ParentingParenting

Anne BautchAnne Bautch

Maren HankeyMaren Hankey

Chris VacekChris Vacek

I might want to have I might want to have children because . . .children because . . .

It would be selfish for me not to have children

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It would please my parents/ in-laws

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I have stepchildren or adopted children, but I want children of my

own

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I would be a good mother/ father

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Parenting StylesParenting Styles

Refers to how parents interact with and Refers to how parents interact with and respond to their childrenrespond to their children

Expectations placed on children by parentsExpectations placed on children by parents Important predictor of a child’s developmentImportant predictor of a child’s development

Form of environmental variabilityForm of environmental variability Parental cognitionParental cognition

Influences parenting styleInfluences parenting style Parental cognitionParental cognition

Influences parenting styleInfluences parenting style

Four Styles of ParentingFour Styles of Parenting

Authoritative: Reasonable discussion between Authoritative: Reasonable discussion between parents and children about expectationsparents and children about expectations

Authoritarian: Parents are directive but not Authoritarian: Parents are directive but not responsiveresponsive

Indulgent: Parents are more responsive than Indulgent: Parents are more responsive than they are demandingthey are demanding

Uninvolved: Parents are not responsive or Uninvolved: Parents are not responsive or demandingdemanding

Topics Topics

Gender and parentingGender and parenting

AdoptionAdoption

Cross-cultural differencesCross-cultural differences

Gender and ParentingGender and Parenting

Does gender play an important role in parenting style and child development?

If so, is the gender of the parent or the child more significant?

Theories on Parental Theories on Parental BehaviorBehavior

Theories take a gender-based approach Theories take a gender-based approach to parentingto parenting

Gender Congruence Theory (GCT):Gender Congruence Theory (GCT): Mothers: care giversMothers: care givers Fathers: breadwinners Fathers: breadwinners

Social Mediation Theory (SMT):Social Mediation Theory (SMT): Role level (“I am a parent”) Role level (“I am a parent”) Domain level (How one acts in their role)Domain level (How one acts in their role)

“Identity Conditions”

What is Gender?What is Gender?

Gender identity is defined as a person’s Gender identity is defined as a person’s identification as a male or a femaleidentification as a male or a female Usually formed by age threeUsually formed by age three

Gender identity affected by:Gender identity affected by: Biological Factors (genetic predispositions)Biological Factors (genetic predispositions) Social Factors (including parenting style)Social Factors (including parenting style)

Expression of Gender Expression of Gender IdentityIdentity

Socialization through gender-specific colors and toys

Self expressed identification with a specific gender:

“I am male” or “I am female”

Prosocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior and gender identity Prosocial behavior and gender identity Positive actions that promote friendship Positive actions that promote friendship

and acceptance with othersand acceptance with others Females and males are “nice” to each other Females and males are “nice” to each other

in different waysin different ways Females: generally more prosocialFemales: generally more prosocial Males: generally more engaged and assertiveMales: generally more engaged and assertive

Prosocial Behavior and Parental Prosocial Behavior and Parental

SocializationSocialization Mothers contribute most strongly to the Mothers contribute most strongly to the

prosocial behavior of their childrenprosocial behavior of their children Encouragement of sex-typed behaviorsEncouragement of sex-typed behaviors

Fathers encourage such behaviors more Fathers encourage such behaviors more than mothersthan mothers

This implies that sex differences in prosocial This implies that sex differences in prosocial behavior may be developmental, not just behavior may be developmental, not just biologicalbiological

Maternal Parenting TraitsMaternal Parenting Traits

Physical dependence Physical dependence of newborns on their of newborns on their mothersmothers Direct care for infantsDirect care for infants

Clear biological Clear biological connection between connection between mother and childmother and child Questions of paternity Questions of paternity

Paternal Parenting TraitsPaternal Parenting Traits

Reinforcement of social Reinforcement of social norms and sex-typed norms and sex-typed behaviorbehavior

More direct responses to More direct responses to the prosocial behavior of the prosocial behavior of sons than daughterssons than daughters

Belief that daughters Belief that daughters need more protection need more protection than sonsthan sons

Expression of less Expression of less affection toward sons affection toward sons than daughtersthan daughters

An Evolutionary An Evolutionary Approach to AdoptionApproach to Adoption

Cost/Reward ApproachCost/Reward Approach

The rewards of reproduction must outweigh The rewards of reproduction must outweigh the costs in order for it to be practicalthe costs in order for it to be practical Biological aspectBiological aspect

Distribution of resources among childrenDistribution of resources among children Importance of relatednessImportance of relatedness

Evolutionary Approach Evolutionary Approach to Adopted Childrento Adopted Children

Less genetic relatedness Less genetic relatedness than with biological than with biological childrenchildren

Strain on resources otherwise used to improve the reproductive likelihood of biological offspring

Step-parentingStep-parenting

Demonstration of increased attachment to Demonstration of increased attachment to biological childrenbiological children

Less emphasis on increased fitness and Less emphasis on increased fitness and survival for children lacking biological survival for children lacking biological relatednessrelatedness

