Parham Action Management PlanBiodiversity Values and Threats to Ecological Assets
A report prepared by EBS Ecologyfor the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board
__________________________________________________________________________________Parham Action Management Plan
Parham Action Management PlanBiodiversity values and Threats to Ecological Assets
June 2010
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LIMITATION: This report has been prepared on behalf of and for the exclusive use of Environmental and BiodiversityServices Client, and is subject to and issued in connection with the provisions of the agreement betweenEnvironmental and Biodiversity Services and it’s Client. Environmental and Biodiversity Services accepts no liabilityor responsibility whatsoever for or in respect of any use of or reliance upon this report by any third party.
Cover Photos: Parham Beach (left) (Photo: AMLR NRM Board- Bill Doyle), Webb Beach Creek (Right)(Photo: AMLR NRM Board- Bill Doyle)
2/48 Barwell RdKURRALTA PARK
SA 5037
Phone : 08 71215607Fax : 08 8297 3768
Email : [email protected]
Web : www.ebservices.com.au
Acknowledgements
Several people provided valuable input into the production of this plan and we would
like to thank the following:
Jill Pearson, Caroline Taylor and Aleisa Lamanna of Adelaide and Mount
Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board
Barbara Reid chair of the District Council of Mallala Foreshore Advisory
Committee
Andreas Humphreys from the District Council of Mallala
Kevin Taylor from Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd
This project is partially funded through the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural
Resources Management Board, the Northern and Yorke Natural Resources
Management Board and the Australian Government's Caring for our Country.
Contents Page1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Parham management area .................................................................................... 11.2 Naming protocols ................................................................................................... 2
2.0 FIELDWORK METHODOLOGY............................................................................... 22.1 Mapping methodology............................................................................................ 32.2 Taxonomy .............................................................................................................. 32.3 Level of detail ......................................................................................................... 3
3.0 PHYSICAL LOCATION ............................................................................................ 43.1 Location.................................................................................................................. 43.2 Landform, topography and hydrology .................................................................... 63.3 Soils ....................................................................................................................... 63.4 Climate ................................................................................................................... 63.5 Bioregional information .......................................................................................... 83.6 Remnancy and conservation ............................................................................... 103.7 Landscape context ............................................................................................... 103.7.1 Pre-European vegetation of the Northern Adelaide plains.............................................103.7.2 Current ecological landscape of the Northern Adelaide plains......................................12
4.0 RESULTS - VEGETATION DESCRIPTION ........................................................... 134.1 General overview ................................................................................................. 134.2 Vegetation Associations....................................................................................... 174.3 Native plant species............................................................................................. 294.4 Vegetation condition............................................................................................. 294.5 Pest animals......................................................................................................... 294.6 Weed infestations................................................................................................. 29
5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOLOGICAL ASSETS................................................. 335.1 Tidal creeks.......................................................................................................... 335.2 Estuarine river habitats ........................................................................................ 335.3 Saltmarsh communities........................................................................................ 335.4 Mangroves ........................................................................................................... 345.5 Coastal shrublands and dunes ............................................................................ 345.6 Wetlands of National Importance......................................................................... 355.7 Waterbird and migratory wader habitat................................................................ 385.7.1 Neophema chrysogaster (Orange-bellied Parrot) ..........................................................385.7.2 Acanthiza iredalei rosinae (Slender-billed Thornbill)....................................................40
5.8 Butterflies ............................................................................................................. 405.9 Plant species of conservation significance .......................................................... 415.10 Areas of known Conservation value .................................................................... 455.11 Landscape connectivity........................................................................................ 45
6.0 THREATS TO NATIVE VEGETATION AND ECOLOGICAL VALUE ................... 476.1 Recreational vehicles........................................................................................... 476.2 Rubbish ................................................................................................................ 506.3 Feral animals........................................................................................................ 516.4 Weeds .................................................................................................................. 536.5 Erosion ................................................................................................................. 586.6 Mining................................................................................................................... 586.6.1 Mineral exploration licence............................................................................................586.6.2 Co proclamation of mining and conservation areas.......................................................58
6.7 Development pressure......................................................................................... 596.8 Climate change .................................................................................................... 636.9 Changing local coastline and mangrove forest displacement ............................. 63
7.0 RECOMMENDED ACTIONS .................................................................................. 658.0 REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................. 719.0 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 73
Appendix 1. Vegetation associations and species lists.......................................................... 73Appendix 2. Habitat preferences and associated behaviour (foraging, roosting, or breeding)for conservation significant bird species recorded within the Management area, or expected touse the site reference?. ........................................................................................................... 78
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Condition ratings used to assess the vegetation associations................................. 2
Table 3.1 Bioregional ecological information............................................................................ 8
Table 3.2 Historical plant associations ................................................................................... 11
Table 4.1 Declared, environmental, and significant weed species observed within themanagement area ................................................................................................................... 30
Table 5.1 Conservation significant flora species listed in Schedules 7, 8 and 9 of the NPWAct 1972 (as at 7/1/10) that may occur within the Parham management area. ...................... 42
Table 5.2 Regionally rated flora species (Southern Lofty region) within the vicinity of theParham management area...................................................................................................... 42
Table 7.1 Management of coastal assets............................................................................... 67
Table 7.2 Action table for management recommendations.................................................... 69
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Site location map..................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3.2 Average annual rainfall for the locality of Northfield Research Centre ................... 6
Figure 3.3 Maximum and minimum temperatures for the Northfield Research Centre............ 7
Figure 3.4 Location of Parham management area within St Vincent Subregion (Eyre andYork Block Bioregion) ................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 4.1 Tidal zones ............................................................................................................ 15
Figure 4.2 Vegetation associations ........................................................................................ 16
Figure 4.3 Vegetation condition.............................................................................................. 32
Figure 5.1 Wetlands of National Importance .......................................................................... 36
Figure 5.2 Wetland of National Importance – Clinton SA 007................................................ 37
Figure 5.3 : Flora species of conservation significance recorded during field investigations . 44
Figure 5.4 : Regional connectivity ........................................................................................... 46
Figure 6.1 Feral animal activity recorded during field investigations...................................... 52
Figure 6.2a Weeds recorded during field investigations – north section ............................... 56
Figure 6.2b Weeds recorded during field investigations – south section............................... 57
Figure 6.3 Mining tenements and exploration licenses along the Gulf of St Vincent coastline................................................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 6.4 Active and non-active mining tenements .............................................................. 61
Figure 6.5 Development zones along the Gulf of St Vincent coastline and inland ................ 62
Figure 6.6 Mangrove forest locations in Australia. ................................................................. 65
Figure 7.1 Recommended management actions ................................................................... 66
List of PlatesPlate 4.1 Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata (Black-seed Samphire) / Tecticorniaindica (Brown-head Samphire) / Maireana oppositifolia (Salt Bluebush) +/- Atriplex paludosassp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush)................................................................................................. 17
Plate 4.2 Sarcocornia quinqueflora (Beaded Samphire) +/- Tecticornica arbuscula (ShrubbySamphire), Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata (Shrubby Samphire), Suaeda australis(Austral Seablite) ..................................................................................................................... 18
Plate 4.3 Atriplex paludosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush), Tecticornia spp. (Samphire),Maireana oppositofolia (Salt Bluebush) Low Open Shrubland................................................ 19
Plate 4.4 a) Olearia axillaris (Coast Daisy-bush) / Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) /Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush); b) Same association with Pittosporum angustifolium (NativeApricot) and Alyxia buxifolia (Sea Box) +/- Nitraria billadierei (Nitre-bush) Shrubland. .......... 21
Plate 4.5 a) Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) / Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-bush); b)same association with Atriplex cinerea (Coast Saltbush) and Sueada australis (AustralSeablite)................................................................................................................................... 23
Plate 4.6 a) Melaleuca lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) +/- Callitris gracilis (Southern CypressPine) +/- Eucalyptus gracilis (White Mallee) +/- Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush) +/- Acaciacupularis (Coast Umbrella Bush) Open Shrubland; b) same association showing revegetationarea; c) Callitris gracilis stand within the association; d) Adriana quadripitata (Coast Bitter-bush) stand within the association........................................................................................... 26
Plate 4.7 A) Avicennia marina ssp. Marina (Grey Mangrove) Low Closed Forest; b)associated mudflats................................................................................................................. 28
Plate 5.1 Hesperilla donnysa donnysa form flavescens (Yellowish Sword-sedge SkipperButterfly) .................................................................................................................................. 41
Plate 5.2 Theclinesthes albocincta (Bitter Bush Blue Butterfly) ............................................. 41
Plate 6.1 Trail bike tracks in a saltpan.................................................................................... 48
Plate 6.2 Removal of barrier near Bakers Creek.................................................................... 48
Plate 6.3 Illegal boat ramp created by public to access Baker Creek.................................... 49
Plate 6.4 Erosion resulting from illegally built boat-ramps at Baker Creek ........................... 49
Plate 6.5 Dumped computers near Webb Beach................................................................... 50
Plate 6.6 Oryctolagus cuniculus (European Rabbit) scats within Melalueca lanceolata(Dryland Tea-tree) Open Woodland. ....................................................................................... 51
Plate 6.7 : a) Example of a roadside supporting weed species adjacent to the township ofParham; b) example of roadside supporting weed species along Port Parham Road............ 54
Plate 6.8 Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn) within roadside vegetation near Parhamtownship................................................................................................................................... 55
Plate 6.9 Euphorbia terracina (False Caper).......................................................................... 55
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Parham Management Plan vi
Glossary
Acid Sulfate Soil (ASS) a soil or soil horizon which contains sulfides or an
acid soil horizon affected by oxidation of sulfides.
The exposure of the sulfide in these soils to oxygen
by drainage or excavation leads to the generation of
sulfuric acid.
Actual acid sulfate soils (AASS) soils containing highly acidic soil horizons or layers
resulting from the aeration of soil materials that are
rich in iron sulfides, primarily sulfide.
Chenier Dune discrete, elongated sand and/or shell bodies
stranded on a coastal mudflat or marsh.
Estuary a partially enclosed coastal body of water that is
either permanently, periodically, intermittently or
occasionally open to the sea within which there is a
measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of
seawater with water derived from on or under the
land’. It also encompasses the ecosystem processes
and associated biodiversity within estuaries and their
adjacent habitats.
