
2010
Abstract
The connection between university students’ behavior, their perception of their
academic learning-environment, students’ interest and succeed is studied. As a
theoretical support the self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002),
the theory of interest (Renninger et al., 1998), and the Maslow’s Hierarchy, are
applied. It is planned that perceived support of basic psychological needs as well as
aspects of a constructivist learning environment (such as teachers’ interest,
relevance of contents and quality of instruction) are associated with intrinsic
motivation, self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation and with study interest.
In addition, Study interest, intrinsic motivation, and forms of extrinsic motivation
are connected with the relevance of the contents, the quality of instruction, and with
the perceived transparency of the requirements.
1
Outline
University Students’ motivation
Abstract...……………………………………………………………….……. 01
Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 03
Chapter One
1. Motivation. ………………………………………………………….. 04
1.1. Motivation Concepts ………………………………………… 04
1.1.1. Intrinsic motivation ……………………………………… 04
1.1.2. Extrinsic motivation……………………………………… 05
1.2. Motivational theories ……………………………………….. 06
1.2.1. Drive-reduction theories ………………………………… 06
1.2.2. Self- Determination Theory (SDT)……………………… 08
1.2.3. Theory of Interest ……………………………………….. 09
1.2.4. Maslow's hierarchy of needs……………………………... 10
Chapter two
2. San Ignacio University students’ motivation……………………….. 11
2.1. Survey……………………………………………………….. 11
3. Effects of motivation in education………….……………………….. 14
4. How to motivate students……………………………………………. 15
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………... 19
Reference……………………………………………………………………… 20
Appendix……………………………………………………………………… 23
2
Introduction
“What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny matter compared to what lies within us”
Ralph Waldo Emerson
People are concerned with motivation - how to move others or themselves to act.
Everywhere, parents, teachers, coaches, and managers deal with how to motivate
those that they mentor, and individuals struggle to find energy, mobilize effort and
persist at the tasks of life and work. People are commonly stimulated by external
factors such as reward systems, grades, evaluations, or the opinions they fear others
might have of them. Moreover, people are motivated from within, by interests,
curiosity, care or permanent values. These intrinsic motivations are not necessarily
externally rewarded or supported; however they can sustain passions, creativity, and
sustained efforts. Taking into account some theories: The self-determination theory
(SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002), the theory of interest (Renninger, 1998) and the
Maslow’s Hierarchy. The interaction between the extrinsic forces acting on persons
and the intrinsic motives and needs inherent in human nature is what generally
motivate students.
One of the main purposes of the paper is to find out the facts that motivate people to
study at university, in order to help them succeed in their studies.
This paper seeks to make both a theoretical and practical contribution.
3
Chapter One
1. Motivation
Feldman (2005, p. 364) suggested that: “Motivation is the general term for all
process that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organism.
Motivation has biological, cognitive, and social aspects, and the complexity of the
concept has led psychologist to develop a variety of approaches. All seek to explain
the energy that guides people´s behavior in particular directions”.
The word motivation comes from the Latin movere, which means “to move”.
Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans
but, theoretically, it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as
well. According to various theories, motivation minimize physical pain and
maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-
apparent reasons such as philanthropy, selfishness, or morality.
1.1. Motivation Concepts
1.1.1. Intrinsic motivation.
It refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself,
and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.
4
Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists
since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is usually associated with high
educational achievement and pleasure by students. Explanations of intrinsic
motivation have been given in the context of Fritz Heider's attribution theory,
Bandura (1997, p. 37) who worked on self-efficacy, and Deci and Ryan's
cognitive evaluation theory (SDT). Students are likely to be intrinsically
motivated if they:
-> Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control
(e.g. the amount of effort they put in),
-> Believe they can be successful agents in reaching desired goals (e.g.. the
results are not determined by luck),
-> Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to
achieve good grades.
1.1.2. Extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic
motivations are rewards like grades and money, oppression and threat of
punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the
participant to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the
activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic
incentives.
5
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to
reduce the intrinsic motivation. LEPPER, M.R., GREENE, D. & NISBETT,
R.E. (1973 , p. 115), In one study demonstrated this effect, children who
expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing
pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent
observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward
condition and to children who received no extrinsic reward.
Self-determination theory (STD), Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985, p. 125 -
132), proposed that extrinsic motivation can be internalized by the individual if
the task fits with their values and beliefs and consequently helps to fulfill their
basic psychological needs. Internalized extrinsic motivation has been shown to
lead to more positive outcomes, such as wellbeing, increased productivity and
task satisfaction.