Example of Preferential TreatmentExample of Preferential Treatment

American Attitudes American Attitudes

Social stigmas concerning adoptionSocial stigmas concerning adoption Children come from less optimal hereditary Children come from less optimal hereditary

backgroundsbackgrounds Children have questionable mental healthChildren have questionable mental health Adoptive parents violate the American norm of Adoptive parents violate the American norm of

the nuclear familythe nuclear family Adoption is driven by illegitimacy and infertilityAdoption is driven by illegitimacy and infertility

Adoption TrendsAdoption Trends

A national survey showed that 4 in 10 A national survey showed that 4 in 10 Americans have considered adoptionAmericans have considered adoption

If only 1 in 500 Americans adopted from the If only 1 in 500 Americans adopted from the foster care system, every child would have a foster care system, every child would have a familyfamily

There are currently 523,000 American There are currently 523,000 American children in foster carechildren in foster care

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American AttitudesAmerican Attitudes

Emphasis on the Emphasis on the presence of a presence of a biological relationshipbiological relationship Demonstrates heredityDemonstrates heredity Parents are closer to Parents are closer to

children who resemble children who resemble themthem

Only 2-4 percent of Only 2-4 percent of adoptions are inter-adoptions are inter-racialracial

Cross-cultural differencesCross-cultural differences

Cultural models• Model of independence

• Characterized by emotional and economical independence

• Individual is regarded as unique, separate from others, and defined by stable attributes and traits

• Self confidence and competitiveness are important

• Western industrialized and postindustrialized information societies- urban, educated famiies

Model of interdependence Characterized by emotional and economical interdependence Individual is an interrelated part of a group Obedience, respect, loyalty toward the elder family members help to

maintain a harmonic functioning Prevalent in traditional rural, subsistence-based families

Model of autonomous relatednessModel of autonomous relatedness Characterized by emotional interdependence with economical Characterized by emotional interdependence with economical

independenceindependence Focuses on development of autonomy and integration of the familyFocuses on development of autonomy and integration of the family Urban educated middle-class families in societies with an interrelated Urban educated middle-class families in societies with an interrelated

cultural heritagecultural heritage

Familism- loyalty, reciprocity, and solidarityFamilism- loyalty, reciprocity, and solidarity Cultures in the model of independence exhibit less familism than both Cultures in the model of independence exhibit less familism than both

interdependence and autonomous relatednessinterdependence and autonomous relatedness Research indicates that familism has a significant indirect effect on Research indicates that familism has a significant indirect effect on

parenting ethnotheories via socialization goals.parenting ethnotheories via socialization goals.

EthnotheoriesEthnotheories

•Collective beliefs held by a cultural group about children’s development and behavior

•Derives from the parents cultural experiences with their community and reflect cultural beliefs about children by the society in which the child is being raised

•The attributes that parents hope will be expressed in their children are a reflection of the cultural context in which parents affiliate

•Parenting goals, discipline practices, and beliefs about children’s development differ based on “individualistic” and “collectivist” societies.

IndividualismIndividualism Fostering independence and individual achievementFostering independence and individual achievement Associated with egalitarian relationships and flexibility in rolesAssociated with egalitarian relationships and flexibility in roles Promoting self-expression, individual thinking, and personal choicePromoting self-expression, individual thinking, and personal choice Focus on developing initiative in infantsFocus on developing initiative in infants Show more anti-social behaviourShow more anti-social behaviour

CollectivismCollectivism Emphasis on group effort and cooperationEmphasis on group effort and cooperation React favorably to obedience and social behaviorReact favorably to obedience and social behavior Show less anti-social behaviorShow less anti-social behavior Promotion adherence to norms, respect for elders, and group consensusPromotion adherence to norms, respect for elders, and group consensus Associated with stable, heirarchical rolesAssociated with stable, heirarchical roles

Research differencesResearch differences

Comparing Anglo-American parents with Chinese-American parentsComparing Anglo-American parents with Chinese-American parents 64% of the Anglo-American parents mentioned building children’s self-esteem as a 64% of the Anglo-American parents mentioned building children’s self-esteem as a

childrearing goal while only 8% of the Chinese-American parents agreed.childrearing goal while only 8% of the Chinese-American parents agreed. 40% of the Anglo-American mothers considered helping the child to be aware of his/her 40% of the Anglo-American mothers considered helping the child to be aware of his/her

feelings and encouraging the child to be honest to be important while none of the feelings and encouraging the child to be honest to be important while none of the Chinese-American mothers didChinese-American mothers did

In Asian cultures, doing well academically may be fueled more by desires to fulfill In Asian cultures, doing well academically may be fueled more by desires to fulfill family expectations rather than by individualistic desires to achievefamily expectations rather than by individualistic desires to achieve

Chinese-American mothers show significantly higher levels of verbosity and agree Chinese-American mothers show significantly higher levels of verbosity and agree that it is important for children to understand why their behavior is problematic. that it is important for children to understand why their behavior is problematic.

European-American mothers are less lax than Chinese-AmericanEuropean-American mothers are less lax than Chinese-American East Asian parents downplay children’s success and highligh children’s failure. East Asian parents downplay children’s success and highligh children’s failure.

Americans do the opposite.Americans do the opposite.