Exploration Licence (EL) an Exploration Licence (EL) is the principal title
issued for exploration in the state. An EL authorises
the licensee, subject to the Act, Regulations and
conditions of the licence, to explore for all minerals
and/or opal other than extractive minerals
Flotsam marine debris that is floating on the water without
having been thrown in deliberately, often after a
shipwreck.
Intertidal (foreshore) the coastal zone measuring from the lowest to the
highest tide mark. The intertidal zone is subject to
alternating periods of flooding and drying.
Jetsam marine debris that has been voluntarily cast into the
sea by the crew of a ship, usually in order to lighten it
in an emergency.
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Parham Management Plan vii
Nearshore the area extending from the low water shoreline to
the generally less than 10m depth or beyond the
breaker zone.
Potential acid sulfate soils (PASS) soils which contain iron sulfides or sulfidic material
which have not been exposed to air or oxidised, but
pose a considerable environmental risk when
disturbed, as they will become very acidic when
exposed to air and oxidised.
Supratidal the shore area above the high tide level.
Tidal land includes reefs shoals and other land permanently or
periodically submerged by waters subject to tidal
influence.
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Parham Management Plan viii
Executive Summary
There are remnant native coastal vegetation values on the Northern Adelaide plains
that extend from Barker Inlet to the Yorke Peninsula. This section of the coast
(Parham management plan boundary) supports coastal habitats that are vulnerable
to threatening processes. Current known threats that modify the landscape and
erode known biodiversity values are discussed in this report.
At this location there are known biodiversity values of:
Wetland of National Importance - SA007
Migratory and waterbirds of National significance
Remnant coastal mangrove forests, low coastal dunes, and samphire
shrublands
This management plan is aimed at assisting the community and natural resource
managers to identify local biological assets and prioritise management. It is
anticipated that information on the local biodiversity assets coupled with
management recommendations to conserve biodiversity values will enable all
stakeholders to make key decisions to ensure the long term management of natural
landscape features.
The management of the coastal native vegetation at Parham remains a conservation
priority because much of the Adelaide coastline is already highly modified. As the
metropolitan area expands, there is increasing pressure on coastal landscapes to
provide for recreation, human use, and development.
The aim of this report is to provide a resource document for the community and
natural resource managers to assist in achieving on–ground works that maximise
and enhance the current native vegetation and biodiversity assets.
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Parham Action Management Plan 1
1.0 IntroductionThis management plan details the biological assets and threats impacting on remnant
coastal vegetation at Parham township and surrounds, South Australia. Parham
township is approximately 65km north of metropolitan Adelaide and consists of a
cluster of houses on the Northern Adelaide Plains. Land use in the area includes
agriculture (grazing, cropping, orchards, market gardens), conservation (Port Gawler
Conservation Park and Buckland Park additions), commercial and private residential.
The coastline in the Parham area is both relatively un-modified and modified by human
activity. It supports a significant area of remnant coastal vegetation and
coastal/estuarine habitat in the northern Adelaide region and supports significant
wetlands. For these reasons there is considerable interest in conserving the natural
character of the area.
This report compliments a series of reports that have documented the native vegetation
types, biodiversity assets and threatening processes along the Northern Adelaide Plain
coastal area, namely: Metropolitan Adelaide and Northern Coastal Action Plan 2009
(Caton et al. 2009); Buckland Park (Durant, 2007); Middle Beach to Port Gawler
(Durant, 2007); and Thompson Beach Third Creek Management Plan (Delta
Environmental Consulting 2005).
A brief description of the area is provided in Section 3 of this report. Section 4 presents
an overview of the vegetation in the Parham management area, including the
description and mapping of the vegetation associations, an appraisal of vegetation
condition, details of native plant species observed, and a summary of acute weed
infestations. Section 5 summarises the significant ecological and biological assets of
the area and major threatening processes. Section 6 of the report provides
management recommendations based on the information gathered during the project.
1.1 Parham management areaThe Parham management area is located 65km north of metropolitan Adelaide, South
Australia. Occupying an approximate area of 605ha, the management area is
comprised of land owned by the Minister for Environment and Conservation and the
District Council of Mallala. Sections of the management area are subject to active and
non-active mineral production tenements leased to Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd. No
sites listed on the State Heritage register occur within the management area.
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Parham Action Management Plan 2
1.2 Naming protocolsThis report makes reference to the management area as three discrete areas, Parham
township, Webb Beach and Baker Creek. Two public roads provide access the
management area: North Parham Road and Port Parham Road permit access to
Parham and Webb Beach Township. Baker Creek (southern section of the
Management area) was accessed via the boat ramp at Webb Beach township and
along the coast.
2.0 Fieldwork methodologyThe field survey involved an assessment of:
Aerial photography and DEH floristic mapping to identify vegetation
associations and their boundaries;
Ground-truthing vegetation associations on site against DEH floristic mapping,
recording actual vegetation association boundaries and condition (Table 2.1).
For each vegetation association general landform and location descriptions
were recorded and photos taken;
Recording brief flora species lists and observed threatened flora species;
Documenting declared and environmental weed species: mapping any acute
infestations on aerial photography (area covered) and marking individual plants
with GPS;
Identifying management threats (i.e. off-road vehicle use, rubbish dumping, pest
species); and
Identifying priority management zones.
Table 2.1. Condition ratings used to assess the vegetation associations
Rating Condition Description
1 - Excellent Very little or no sign of exotic vegetation resembles probable pre-European condition.
2 - Good High proportion of native species and native cover, reasonable representation ofprobable pre- European vegetation.
3 - Moderate Substantial invasion of exotic but native understorey* persists; for example, may be alow proportion of native species and a high native cover, or a high proportion of nativespecies and low native cover.
4 - Poor Consists predominately of exotic species, although a small number of natives persist.
5 - Very Poor Consists only of exotic species.
*Or all strata if the upper and lower strata are difficult to distinguishSource: adapted from Stokes et al. 1998.
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Parham Action Management Plan 3
2.1 Mapping methodologyAll field data was captured using a GPS, field notebook, and aerial photography (2009
imagery, 90cm resolution). EBS staff verified and defined new vegetation associations
in the field by hand-drawing polygons on aerial photography. Information collected on
site was used to create GIS datasets and subsequent mapping.
2.2 TaxonomyPlant taxonomy used in this report follows Jessop and Toelken (1986), with
modifications as advised by the State Herbarium as used in Lang and Kraehenbuehl
(2004) and Barker et al. (2005).
2.3 Level of detailThe level of detail in this report is based on a desktop review and 2.5 days field work -
half a day April 2009 and two days supplementary field survey work in December 2009
(to map weeds and feral animal activity). Due to the limited time spent on site, a broad
assessment of vegetation associations present, the dominant flora species present,
and acute weed infestations were noted. Associated management issues were
documented, with particular focus given to off-road vehicle issues, access issues,
rubbish dumping, and presence of pest species, particularly rabbits. All vehicle tracks
within the management area were traversed, and selective additional surveying,
particularly of coastal dunes and other areas susceptible to weed invasion was
undertaken on foot. Some areas were not accessible due to a lack of vehicle access or
due to the terrain (eg saltpans). As no public access track exists within the mangroves
at Baker Creek, it was only possible to survey a portion of this vegetation community
from the foreshore. The southern side of the mangrove forest and adjacent saltpans
were inaccessible and not surveyed. As a consequence, vegetation associations
present within these areas have been assessed, as best as possible, through aerial
photography, DEH floristic mapping, and at a distance on site.
This management plan aims to provide an overview of the vegetation associations
present, impact issues requiring priority management, and define areas requiring
further detailed assessment.
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Parham Action Management Plan 4
3.0 Physical location
3.1 LocationThe township of Parham is located approximately 75km north of the Adelaide CBD,
and 10.5km north of Port Prime. More broadly, it is situated within the Gulf of St
Vincent on the Samphire Coast (Figure 3.1).
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Parham Action Management Plan 5
Figure 3.1 Site location map
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Parham Action Management Plan 6
3.2 Landform, topography and hydrologyThe management area comprises coastal landscape features such as intertidal salt
marsh habitats, supratidal salt marsh habitats, mangrove habitats, and low or formless
sand shellgrit dunes, and chenier dunes (relict, linear coastal sand dunes which have
been stranded within the intertidal saltmarshes). The saltmarsh areas form a complex
pattern of samphire, cheniers, saline flats and sabkhas. There are two small tidal inlets,
that dissect the dunes and allow tidal flow to the saltmarsh, these occur at Webb Beach
(unnamed) and Baker Creek, south of Webb Beach. The banks of Baker Creek tidal
inlet are lined with mangroves.
3.3 SoilsCalcareous sands are found within the area that are associated with dune systems,
while saline clays (silty clay loams and medium clays) characterise the mudflats and
intertidal zones (Atlas of SA, 2009).
3.4 ClimateThe climatic conditions for the area are presented in graphic format below using data
from the Bureau of Meteorology for the locality of the Northfield Research Centre.
Figure 3.2 Average annual rainfall for the locality of Northfield Research Centre
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Parham Action Management Plan 7
Figure 3.3 Maximum and minimum temperatures for the Northfield Research Centre
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Parham Action Management Plan 8
3.5 Bioregional informationThe site is in the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resource Management
region and the Cape Borda to Barossa DEH Naturelinks Corridor. The majority of the
management area falls within the Parham association of the Mt Lofty Ranges
subregion in the Eyre and Yorke Block bioregion (Table 3.1, Figure 3.4).
Table 3.1 Bioregional ecological information
EYB Eyre and Yorke Block bioregion
Archaean basement rocks and Proterozoic sandstones overlain by undulating to occasionally hilly
calcarenite and calcrete plains and areas of aeolian quartz sands, with mallee woodlands, shrublands
and heaths on calcareous earths, duplex soils and calcareous to shallow sands, now largely cleared
for agriculture.
EYB 2 St Vincent subregion
Most of the landscape in this region comprises coastal plains supporting calcrete development and
shallow reddish earths. The plain is mainly dune free but isolated areas are overlain by low indistinct
sand dunes. Near the Mt Lofty Ranges the plains have a definite westerly gradient and merge
eastwards with the alluvial fans from the Mt Lofty ranges. Moderately deep red mallee-yorrell (E.
socialis, E. gracilis) association occurs throughout the region with some woodland of E. porosa on the
plains or E. odorata on the hills and footslopes. The subregion has been extensively cleared and
sown to crops or exotic pastures so little of the natural vegetation remains. What does remain, exists
on road verges and a few isolated blocks.