1.2. Motivational theories
1.2.1. Drive-reduction theories
The Drive Reduction Theory (Atkinson, 1987, p. 103) grows out of the concept
that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the
strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon
satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on diverse
ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control systems, such
as a thermostat.
6
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing
food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger
as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in
subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the validity
of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain
how secondary reinforces reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no
biological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive
through second-order conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed
as having a "desire" to eat, making the drive a homuncular being—a feature
criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man"
and his desires.
In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of
behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food
before he finished cooking it. The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds
of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as
restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which combine with
drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render it hard to test.
7
1.2.2. Self- Determination Theory (SDT)
The SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p. 27) is based on the assumption that people are
naturally inclined to integrate their ongoing experiences. If external prompts are
used by significant others or salient reference groups to encourage people to do
an uninteresting activity, the individuals will tend to internalize the activity’s
initially external regulation. That means, people will tend to take in the
regulation and integrate it with their sense of self. This process will be fostered,
if people are supported in their basic psychological needs for competence and
autonomy. Accordingly, SDT proposes taxonomy of types of regulation for
extrinsic motivation that differ in the degree to which they represent autonomy
(continuum of regulation from controlled to autonomous, from amotivated to
intrinsically motivated. The approach of the SDT allows a finer analysis or
motivational processes than traditional conceptions.
Motivational regulations (with item examples):
- Amotivated (AM): No intention behind the behavior; Item: "I really feel I
am wasting my time in university".
- External Regulation (ER): Motivated only by external contingencies
(rewards or the threat of punishment); Item: "Without pressure from outside
I would do less"
- Introjected Regulation (IJ): Introjection of demands that pressure students,
for example, to avoid feelings of guilt; Item: "I have to give myself an inner
push in order to continue learning in my studies"
8
- Identified Regulation (ID): Identification with opportunities that are in
accordance with the learners’ own goals (but are not intrinsically motivated);
Item: "I am committed in my studies, because I want to realise the goals I set
myself"
- Intrinsic motivation (IM): No regulation by extrinsic rewards (curiosity,
flow, fun…); Item: "I really enjoy learning and working here"
1.2.3. Theory of Interest
The theory of interest is defined as an educationally relevant motivational
concept (e.g. Renninger et. al., 1998, p. 9-21). The theory proposes a person-
object approach to interest and differs from most other motivational concepts by
its content-specificity (Krapp, 2002: p. 405-427). The concept of interest can be
interpreted theoretically and investigated empirically either at the level of
current engagements (e.g. interest-triggered action) or at the level of
dispositional structures (e.g., students’ relatively stable subject-matter interest).
Components of interest:
1. Emotional characteristics: optimal level of activation and arousal (pleasant
tension); feeling of competence; empathic content-specific emotional
experiences.
2. Value-related characteristics: the individual assigns positive value-related
valences.
9
1.2.4. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of
motivation.
The theory can be summarized as follows:
- Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only
unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
- Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the
basic to the complex.
- The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need
is at least minimally satisfied.
- The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness
and psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest)
are as follows:
- Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
- Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
- Belongingness/Love/Friendship
- Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
- Self actualization
* See Figure 1 and 2 on the appendix.
10
Chapter Two
2. San Ignacio de Loyola University students´ motivation
Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the
crucial role it plays in student learning. To understand it better it is necessary to do a
fieldwork.
2.1. Survey
Sample:
The data of a cross-disciplinary sample of 35 undergraduate students (first, second
and third year of study) of San Ignacio de Loyola University, (USIL), were
analyzed.
The students have a mean age of 20 years, and 25% were male and 75% female
The students study in the following fields:
- Law: 7.6%
- Engineering: 5.8%
- Management: 36.4%
- Economics: 11.1
- Communications: 9.9%
- Art: 8.1%
- Psychology: 7.0%
- Marketing: 8.3%.
11
There was two questions
Why do you study at university?
Because I enjoy it
Because I want to be a wealthy person.
Because it is a good way to learn things which could be useful to me in my life
Because I feel obligated to do it
Why do you continue studying?
Because I want to study
Because I would feel like a failure if I quit
Because if I don’t other people will not be pleased with me
Because people push me to study
And these were the answers:
Why do you study at university?