Parham Association (EYB 2)
Remnant
vegetation
53.5% native vegetation in this association, of which 9.4% is protected in 4 public
protected areas (Clinton CP, Port Gawler CP, Fort Glanville CP and Torrens Island
CP) (DEH 2002)
Landform Coastal complex of tidal flats, dunes, swamps and sandy beaches, backed by a gently
sloping plain.
Geology Alluvium and sand.
Soil Grey non-cracking plastic clays, grey duplex soils, whitish sands, grey calcareous
loams and greyish calcareous sands.
Vegetation Low woodland of mangrove, chenopod shrubland of samphire and open heath of
coast daisy bush, coast beard heath and coastal wattle
Climate E2: “Mediterranean” climate, but with drier cooler winters and less growth than E1.
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Parham Action Management Plan 9
Figure 3.4 Location of Parham management area within St Vincent Subregion (Eyre and York
Block Bioregion)
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Parham Action Management Plan 10
3.6 Remnancy and conservationThe native vegetation remaining is concentrated on the coastal areas of the Northern
Adelaide Plains and current major threatening processes to the ongoing presence in
the landscape and ‘health’ (biological integrity) are proposed housing developments,
industrial expansion, off road vehicle use and climate change. This renders the
clearance of any remaining patches of remnant vegetation in this region as a loss of
vegetation and biological diversity in the landscape (Berkinshaw, 2004)
The reduction in native vegetation in the Parham association can be attributed to the
historical clearance of extensive grasslands and open grassy woodlands. These areas
were preferentially cleared for immediate grazing rather than heavily wooded areas.
Port Gawler Conservation Park is the closest protected area to the management area.
3.7 Landscape contextThe northern Adelaide Coastal Plain is a region of high ecological importance
(Berkinshaw, 2004). The value of remnant vegetation and the presence of flora and
fauna of conservation significance highlight this, but there is a high level of disturbance
and modification from multiple land uses.
Typical land use in the region today is market gardening, horticulture, olive plantations,
grazing, salt extraction, waste water treatment facilities, and industrial land fill. There
are new housing developments such as the existing Mawson Lakes and the proposed
Buckland Park developments. The improvement of the transport network follows the
existing suburbanisation but also is expected to lead further urban expansion in this
area.
Generally the region is known for light industrial manufacturing and the provision of
recreational facilities such as trotting tracks at Globe Derby Park, a Motorcross Off-
road track at Middle Beach, Polo club, Winston Park SA Equestrian Centre, Speedway
City and the Adelaide International Raceway.
3.7.1 Pre-European vegetation of the Northern Adelaide plains
Historically the hydrological features of this area are a complex of freshwater westerly
flowing rivers from the ranges to the sea, with riparian areas and wetlands, extending
to floodplains. Prior to European settlement (1788) Dry Creek and Little Para River
where ephemeral waterways, meaning that during summer the creek beds dried out to
create a chain of ponds (Waterwatch SA). The landscape featured intact naturally
functioning coastal features such as tidal flats and creeks, saltmarshes, chenier ridges
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Parham Action Management Plan 11
and dunes, salinas and sabkhas and the intertidal coastal areas, dominated by
extensive mangroves.
Recent pre-European vegetation mapping by Berkinshaw (2004) shows the Northern
Adelaide Plains as being covered by a mixture of woodlands, shrublands, sedgelands
and grasslands (Table 3.2, Figure 3.5). The following table lists the plant associations
shown in the pre-European vegetation mapping by Berkinshaw (2004).
The historical landscape is considered to have had large expanses of coastal
saltmarsh communities such as low samphire shrublands occupying areas that are less
frequently subject to tidal inundation. Also, shrublands subject to periodic shallow
freshwater inundation from flooding events with established riparian ecosystems
(Gawler, Light and Little Para rivers) providing a suite of habitat areas for a range of
species, but especially for migratory waterbirds. There were extensive floodplain
shrublands such as lignum and chenopod shrublands with other shrublands on slightly
higher ground (including nitre-bush, marsh saltbush and short-leaved bluebush).
Vegetation types included sedgelands (Gahnia filum), grasslands (Lomandra effusa,
Austrodanthonia sp., Austrostipa sp.) with open Red gum woodlands, especially along
the major rivers, creeks and extending out to floodwash plains. There is still remnant
evidence of the presence of coastal dune vegetation, Mallee box and native pine
woodlands.
Table 3.2 Historical plant associations
Plant Association Vegetationgroup
PLANT ASSOCIATION 1Avicennia marina var resinifera, Mangrove Low open forest Low open forest
PLANT ASSOCIATION 2Sarcocornia spp, Sclerostegia arbuscula, Suaeda australis, Halosarcia sp Lowshrubland
Low shrubland
PLANT ASSOCIATION 3Nitraria billardierei, Atriplex paludosa Open shrubland Open shrubland
PLANT ASSOCIATION 4Gahnia filum, Thatching grass Sedgelands Sedgelands
PLANT ASSOCIATION 5Muehlenbeckia florulenta Lignum Shrubland Shrublands
PLANT ASSOCIATION 6Olearia axillaris +/- Acacia longifolia var sophorae +/- Leucopogon parviflorusShrubland
Shrubland
PLANT ASSOCIATION 7Danthonia spp (sic) +/- Stipa spp (sic) (Wallaby and spear grass) Tussock Grassland Grassland
PLANT ASSOCIATION 8Eucalyptus camaldulensis var camaldulensis, Red Gum Woodland Woodland
PLANT ASSOCIATION 9Eucalyptus porosa, Mallee Box Low woodland Low woodland
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Parham Action Management Plan 12
Plant Association Vegetationgroup
PLANT ASSOCIATION 10Callitris gracilis Native Pine Low open forest Low open forest
Note: The vegetation mapping done by Berkinshaw does not completely cover the project area, although it does give anindication of the historical presence of vegetation types in the landscape.
Figure 3.5 Pre-European vegetation mapping (Berkinshaw, 2004)
3.7.2 Current ecological landscape of the Northern Adelaide plains
Dense mangrove forests in the intertidal zone still dominate the low lying coastal fringe.
Major changes over time have been the clearance of grasslands, sedgeland and
woodlands for agricultural and horticultural development. There has been a redirection
of natural water flows across the landscape through diversion into a constructed
drainage network and the artificial flooding of low lying areas, perhaps previously
sedgelands, grasslands and shrublands, such as Buckland Park Lake and the loss of
wooded areas, especially grassy woodlands of mallee box and native pine.
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Parham Action Management Plan 13
Numerous flood events have been recorded for the area, most recently in 2004 which
resulted in widespread damage to property and horticultural crops, infrastructure and
lost revenue for primary producers. Flood mitigation works including increased dam
walls (Little Para) were proposed several years ago, and are still under consideration.
The landscape features seen today include levee banks that provide access routes
throughout most low lying areas, largely for the control and maintenance of salt
evaporation ponds and sewerage treatment beds.
Generally introduced weeds (declared, environmental and agricultural) and non-
indigenous native plants are common on roadsides. Some of these weeds are garden
escapees, while others may have been deliberately planted.
The maintenance of a sufficient level of water flow and the quality of water flow to
Wetlands of National Importance is a critical management issue. According to Davis
(2001), the presence of physical structures such as dams, weirs, irrigation channels
and levee banks may limit the ability to deliver environmental water and the ability to
determine appropriate water allocations is frequently limited by knowledge regarding
both the pre-development water regime and the requirements of biota. Other current
threatening processes to these wetlands include: illegal netting, rubbish dumping, weed
infestation, and grazing by rabbits and off road vehicle disturbance. Potential
threatening processes include: an increase in the discharge of effluents into the inlet,
plans to close and/or relocate the salt fields, and projected rise in sea level (Australian
Wetland Database).
4.0 Results - Vegetation description
4.1 General overviewOlearia axillaris (Coast Daisy-bush) / Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) / Acacia
cyclops (Western Coastal Wattle) +/- Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush) +/- Pittosporum
angustifolium (Native Apricot) +/- Alyxia buxifolia (Sea Box) +/- Nitraria billadierei
(Nitre-bush) +/- Atriplex spp. (Saltbush) +/- Marieana spp. (Bluebush) occurs on the
sandier soils on low sand dunes and chenier dunes, and along a narrow strip of
vegetation along the shoreline at Pahrahm township.
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Samphire Low Shrublands are predominantly found within low-lying and intertidal
zones. These Samphire flats usually grade into Saltbush and/or Samphire Shrublands
within the supratidal zones. Saltpans are found intermittently throughout the
management area and support very little vegetation due to their highly saline
environment and water holding capacity. Figure 4.1 depicts tidal zones.
Melaleuca lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) +/- Callitris gracillis (Southern Cypress Pine)
+/- Eucalyptus gracillis (White Mallee) Tall Open Shrubland is found throughout the
management area behind the intertidal zone and is located in sandier soils. The
regionally uncommon Adriana quadripartita (Coast Bitter-bush) was observed in three
locations - within M. lanceolata Tall Open Shrubland near Parham township (most
significant population), within M. lanceolata Tall Open Shrubland in the old dump and a
small patch just east of Webb Beach (Figure 4.2).
Baker Creek is lined by Avicennia marina ssp. marina (Grey Mangrove) Forest and
grades into a significant mudflat within the intertidal zone. Seagrass detritus shows
frequent washover conditions occur over the low dunes south of Baker Creek.
The townships of Parham and Webb Beach fragment the native vegetation, as a result
weed species and garden escapes are present adjacent to these areas.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the vegetation associations recorded on site.
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Figure 4.1 Tidal zones
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Figure 4.2 Vegetation associations recorded at the Parham Management area.
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4.2 Vegetation Associations
Association 1 - Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata (Black-seed Samphire)/ Tecticornia indica (Brown-head Samphire) +/- Maireana oppositifolia (SaltBluebush) +/- Atriplex paludosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush)
Landform: Saline samphire flat
Description: This association is located on intertidal zones in areas subject to floodingfrom tidal flows and covers a large proportion of the management area. These
samphire flats support remnant vegetation in good condition. No weeds were found
within this association which is most likely due to the highly saline conditions which
prevent recruitment.
Management issues: Compaction and soil erosion from off-road car / motorbike
access within saltpans interspersed amongst the vegetation and already formed
vehicle tracks.
Plate 4.1 Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata (Black-seed Samphire) / Tecticornia indica(Brown-head Samphire) / Maireana oppositifolia (Salt Bluebush) +/- Atriplex paludosa ssp.cordata (Marsh Saltbush)
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Association 2 – Sarcocornia quinqueflora (Beaded Samphire) +/- Tecticornicaarbuscula (Shrubby Samphire) +/- Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata(Shrubby Samphire) +/- Suaeda australis (Austral Seablite)
Landform: Saline samphire flat
Description: This association is located on intertidal zones in low-lying areas subject
to flooding from tidal flows, especially near Baker Creek. These samphire flats support
remnant vegetation in good condition. No weeds were found within this association
because of the highly saline conditions which is most likely due to the highly saline
conditions which prevent recruitment.
Management issues: Compaction and soil erosion from off-road car / motorbike
access within saltpans interspersed amongst the vegetation and already formed
vehicle tracks.
Plate 4.2 Sarcocornia quinqueflora (Beaded Samphire) +/- Tecticornica arbuscula (ShrubbySamphire), Tecticornia pergranulata ssp. perganulata (Shrubby Samphire), Suaeda australis(Austral Seablite)
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Association 3 – Atriplex paludosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush), Maireanaoppositofolia (Salt Bluebush) +/- Tecticornia spp. (Samphire), Low OpenShrubland
Landform: Supratidal zone
Description: This association was not overly common within the management area. It
is found on the edges of Samphire flats and saltpans where the soil grades from saline
soils / mudflat soils into lighter, sandier soils. The dominant understorey of this
association supported Threlkeldia diffusa (Coast Bonefruit), Tetragonia implexicoma
(Bower Spinach), and Sueada australis (Austral Seablite). Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-
bush) occasionally occurs as an emergent species.
Management Issues: Susceptible to weed infestation, particularly Lycium
ferocissimum (African Boxthorn) Cakile maritima ssp. maritima (Two-horned Sea
Rocket), Mesembryanthemum crystallinum / nodiflorum (Ice Plant) and Euphorbia
paralias (Sea Spurge) Other management issues include off-road vehicle use,
rabbits/foxes and possible grazing.
Plate 4.3 Atriplex paludosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush), Tecticornia spp. (Samphire),Maireana oppositofolia (Salt Bluebush) Low Open Shrubland
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Association 4 – Olearia axillaris (Coast Daisy-bush) / Myoporum insulare
(Common Boobialla) / Acacia cyclops (Western Coastal Wattle) +/- Acacia ligulata(Umbrella Bush) +/- Pittosporum angustifolium (Native Apricot) +/- Alyxia
buxifolia (Sea Box) +/- Nitraria billadierei (Nitre-bush) Shrubland.
Landform: Chenier dunes and low coastal dunes (Parham and Webb Beach township)
Description: Olearia axillaris (Coast Daisy-bush), Myoporum insulare (Common
Boobialla), and Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush) dominate this vegetation association,
and it is found with or without Pittosporum angustifolium (Native Apricot) +/- Alyxia
buxifolia (Sea Box), or Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-bush). Understorey species include
Atriplex spp. (Saltbush) and Marieana spp. (Bluebush), Carpobrotus rossii (Native
Pigface), and *Cakile maritima ssp. maritima (Two-horned Sea Rocket), and *Limonium
companyonis (Sea-lavender). This association is found in the sandier soils and on low
sand dunes and chenier dunes. This vegetation association was found along the coast
within a fenced-off conservation area within Parham township, as well as within private
properties that are situated behind the low coastal dune system. Further inland this
association occurs with more Pittosporum angustifolium (Native Apricot) and Alyxia
buxifolia (Sea Box).
A fenced-off conservation area1 supporting this vegetation association exists between
the coast and Webb Beach township (54H 248339 6185026). Within this conservation
area significant stands of C. gracilis are found within this vegetation association, along
with some remnant Allocasuarina verticillata (Drooping Sheoak) trees; however, these
areas are not large enough to be identified as a separate association.
Management Issues: Weed infestations, especially of Cakile maritima ssp. maritima
(Two-horned Sea Rocket), Limonium companyonis (Sea-lavender), Lycium
ferocissimum (African Boxthorn), and Euphorbia terracina (False Caper) are scattered
within this association. Evidence of rabbit occupancy is present.
1 Fenced-off area is the management responsibility of the District Council of Mallala
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Plate 4.4 a) Olearia axillaris (Coast Daisy-bush) / Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) /Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush); b) Same association with Pittosporum angustifolium (NativeApricot) and Alyxia buxifolia (Sea Box) +/- Nitraria billadierei (Nitre-bush) Shrubland.
a
b
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Association 5 – Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) / Nitraria billardierei(Nitre-bush) +/- Olearia axilaris (Coastal Daisy-bush) +/-Atriplex cinerea (CoastSaltbush) +/- Atriplex paulodosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush) +/- Sueadaaustralis (Austral Seablite) Open Shrubland
Landform: Low shellgrit dunes (Baker Creek end)
Description: This association was dominated by Myoporum insulare (Common
Boobialla) and Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-bush), with or without Olearia axilaris (Coastal
Daisy-bush), Atriplex paulodosa ssp. cordata (Marsh Saltbush), Atriplex cinerea (Coast
Saltbush) over Samphire spp., Sueada australis (Austral Seablite), Maireana
oppositifolia (Salt Bluebush), Maireana brevifolia (Short-leaf Bluebush), and
Carpobrotus rossii (Native Pigface). This association was found on the foreshore on
low coastal dunes within the intertidal zone. It is generally present in a narrow linear
association parallel to the coastal edge that extends through the majority of the
management area, especially near Bakers Creek.
Management Issues: Weed infestations of Cakile maritima ssp. maritima (Two-horned
Sea Rocket), Limonium companyonis (Sea-lavender), Lycium ferocissimum (African
Boxthorn), and Euphorbia terracina (False Caper) are scattered within this association.
Evidence of rabbit occupancy is present.
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Plate 4.5 a) Myoporum insulare (Common Boobialla) / Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-bush); b) sameassociation with Atriplex cinerea (Coast Saltbush) and Sueada australis (Austral Seablite)
a
b
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Association 6 – Melaleuca lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) +/- Callitris gracilis
(Southern Cypress Pine) +/- Eucalyptus gracilis (White Mallee) +/- Acacia ligulata(Umbrella Bush) +/- Acacia cupularis (Coast Umbrella Bush) Open Shrubland
Landform: Shallow limestones to deep sandy soils, low sand dunes and chenier
dunes.
Description: This association is found on sandier soils behind the coastal dune
systems and is often located between samphire flats and saltpans. Melalueca
lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) occurs with or without Eucalyptus gracilis (White Mallee)
and Callitris gracilis (Southern Cypress Pine), Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush), and
Acacia cupularis (Coast Umbrella Bush). Understorey species include Exocarpus
aphyllus (Leafless Cherry), Nitraria billardierei (Nitre-bush), Atriplex paludosa ssp.
paludosa (Marsh Saltbush), Atriplex cinerea (Coast Saltbush), Maireana oppositifolia
(Salt Bluebush), Austrostipa sp. (Spear-grass), Enchyleana tormentosa var.
tormentosa (Ruby Saltbush), (Threlkeldia diffusa (Coast Bonefruit), Carpobrotus rossii
(Native Pigface), and Tetragonia implexicoma (Bower Spinach).
Occasionally, significant stands of C. gracilis are found within this vegetation
association, however, they are not large enough to be identified as a separate
association. Additionally, a remnant patch of Adriana quadripartita (Coast Bitter-bush)
(Regional status is Uncertain) in poor-moderate condition was identified within M.
lanceolata / A. cupularis / C. gracilis Open Shrubland near Parham township (54H
248243 6186544).
Management Issues: Weed infestations and rabbit occupancy. Rabbits appear to be
present anywhere this vegetation association occurs, with evidence of diggings and
droppings noted.
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a
b
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Plate 4.6 a) Melaleuca lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) +/- Callitris gracilis (Southern CypressPine) +/- Eucalyptus gracilis (White Mallee) +/- Acacia ligulata (Umbrella Bush) +/- Acaciacupularis (Coast Umbrella Bush) Open Shrubland; b) same association showing revegetationarea; c) Callitris gracilis stand within the association; d) Adriana quadripitata (Coast Bitter-bush)stand within the association
c
d
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Association 7 – Avicennia marina ssp. Marina (Grey Mangrove) Low ClosedForest
Landform: Tidal Channel / Intertidal Zone
Description: This association is found near Baker Creek. The association is located
within a mangrove/samphire estuarine area whereby tidal channels are fringed by
mangroves and other samphire species of Saracocornia blackiana (Thick-head
Samphire), and Sarcocornia quinqueflora (Beaded Samphire). Nitraria billardierei
(Nitre-bush) and Suaeda australis (Austral Seablite) is also sporadically located within
or surrounding the Mangrove Forest. Some isolated pockets of Mangrove trees are
found scattered along the intertidal zone extending out form the main forest. Many
Mangrove stumps are evident in the mudflats near the tidal channel, along with a few
young trees which are present as a result of revegetation efforts and recruitment.
Management Issues: Public access and erosion to river channel banks through
illegally purpose built boat ramps to launch boats. Degradation of vegetation through
direct destruction to mangrove trees (branches pulled off) and compaction of
vegetation and tidal mud flats through off-road car / motorbike access. Alteration within
this Mangrove Forest has occurred overtime through direct destruction of the forest and
associated erosion issues, as well as through changes created by natural processes of
this dynamic coastline.
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Plate 4.7 A) Avicennia marina ssp. Marina (Grey Mangrove) Low Closed Forest; b) associatedmudflats
a
b
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4.3 Native plant speciesTime constraints limited the amount of detailed information that could be collected
during the field survey and a full plant species inventory was not able to be attained.
Appendix 1 lists species recorded on-site and Section 5.8 details plant species of
conservation significance. For additional information regarding plant species known to
occur in the wider area refer to Caton et al. (2009): Metrolpolitan Adelaide and
Northern Coastal Action Plan 2009; Pedler and Mathison (1993): Remnant vegetation
in the Mallala District Council Area: its status and conservation strategies and Durant
(2007): Summary of native vegetation and threats to ecological assets – Middle Beach
to Port Gawler.