I enjoy it 6
I want to be a wealthy person. 9
It'll be useful to me in my life 13
I feel obligated to do it 7
12
I enjoy it I want to be a wealthy person.
It'll be useful to me in my life
I feel obligated to do it0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Why do you study at university?
Some students at USIL (45%) are motivated by money, or pressure by others. They
can be described as students with high extrinsic learning motivation. While the
majority (55 %) has an intrinsic learning motivation.
Why do you continue studying?
I want to study 20
I would feel like a failure if I quit 3
Other people will not be pleased with me 2
People push me to study 10
13
57%
9%
6%
29%
Why do you continue studying?
I want to study
I would feel like a failure if I quit
Other people will not be pleased with me
People push me to study
57% of the students really wanted to study at university. This is excellent because a
motivated student will make a big effort to learn better thus to get outstanding
grades.
Though 43% of the students feel as if “they have to study”. It could also be a way of
been motivated.
3. Effects of motivation in education.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how
they behave towards subject matter. It can:
14
a. - Direct behavior toward particular goals
b. - Lead to increased effort and energy
c. - Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
d. - Enhance cognitive processing
e. - Determine what consequences are reinforcing
f. - Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated
motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
4. How to motivate students
Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need-or expect-
their instructors to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them: "Effective learning in the
classroom depends on the teacher's ability ... to maintain the interest that brought
students to the course in the first place" (Ericksen, 1978, p. 3). Whatever level of
motivation students bring to the classroom will be transformed, for better or worse,
by what happens in that classroom.
Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for motivating students. Many
factors affect a given student's motivation to work and to learn (Bligh, 1971, p. 88):
interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve,
15
self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. And, of course,
not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. Some
students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by overcoming
challenges.
Lucas (1990, p. 42) identified those aspects of the teaching situation that enhance
students' self-motivation. To encourage students to become self-motivated
independent learners, instructors can do the following:
Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that
they can do well.
Ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that are neither
too easy nor too difficult.
Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.
Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.
Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more
to counter student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly
(Ericksen, 1978, p. 75 ). Most students respond positively to a well-
organized course taught by an enthusiastic instructor who has a genuine
interest in students and what they learn. Thus activities you undertake to
promote learning will also enhance students' motivation.
Capitalize on students' existing needs. Students learn best when incentives for
learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives for enrolling in the course. Some
16
of the needs your students may bring to the classroom are the need to learn
something in order to complete a particular task or activity, the need to seek new
experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the need to
become competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel involved and to
interact with other people. (McMillan and Forsyth, 1991, p. 95 )
Make students active participants in learning. Students learn by doing, making,
writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity dampens students' motivation and
curiosity. Pose questions. Don't tell students something when you can ask them.
Encourage students to suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the results of an
experiment. Use small group work. See "Leading a Discussion," "Supplements and
Alternatives to Lecturing," and "Collaborative Learning" for methods that stress
active participation. ( Lucas, 1990, p. 60)
Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less "motivating."
Reeve (2010, p. 362) asks his classes to recall two recent class periods, one in which
they were highly motivated and one in which their motivation was low. Each
student makes a list of specific aspects of the two classes that influenced his or her
level of motivation, and students then meet in small groups to reach consensus on
characteristics that contribute to high and low motivation. In over twenty courses,
Sass reports, the same eight characteristics emerge as major contributors to student
motivation:
17
Instructor's enthusiasm
Relevance of the material
Organization of the course
Appropriate difficulty level of the material
Active involvement of students
Variety
Rapport between teacher and students
Use of appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples
Avoid creating intense competition among students. Competition produces
anxiety, which can interfere with learning. Reduce students' tendencies to compare
themselves to one another. Bligh (1971; p. 89 ) reports that students are more
attentive, display better comprehension, produce more work, and are more favorable
to the teaching method when they work cooperatively in groups rather than compete
as individuals.
18
Conclusions
Understand motivation is a very important and valuable task because of its
results.
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors have been considered that influence whether
learners will initiate and persist in learning task.
Most theories of motivation that attempt to account for and explain these
factor are classified as expenctasy – value theories.
If we learn to motivate students, we can improve their participation during
their learning activities.
Teachers have an important role in the learning process for enhancing
motivation.
Motivation appears to be enhanced when learners’ expectancies are satisfied
and when they attribute their success to their own efforts and effective
learning strategies
19
Reference
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21
Appendix
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Neeeds
22