4.4 Vegetation conditionVegetation within the management area ranges from poor to good quality habitat.
Specifically, the Samphire Shrublands, Mangrove Forests and saltmarsh communities
contained few to no weeds due to their highly saline environment, and therefore
support extensive areas of high quality vegetation. Vegetation condition is poor to
moderate in the sandy soils, especially along disturbed roadsides, where conditions are
more favourable for weed species and vegetation communities are free from tidal
inundation. Roadsides adjacent to the townships of Parham and Webb Beach are quite
degraded, generally support a greater diversity of weed species than areas further from
habitation and often consist of poor quality vegetation. The sandier areas also support
flora species that provide suitable shelter for rabbits and palatable food sources. Refer
to Figure 4.3 for vegetation condition across the management area.
4.5 Pest animalsRabbits are widespread across the management area. They contribute to the
degradation of coastal shrublands and woodlands by creating burrows that damage
fragile root systems and contribute to erosion and by reducing native groundcover
necessary for stabilisation by grazing on emerging seedlings.
4.6 Weed infestations
In total, 26 weed species were recorded during the field survey (Appendix 1). Table 4.1
lists declared weeds listed within the Natural Resources Management Act, 2004, as
well environmental weeds of local significance and other environmental weeds
recorded in the management area. The most commonly observed weed species within
the management area were Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn), Cakile maritima
ssp. maritima (Two-horned Sea Rocket), Euphorbia terracina (False Caper), Limonia
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companyonis (African Boxthorn), and Lagurus ovatus (Hare’s Tail Grass), Piptatherum
miliaceum (Rice Millet), and Avena barbata (Bearded Oat).
Many of the roadsides within the townships as well as major arterial roads linking from
Port Wakefield road to the townships supported weed species. These roadsides are
always subject to disturbance and were in poor condition.
Table 4.1 Declared, environmental, and significant weed species observed within themanagement area
Scientific name Commonname Status Comments
Asphodelusfistulosus Onion Weed D Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areas
Cynara cardunculusssp. flavescens
ArtichokeThistle D Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areas
Euphorbia terracina False Caper DFound sporadically along coastal dunes near theforeshore within the southern section of themanagement area.
Lycium ferocissimum AfricanBoxthorn D
Scattered within sandier soils, especially along theforeshore within the southern section of themanagement area.
Marrubium vulgare Horehound D Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areasand within sandier soils.
Oncosiphonsuffruticosum Calomba daisy D Found sporadically along coastal dunes, along
vehicle access tracks.
Opuntia stricta CommonPrickly Pear D Found along roadside edges, particularly near the
old dump at Parham township
Acacia cyclops WesternCoastal Wattle S In the coastal dunes north of the caravan park
Agave americana Century Plant S Found along roadside edges, particularly near andwithin the old dump at Parham township
Cakile maritima ssp.maritima
Two-hornedSea Rocket S Found consistently along coastal dunes near the
foreshore.Limoniumcompanyonis Sea Lavender S Found consistently along coastal dunes near the
foreshore and scattered within sandy areasMatthiola incana Gilliflower S Found scattered throughout coastal dunesMesembryanthemumcrystallinum /nodiflorum
Ice Plant SFound scattered throughout the management area,particularly along roadsides and disturbed areas
Acacia saligna Golden WreathWattle E In coastal dunes and and sandy soils. Uncommon
in the management area
Aeonium aboreum - EFound scattered throughout coastal dunes andalong roadsides close to settlement. Mapped as a‘succulent garden escapee’
Aloe spp. Aloe E Found scattered throughout coastal dunes andalong roadsides close to settlement
Avena barbata Bearded Oat EScattered along roadsides within disturbance areasand within sandier soils, especially Melaleucalanceolata Low Open Woodland
Bromus catharticus Prairie Grass EScattered along roadsides within disturbance areasand within sandier soils, especially Melaleucalanceolata Low Open Woodland
Cotyledon orbiculata Cotyledon E Found scattered throughout coastal dunes and
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Scientific name Commonname Status Comments
along roadsides close to settlement. Mapped as a‘succulent garden escapee’
Euphorbia paralias Sea Spurge E Scattered along coastal dunes near the foreshore
Lagurus ovatus Hare’s TailGrass E
Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areasand within sandier soils, especially Melaleucalanceolata Low Open Woodland
Phoenix canariensis Canary IslandPalm E Coastal dune beside Parham township
Pinus radiata Radiata Pine E Along Port Parham Road, beside Parham townshipand beside Webb Beach township
Piptatherummiliaceum Rice Millet E Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areas
and within sandier soils.Scabiosaatropurpurea Pincushion E Scattered along roadsides within disturbance areas
and within sandier soils.
Schinus molle Pepper Tree E On coastal dune by Parham township and alongGeorge Road at Webb Beach township
StatusD = Declared plant under the Natural Resources Management Act, 2004;S = Environmental weed of local significance (determined from field survey) ;E = Environmental weed
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Figure 4.3 Condition of vegetation within the Parham Management area.
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5.0 Environmental and biological assets
5.1 Tidal creeksTidal creek habitats are characterised by channels between low and high tide levels
and often consist of a main channel with several other smaller branching channels.
Tidal creeks receive little or no freshwater input from the land and are regularly flushed
by tidal movements (Bryars 2003). They may cut through mangrove forests and/or
saltmarsh and usually retain some water at low tide. They often provide a vital link
between intertidal habitats and the open ocean. If water movement along these creeks
is cut off, the habitats that they supply with water may be seriously degraded. Tidal
creeks occur at Light River Delta, and adjacent to the Port River/Barker Inlet system
south of St Kilda to the end of Barker Inlet.
5.2 Estuarine river habitatsEstuarine river habitats are characterised by channels created from land-based
freshwater flows. Estuaries receive sediment from both river and marine sources and
are influenced by tide, wave and river processes (National Land and Water Resources
Audit 2002).
5.3 Saltmarsh communitiesSalt marshes comprise plant communities subject to periodic inundation by the sea
within intertidal zones. Characteristic to arid salt marshes like those within the Gulf of
St Vincent are the presence of two distinct vegetation communities, separated by
structural differences, which are 1) shrubs in the Chenopodiaceae family dominated by
generas of, Tecticornia, Sarcocornia, Marieana, and Suaeda (Fotheringham &
Coleman 2008) and 2) Mangrove forests dominated by Avicennia marina ssp. marina.
Saltmarsh is a valuable coastal habitat, creating a critical buffer zone between the
mangrove community and land, regulating freshwater run-off and providing new habitat
for colonising mangroves (Bass et al 1997 in DEH, June 2007). Saltmarsh habitats are
important roosting places for shorebirds, terrestrial birds, and are important to support
fish stocks (Saintilan and Rogers 2002 in DEH, June 2007). Saltmarsh habitats provide
food for foraging fish at high tide, nutrients for adjacent food webs, and shelter for a
range of marine animals, especially juvenile fish and crabs when inundated at high tide
(Morrisey 2000 in DEH, June 2007).
The food source and food cycle in which saltmarsh habitats play a role is important for
bottlenose dolphins. In the June 2007 publication Reference Paper 2: Key habitat
features necessary to sustain the dolphin population, DEH indicates that saltmarsh is a
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supporting ecosystem feature for sustaining dolphin populations in the Port River and
Barker Inlet region. In fact, key scientific information is provided in this report (Sykes
2002 in DEH, June 2007) that once local prey resources became depleted, dolphins
relocated in search of better feeding conditions and “this suggests that to keep the
Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary dolphin population within Sanctuary waters, it will be
necessary to conserve particular habitat areas that support prey species”.
Saltmarsh communities are the preferred habitat of the state Vulnerable Slender-billed
Thornbill (Acanthiza iredalei ssp. rosinae) and Nationally Critically Endangered
Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster) (Durant, 2007a; Orange-Bellied Parrot
Recovery Team, 2006). It is possible that the extensive Samphire and saltmarsh
communities could present important feeding areas in mid-winter (Orange-Bellied
Recovery Team, 2006) that may aid the recovery of the Orange-Bellied Parrot. See
section 5.7 for more detail about these bird species.
5.4 MangrovesMangrove forests are very productive areas that provide important habitats for many
juvenile and adult marine species that are probable food sources for dolphins (DEH
June 2007). Mangroves trap sediment, are a nursery area for a wide range of fish and
invertebrates and protect the fragile and important saltmarsh habitats from wave action.
Aerial roots (pneumatophores) act to stabilise the mangrove tree, and also play a
significant role in stabilising surrounding sediment by helping to reduce wave action
and providing an environment for sediments to settle (Edyvane 1995). Mangroves also
provide nutrients and organic material to the food web in the form of litter (leaves,
twigs, bark, fruit and flowers). Some animals eat the energy rich mangrove leaves,
while others eat decomposed leaves. The decomposition of leaves is facilitated by
fungi and mud bacteria. This decomposing leaf material is called detritus, which acts as
the bottom level of the mangrove food chain and is eaten by worms, crabs, shrimps
and snails (Edyvane 1995). Marine species that are likely dolphin prey species use
mangrove forests for a variety of habitat functions, including spawning and for shelter
(DEH June 2007).
5.5 Coastal shrublands and dunesThe management area supported low coastal dunes along the foreshore and chenier
dunes that are interspersed between samphire shrublands. The coastal shrublands
support a greater diversity of flora species than the saltmarsh environments and
provide a buffer in storm events. Most of the threatened flora species recorded for the
site are found within the sandier soils and dunes. The shrublands supported by the
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dunes are significant vegetation types that have historically been extensively cleared;
therefore, any remnant dune systems remaining should be managed to maintain
existing biodiversity.
5.6 Wetlands of National ImportanceWithin the wider region of the management area, the Gulf of St Vincent supports four
wetlands of national importance: Barker Inlet and St Kilda (SA 005), Clinton (SA 007),
Port Gawler and Buckland Park Lake (SA 015), and Wills Creek (SA 019) (Figure 5.1).
The Parham management area falls within Clinton Wetland which covers a significant
portion of the Gulf of St Vincent coastline (Figure 5.2). Clinton Wetland comprises 1964
ha of land consisting of Mangrove forest, inter- and supra-tidal flats, subtidal seagrass
meadows, tidal channels, estuarine mud flats, stranded shell beach ridges and sand
beach ridges. Clinton Wetland is included as a wetland of National Importance based
on Criteria 1 and 3 of the Directory of Important Wetlands of Australia.
Criteria 1: It is a good example of a wetland type occurring within a biogeographicregion in Australia
Criteria 3: It is a wetland which is important as the habitat for animal taxa at avulnerable stage in their life cycles, or provides a refuge when adverse conditions suchas drought prevail.
Additionally, the wetland preserves the only significant natural mangrove/samphire
community left in the region, as well as supporting the River Wakefield, which is the
only major drainage channel in the area and the only major input of freshwater into the
tidal flat Gulf system.
Detailed on the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts Directory
of Important Wetlands of Australia are bird species that use the Clinton Wetland as an
important feeding or breeding ground. It is known to support breeding colonies and
provides migrational habitat for migrant shorebirds (DEWHA 2009a).
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Figure 5.1 Wetlands of National Importance
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Figure 5.2 Wetland of National Importance – Clinton SA 007
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5.7 Waterbird and migratory wader habitatThe management area supports significant waterbird and migratory wader habitat and
feeding grounds for both common and threatened bird species. In particular, 58 bird
species that are of conservation significance have been identified to either use the
management area, or as species that could potentially use the area. Appendix 2 details
the 58 conservation significant bird species that have been recorded within the
management area or are expected to use the site, and their usage of the site (i.e.
foraging, roosting, or breeding). Of these 58 bird species, the nationally Critically
Endangered Neophema chrysogaster (Orange-bellied Parrot) has potential to use the
management area and the state Vulnerable Acanthiza iredalei (Slender-biller Thornbill)
is known to use the management area (see Sections 5.71 and 5.7.2)
Specifically, the southern section of the management area supports vital habitat within
the Mangrove Closed Forest, and the surrounding tidal channels, mudflats and
saltmarsh habitats. Saltmarsh and mudflat habitat supporting samphire shrublands in
good condition is also present within the northern end of the management area.
Cheetham salt fields and Port Wakefield / Webb Beach are considered important
shorebird sites in South Australia that provide landscape connectivity to another
important site at Clinton Conservation Park. These sites are considered areas of
'International Significance' for shorebirds, meaning the site must support at least 1% of
the migratory flyway population or >20,000 individuals of a shorebird species (DEH
2009).
Waterbirds and shorebirds use a range of different habitats, most have specialised
feeding techniques adapted to their niche environment. Subtle changes to the feeding
environment or to an associated prey source may leave a habitat unsuitable for a
specialised feeder. Activities that damage or fragment habitat, such as loss of habitat
from recreational disturbance, will have a negative effect on the longevity of shorebird
populations (DEH 2009).
5.7.1 Neophema chrysogaster (Orange-bellied Parrot)
The entire population of the nationally Critically Endangered Orange-bellied Parrot
(Neophema chrysogaster) is around 150 individuals (DEWHA 2009b). The species is a
winter migrant to the mainland of Australia from breeding grounds in south-west
Tasmania. Orange-belied Parrots arrive on mainland Australia between February and
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Parham Action Management Plan 39
March, and by late September to October they commence their departure from the
mainland. Over the course of winter the dispersal patterns are poorly understood. They
remain for varying durations at different locations, which is largely due to the availability
of food resources. Their over-wintering range is identified in maps contained within the
National Recovery Plan for this species (Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team, 2006).
Mainland surveys in recent years have recorded only around 10 % of the population
(around 20 birds), meaning that the majority of the population is un-accounted for
during their over-wintering period.
On the mainland, Orange-bellied Parrots rely on coastal saltmarsh vegetation as their
primary foraging habitat. Key food plants include Tecticornia quinqeflora (Beaded
Glasswort), Tecticornia arbuscula (Shrubby Glasswort), Suaeda australis (Austral Sea-
blite), and other low herbaceous plants. In south-eastern South Australia, dune
frontages, near coastal wetlands, and saline depressions appear to be favoured, where
they feed on Acaena novaezelandia (Bidgee-widgee), and *Cakile maritime (Sea-
rocket). They also use Tecticornia-dominated saltmarshes around low-lying saline
drains, coastal lagoons and estuaries (Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team 2006).
It is hard to gauge the impact of this habitat loss on the Orange-bellied Parrot due to
the irregularity of their visits to the region, the lack of information on available habitat
within the Adelaide Plains Region, and the lack of certainty about the numbers of birds
that visit the region. In South Australia Orange-bellied Parrots are most often recorded
in small numbers in the far south-east, and the Coorong districts, but a low number of
birds are known to disperse as far north-west as Chinamans Creek near Port Augusta,
which is approximately 220 km from the management area. A recent record of the
Orange-bellied Parrot in the Adelaide Plains region was from the tidal saltmarsh along
the western fringe of the Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd salt-fields adjacent Bolivar
WWTP in 2006. Sightings have occurred at Port Gawler in 2006. Targeted surveys
have been performed in the Gulf of St. Vincent in 2007 and 2008, but no birds were
sighted (Birds Australia 2007). The lack of sightings within the Adelaide Plains does not
mean that birds are not visiting the region, as much of their suitable foraging habitat is
rarely surveyed. The saltmarsh habitat between Adelaide and Port Wakefield presents
potentially suitable foraging habitat (Birds Australia- unpublished data). Within the
management area this includes habitat within the tidal saltmarsh and the tidal and
supra-tidal samphires. The suitability of saltmarsh habitat across the region for Orange-
bellied Parrots depends largely upon the condition of the samphire, as poor condition
plants do not produce seeds for foraging. The degradation or loss of over-wintering
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saltmarsh habitat has been identified as a primary threatening process for this species
(Garnett & Crowley 2000).
5.7.2 Acanthiza iredalei rosinae (Slender-billed Thornbill)
There are three sub-species of Acanthiza iredalei (Slender-biller Thornbill) in South
Australia. The subspecies A. i. rosinae (NPW Vulnerable) is found in four locations
along the northern shores of Gulf St. Vincent in South Australia, from St. Kilda to
Ardrossan. One of these locations occurs within the management area from Port Prime
south to Torrens Island (Matthew 1994). They occupy samphire shrublands on narrow
coastal saline mud flats often behind a mangrove fringe, on the shores of Gulf St.
Vincent and Spencer Gulf. The bird forages these shrublands and on the ground
seeking insects and other small prey from the foliage of samphire and saltbush shrubs.
Threatening processes to Slender-billed Thornbill populations include the clearing of
shrublands and disturbance to salt flats for recreational or industrial use, and sea level
rise.
5.8 ButterfliesHesperilla donnysa donnysa form flavescens (Yellowish Sword-sedge Skipper
Butterfly) (Plate 5.1), is associated with Gahnia filum (thatching grass) sedgeland,
which is a known threatened ecological community. It is a species that was once very
common on the Adelaide Plains but has declined due to the loss of habitat. It is
considered that the Hesperilla donnysa donnysa form flavescens is now very rarely
seen in South Australia, “based on the extinction of the principal population near
Adelaide, and due to the dilution of the flavescens genetic component in other coastal
populations by the historical fragmentation and disruption of the coastal habitats, this
form could be considered Endangered (Grund, 2002).
The loss of sedgeland habitat for this species is a key threatening process that has
assisted the decline of this species in the landscape. While there are not remnant
pockets of sedgeland within the management area, there are key projects aimed at
trying to assist the active re-establishment of habitat. Future management could look at
possible locations to create this habitat in already modified and/or degraded habitat.
Theclinesthes albocincta (Bitter Bush Blue Butterfly) has been recorded at Parham
(Plate 5.2). The coastal shrub, Adriana quadripartita (Coastal Bitter Bush), is host to
this species and is historically known to occur within the management area. Field
survey work conducted for this report identified Adriana quadripartita in a few scattered
locations throughout the management area. To maintain suitable habitat for the Bitter
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Bush Blue Butterfly, existing Adriana quadripartita populations should protected and
the species included in any revegetation works undertaken within its known historical
range, especially within Melaleuca lanceolata (Dryland Tea-tree) Shrublands.
Plate 5.1 Hesperilla donnysa donnysa form flavescens (Yellowish Sword-sedge SkipperButterfly)
Plate 5.2 Theclinesthes albocincta (Bitter Bush Blue Butterfly) Photo: L.Hunt(http://www.butterflygardening.net.au/PDFs/factsheets/BitterbushBlue.pdf)
5.9 Plant species of conservation significanceAccording to the EPBC Protected Matters search tool, two flora species listed under
the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999 have been
recorded in the management area:
Tecticornia flabelliformis (Bead or Fan Samphire): Vulnerable species or
species habitat likely to occur in the area. Tecticornia flabelliformis has been
previously recorded within the Parham management area (WGS84 Z54 248924
6185314) and an extensive population exists on defence land north of the
Parham township (Barbara Reid pers. comm., 2009). No T. flabelliformis plants
were found during the field survey. Additional survey work has been undertaken
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between Pt Gawler and Port Prime. It is envisaged further survey work will be
undertaken in the future in the AMLR NRM Boards region.
Prasophyllum pallidum (Pale leek orchid): Vulnerable species or species habitat
likely to occur in the area. Not observed during field investigations.
According to DEH, Berkinshaw (2004) and Coleman & Cook (2000), six flora species of
state conservation significance (as per National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972) value and
44 species of regional conservation significance may occur in, or close to Parham
management area (Tables 5.1 and 5.2).
Table 5.1 Conservation significant flora species listed in Schedules 7, 8 and 9 of the NPW Act1972 (as at 7/1/10) that may occur within the Parham management area. Source: DEHdatabase search, Caton et al. (2009), Berkinshaw (2004), Coleman & Cook (2000).
Scientific name Common name NPW Act SLMaireana decalvans Black Cotton-bush E E
Tecticornia flabelliformis Bead Samphire V V
Juncus radula Hoary Rush V E
Acacia dodonaeifolia Hop-bush Wattle R R
Eragrostis infecunda Barren Cane-grass R V
Myoporum parvilfolium Creeping Boobialla R V
Sclerolaena muricata var. villosa Five-spine Bindyi R R
Table 5.2 Regionally rated flora species (Southern Lofty region) within the vicinity of theParham management area. Source: DEH database search, Caton et al. (2009), Berkinshaw(2004) and Coleman (2008).
Scientific name Common name NPWAct SL Recorded in
the fieldMaireana decalvans Black Cotton-bush E E
Lepidium pseudohyssopifolium - E
Juncus radula Hoary Rush V E
Rhagodia spinescens Spiny Saltbush - E
Eragrostis infecunda Barren Cane-grass R V
Myoporum parvilfolium Creeping Boobialla R V
Acacia salicina Willow Wattle - V
Cressa cretica Rosinweed - V
Eucalyptus largiflorens River Box - V
Eutaxia diffusa Large-leaf Eutaxia - V
Tecticornia flabelliformis Bead Samphire V V
Maireana aphylla Cotton-bush - V
Rhagodia parabolica Mealy Saltbush - V
Wilsonia backhousei Narrow-leaf Wilsonia - V
Wilsonia rotundifolia Round-leaf Wilsonia - V
Alyxia buxifolia Sea Box - R Y
Bolboschoenus medianus Marsh Club-rush - R
Gahnia filum Thatching Grass - R
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Scientific name Common name NPWAct SL Recorded in
the fieldLomandra effusa Scented Mat-rush - R
Marsilea drummondii Common Nardoo - R
Mimulus repens Creeping Monkey-flower - R
Muehlenbeckia florulenta Lignum - R
Pittosporum angustifolium Native Apricot - R Y
Atriplex paludosa ssp. paludosa Marsh Saltbush - U Y
Adriana quadripartita (was A.klotzschii) Coast Bitter-bush - U Y
Austrostipa curticoma Short-crest Spear-grass - U
Austrostipa elegantissima Feather Spear-grass - U Y
Callitris gracilis Southern Cypress Pine - U
Eucalyptus porosa Mallee Box - U
Maireana enchylaenoides Wingless Fissure-plant - U
Melaleuca lanceolata Dryland Tea-tree - U
Myoporum viscosum Sticky Boobialla - U
Samolus repens Creeping Brookweed - U
Wilsonia humilis var. humilis Silky Wilsonia - U
Acacia hakeoides Hakea Wattle - K
Acacia ligulata Umbrella Bush - K Y
Acacia notabilis Notable Wattle - K
Eragrostis dielsii var. dielsii Mulka - K
Halosarcia indica ssp. bidens Brown-head Samphire - K
Lawrencia squamata Thorny Lawrencia - K
Myoporum montanum Native Myrtle - K
Paspalidium jubiflorum Warrego summer-grass - K
Enteropogon acicularis Umbrella Grass - Q
KEYRegions for conservation significant flora speciesSA = South Australia (National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1972)SL = Southern Lofty Region (no legislation)
Conservation Status Codes:E = Endangered: rare and in danger of becoming extinct in the wild.V = Vulnerable: rare and at risk from potential threats or long term threats which could cause the species to becomeendangered in the future.R = Rare: has a low overall frequency of occurrence (may be locally common with a very restricted distribution or maybe scattered sparsely over a wider area).U = Uncommon: less common species of interest but not rare enough to warrant special protective measuresK = Uncertain: likely to be either Threatened or Rare but insufficient data for a more precise assessment.Q = Not yet assessed but flagged as being of possible significance
Although not listed in Table 5.2, Sanatlum acuminatum (Quandong) and Exocarpos
aphyllus (Leafless Cherry) (regionally vulnerable) were also recorded during field
investigations. These species are of local interest (Figure 5.3).
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Figure 5.3 : Flora species of conservation significance recorded during field investigations
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5.10 Areas of known Conservation valueKnown areas of conservation value close to the project site include Little Para Estuary
(UFBP, 2001), Greenfields wetlands, Bolivar Waste Water Treatment plant,
Cheetham’s salt fields and nearby areas such as Thompsons Creek and Little Para
Linear Park. Other areas of conservation value include the vegetated areas around
Light Beach and Light River Delta (coastal), Buckland Park (grassland /chenopod
shrubland), Buckland Park Lake (aquatic ecosystem), Gawler River (Red Gum lined
banks) and the Port Gawler Conservation Park.
Locally, within the northern end of Parham township and before defence land and
North Parham Road, a fenced-off conservation area is located along the esplanade.
The strip of vegetation is quite significant as it stabilises the remaining dune system
and is a good location for revegetation efforts. Another fenced-off conservation area is
located at Webb Beach in between the coast and the township near Collins Street and
along Jarmyn Street. This area supports quite a high diversity of native plant species
and should be considered an important stand of remnant vegetation to conserve. It is
under threat from rabbits and weeds / exotic garden escapes and should be managed
for these issues.
5.11 Landscape connectivityThe assessment of landscape connectivity is based on the presence of contiguous
native vegetation cover and landscape features. Within the management area, the
landscape connectivity is high, despite the presence of the townships, dissection by
roads and informal tracks in dunes that fragment vegetation on a local scale. At a
regional level, the coastline of the management area forms part of a wetland of national
importance (Clinton), considered to be a significant shorebird site (Figure 5.1). The
coastline of the management area also supports vegetation that forms part of a larger
remnant strip of coastal native vegetation that links the samphire shrublands and
mangrove forests of Clinton Conservation Park with those in Port Gawler Conservation
Park (Figure 5.4)
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Figure 5.4 : Regional landscape connectivity.
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6.0 Threats to Native vegetation and ecological value
6.1 Recreational vehicles
Recreational use of conservation areas inevitably has negative impacts on the
environment. Although the consequences of visitor impacts may not be as severe as
impacts of previous landuses (e.g. grazing and mining), they are of concern at a local
scale where impacts can be severe. Both direct and indirect impacts from recreational
vehicle use of important biodiversity areas are widespread and are of increasing
concern if not managed. Due to the limited availability of coastal vegetation for wildlife,
any degradation to existing remnant patches has an overarching affect on the wider
region biodiversity as a whole.
Off-road driving is a major cause of erosion, vegetation loss, compaction, and
disturbance to soil that may prevent recruitment or recolonisation by flora. Primarily, the
use of recreational vehicles (cars, motorbikes etc) in the open saltpan areas and dunes
are most evident. Most saltpans within the management area have been subjected to
off-road recreational vehicle use (Plate 6.1), in particular saltpans adjacent both Port
Parham and North Parham roads. Fencing has been used on Webb Beach Road and
George Street that has been installed over the past 10 years; however, local residents
access the saltpans from their private properties at Parham township.
It is a constant task to assess impacts from recreational vehicle use; however, to be
sustainable, visitor use and enjoyment should be made compatible with the
conservation objectives of the proposed conservation area. All unwanted tracks should
be closed, and actively rehabilitated, particularly those regulated by the mining
industry. Appropriate signage should be installed to help direct vehicle use on planned
management tracks only. Port Parham and North Parham Road should be fenced to
prevent off-road vehicle use in the adjacent saltpans. Partnership with Cheetham (Dry
Creek) Pty Ltd may be needed to execute this action.
The barrier previously installed within the foreshore near Bakers Creek to prevent
public access had been illegally dismantled at the time of the field survey so access to
the creek could be gained (Plate 6.2). An informal boat launch exists within the bank of
Bakers Creek and has perpetuated erosion of the channel (Plate 6.3). Vehicle access
into Baker Creek needs to be restricted to prevent further erosion issues (Plate 6.4),
weed spread, and general vegetation destruction. This area has a high biodiversity
value for bird species (see Section 5.7) and is best managed through public restriction.
A heavy barrier consisting of steel posts and railing, or alternatively concrete slabs
needs to be installed.
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Management walking trails should be created and gated to prevent access by off-road
trail bikes, but still allow access by walkers. Appropriate signage should be used to
designate walking trails that will permit access to the beach. Both the fenced-off
conservation areas at Parham and Webb Beach have walking paths and they have
prevented unnecessary degradation of coastal habitat.
Additionally, the provision of a designated off-road area for recreational vehicle use
would help to alleviate illegal use of the Parham management area. Previously,
measures have been taken to provide such a site adjacent to the Port Gawler
Conservation Park, and continuing to make this a viable management option should be
actively pursued.
Plate 6.1 Trail bike tracks in a saltpan
Plate 6.2 Removal of barrier near Bakers Creek
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Plate 6.3 Illegal boat ramp created by public to access Baker Creek
Plate 6.4 Erosion resulting from illegally built boat-ramps at Baker Creek
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6.2 RubbishMarine debris deposited by tidal flows (flotsam and jetsom) occurs within tidal zones
and tends to accumulate at the high tide water mark, and is scattered within Samphire
Shrublands where it is often trapped within branches.
Dumping of rubbish (whitegoods, asbestos, general domestic waste, hydroponic
materials) and stolen goods (cars, computers, etc) (Plate 6.5) by the public is common,
primarily on main access roads and within the coastal dunes. At times car bodies are
dumped within the management area and this dumping is often associated with
additional disturbance from burning of the car, erosion of access tracks, creation of
new tracks, and spreading of pest flora species.
To alleviate the pressure of rubbish accumulation from tidal events, a regular clean-up
effort would help remove unwanted marine debris. Restricted access to Baker Creek is
necessary to alleviate this pressure on rubbish dumping within this area of the
coastline. All access points need to be assessed and a planned approach of managed
access adopted. Restriction barriers that are easily moved / lightweight do not appear
to work, as is evident from a heavy barrier being removed at Baker Creek.
Signage detailing reasons for the restriction and highlighting alternative areas to
access the beach (for recreational fisherman), for example at Middle Beach, Thompson
Beach or Parham, may alleviate community dissatisfaction arising from restricted
access.
Plate 6.5 Dumped computers near Webb Beach
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6.3 Feral animalsEvidence of Oryctolagus cuniculus (European Rabbit) is present within the
management area (Plate 6.6), particularly within the Melalueca lanceolata (Dryland
Tea-tree) Open Woodland and coastal dunes. The vegetation on sandy soils and within
the chenier dunes and/or low coastal dunes are particularly susceptible to disturbance
from rabbits due to the flora species supported within these soil types being more
palatable.
A single burrow, thought to belong to Vulpes vulpes (Red Fox), was observed (Figure
6.1). It is likely that species occurs thoughout the management area. Red Foxes are a
threat to waterbirds, especially in times of breeding. It is also likely domestic and feral
Felis catus (Cat) roam the management area. Similar to the Red Fox, cats are also a
threat to waterbirds.
Plate 6.6 Oryctolagus cuniculus (European Rabbit) scats within Melalueca lanceolata (DrylandTea-tree) Open Woodland.
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Figure 6.1 Feral animal activity recorded during field investigations
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6.4 Weeds
Generally, the Samphire Shrublands and saltpans supported no weeds and are
considered areas of high conservation value. Most commonly observed weed species
within the management area were Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn), Cakile
eduntula (Sea Rocket), Euphorbia terracina (False Caper), Limonium companyonis
(Sea Lavender), Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Ice Plant), Acacia cyclops
(Western Coastal Wattle) and Lagurus ovatus (Hare’s Tail Grass). Of these, the most
invasive and problematic species are L. ferocissimum and E. terracina. These species
were most prevalent within vegetation associations on sandy soils (Melaleuca
lanceolata Shrubland) and the coastal dunes. These weed species will pose the
biggest threat to native plant diversity if they continue to colonise the dune system.
While L. ovatus is also quite common this weed poses less threat as it is a less
aggressive coloniser. Cakile eduntula is less common, and although has the potential
to be invasive, it may also be contributing to dune stabilisation. The most acute weed
infestations are on roadsides and land adjacent to townships, and along the arterial
roads linking Port Wakefield Road and Parham / Webb Beach (Plate 6.7). Of particular
concern is the degree of weed invasion in the Melaleuca lanceolata Shrubland in the
old dump. In this area, weeds such as Opuntia stricta (Prickly Pear), Marrubium
vulgare (Horehound), Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn), Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum (Ice Plant), Agave americana and Aloe spp. are common and widespread
(Figures 6.2a and 6.2b)
The presence of many dead L. ferocissimum indicate that control programs have been
effective (Plate 6.8). Future control efforts should target acute infestations, especially in
high priority remnant areas (i.e. on coastal dune systems). However, to achieve
effective long-term control / eradication throughout out the management area, this
weed must also be controlled on surrounding lands (private and public).
Euphorbia terracina was noted within the dunes of the management area, primarily
near Bakers Creek (Plate 6.9). This species is an aggressive dune coloniser that can
grow rapidly to form dense thickets that compete with native species for space, light,
and nutrients. Once established it is able to invade relatively undisturbed vegetation
(Transport SA, 2003).
Invasion of both L. ferocissimum and E. terracina these species in natural areas is
greatly enhanced by disturbance such as soil movement. The impacts of off-road
vehicle disturbance encourages soil disturbance which fosters the persistence of these
weed species.
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Parham Action Management Plan 54
A degraded native understorey was observed in the majority of Melaleuca lanceolata
Shrubland patches including the area where Adriana quadripitata (Coast Bitter-bush)
was recorded. Although degraded, the presence of native understorey species makes
these areas good candidates for rehabilitation – either by revegetation, fencing and / or
undertaking rabbit control. By increasing the native diversity within this vegetation
association, weed species will gradually be suppressed.
It may be beneficial to fence the Adriana quadripitata (Coast Bitter-bush) population,
however fencing is likely to attract additional attention from vandals and may be less
helpful for the remaining individuals than leaving them unfenced. A better strategy may
be to focus weed control efforts in this area and undertake a rabbit control program
throughout the management area. To create additional habitat for the Bitter Bush Blue
Butterfly, Adriana quadripitata should also be used in revegetation programs.
Plate 6.7: a) Example of a roadside supporting weed species adjacent to the township ofParham; b) example of roadside supporting weed species along Port Parham Road.
a
b
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Plate 6.8 Lycium ferocissimum (African Boxthorn) within roadside vegetation near Parhamtownship
Plate 6.9 Euphorbia terracina (False Caper)
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Figure 6.2a Weeds recorded during field investigations – north section
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Figure 6.2b Weeds recorded during field investigations – south section
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6.5 ErosionErosion from the creation of new tracks and widening of already existing tracks through
off-road vehicle use is impacting surrounding vegetation. In high tide flooding events
water is funnelled through vehicle tracks and creates wash-out zones further
exacerbating soil erosion. Erosion has also occurred within dune complexes due to trail
bike use. Unwanted access tracks should be closed and rehabilitated. To make them
inaccessible they need to be completely destroyed, for example track ripping may
provide a means of stopping public use of these roads so they can then be
rehabilitated.
Vehicle or motorbike use of tracks after high-tide events not only leads to erosion
issues, it also leads to unsafe driving conditions and the public is not always aware of
the associated issue of driving on water-logged mudflats, saltmarshes, or saltpans.
6.6 MiningThere are both active and non-active mining tenements within the management area.
Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd comprise a lot of the mining tenements especially near
Webb Beach and Bakers Creek of the management area. Active mining tenements
around Parham township are few; however, some inactive tenements are present
(Figures 6.3 and 6.4). It is possible that a combined proclamation of mining and
conservation could take place (Section 6.6.2).
6.6.1 Mineral exploration licence
In South Australia, all minerals are the property of the Crown and access to land for
exploration is provided by the Mining Act 1971 and Regulations. Regulation,
administration and technical procedures relating to mineral exploration are dealt with by
the Minerals and Energy Resources Division of the Department for Primary Industries
and Resources (PIRSA). However, consultation with Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd
may enable some collaborative works to proceed on public access roads adjacent
Cheetham tenements. Additionally, Cheetham (Dry Creek) Pty Ltd have aerial
photography and datasets that would prove useful to aid identification of access points
needing closure and possible areas best used for allowing access to the management
area.
6.6.2 Co-proclamation of mining and conservation areas
The 1987 amendments to section 34 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act provided,
amongst other matters, for a new multiple-use classification of reserve called the
regional reserve. This classification provides for the conservation of wildlife and the
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natural or historic features of the land while, at the same time, permitting use of its
natural resources.
Petroleum and mineral exploration activity may take place provided that they are
subject to controls consistent with the management plan for the reserve. Mineral and
petroleum exploration licence applications for areas within regional reserves are
processed by PIRSA but must be referred to the Minister for Environment and
Conservation for comment. Exploration work programs are discussed with the
Department for Environment and Heritage as a matter of policy.
In the case of production tenements, approval must be given by the Minister for
Environment and Conservation. If ministerial agreement with the Minister for Minerals
Resources Development cannot be reached in a particular case, the issue is referred to
the Governor for decision.
Under section 40(a) of the National Parks and Wildlife Act, the ministers may enter into
an agreement with the holder of a petroleum exploration licence granted in relation to
land that is, or has become, a regional reserve which imposes conditions limiting or
restricting the exercise of rights under the tenement by the holder of the tenement and
by his or her successors in title.
6.7 Development pressureParham management area lies within the coastal zone, with rural land zoning to the
north-east (Figure 6.5). The management area is under increasing pressure from the
potential for coastal strip development, with the anticipated 30 year growth strategy for
Greater Adelaide.
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Figure 6.3 Mining tenements and exploration licenses along the Gulf of St Vincent coastline
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Figure 6.4 Active and non-active mining tenements
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Figure 6.5 Development zones along the Gulf of St Vincent coastline and inland. Source:
Department of Planning and Local Government.
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6.8 Climate changeGenerally, the climate change impacts for South Australia are considered to be
potential sea level rise, increase in water temperature and CO2 absorption, and
likelihood of more frequent storm events. The implications of climate change on the
localised landscape in this region are considered to be sea level rise and storm
magnitude, increasing average temperatures and aridity, changed run-off regimes, gulf
waters change and the translocation of species, through habitat retreat, particularly for
mangroves and saltmarshes (DEH, estuary information and Caton et al. 2009).
Current provisions for sea level rise in development plans around the state allow for
sea level rise of 300mm over 50 years (South Australian Coast Protection Board,
1992).
Threatening processes, historical and ongoing, compromise the natural ability of the
variety of ecosystems to further adapt to climate change in an expected more
concentrated time frame than the evolutionary processes of global geomorphologic and
climatic events. In most climate-change models, sea levels are predicted to rise by 9 to
88cm by 2100 and CSIRO scientists predict that the Australian coastline could retreat
inland by 4.5 to 88m by 2100 (NOVA 2008).
In this region, the current landscape modifications may hinder the future landscape
ability to adapt to issues associated with climate change and the natural temporal and
spatial movement of species and communities over time. Due to the flat gradients of
the salt marsh habitats in the Gulf, rise in sea levels will affect the mangrove and salt
marsh communities by pushing them inland. Roads and levee banks that are located
behind most of these communities may form barriers that prevent retreat. If the high
marsh communities cannot colonise new areas they will be replaced by mangrove
communities (Fotheringham & Coleman 2008).
6.9 Changing local coastline and mangrove forest displacementOnly one species of mangrove Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) occurs in South
Australia (Graham et al. 2001). The Port River / Barker Inlet area has the most
extensive area of mangroves (17.7 km2) in the Adelaide coastline region. This area is
considered to be the southern limit of mangroves in South Australia, although some
stunted Grey Mangroves occur in Victoria (as far south as Corner Inlet), while on the
west coast its most southerly occurrence is Bunbury (Australian Institute of Marine
Science, 2008) (Figure 6.6).
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Parham Action Management Plan 64
Mangrove communities, particularly those in the Port River Barker Inlet, are under
threat from the high level of nutrients entering the ocean from stormwater, wastewater
treatment plants and soda products factory outfall (Baker, 2004). The high nutrient
loads have resulted in significantly increased production of Ulva lactuta (Green Algae)
offshore. The Ulva sp. washes ashore and smothers mangrove seedlings,
pneumatophores and small seagrass seedlings (Baker, 2004). Over 250ha of
mangroves between St Kilda and Port Gawler have been lost since 1956 and many
more areas are in poor health (MLR INRM Group, 2003).
Berkinshaw (2004) describes the Barker Inlet mangroves near North Arm as an intact
coastal dune / mangrove / saltmarsh associations with natural hydrological flows:
This area exists on the western (coastal) side of the Penrice salt evaporation ponds.Remnant vegetation is largely intact with appropriate species diversity, structure andhydrological processes and only minor areas of weed (salt tolerant) invasion. Althoughnatural inundation of the Mangrove / saltmarsh association occurs, this zone isthreatened by the absence of an adjacent migration zone (due to the salt ponds andlevy banks) for the mangrove / samphire vegetation to colonise with future sea level riseassociated with land naturally sinking in the region.
It is predicated that mangrove vegetation (along with other intertidal vegetation) will
respond to climate change induced sea-level rise by migrating upslope, or increasing
their elevation through processes of vertical accretion or sedimentation so that they
remain within the same tidal range. This is essential because without such a response,
mangroves suffer from a contraction in extent at the shoreline due to erosion, or
submergence and death (Coastal Indicators, 2008).
Importantly, studies have also found that Grey Mangrove populations have a low level
of genetic variation, and populations can be genetically distinct within each estuary
(NSW Department of Primary Industries 2008). As a consequence it is a conservation
priority to retain populations at a variety of sites. Mangrove vegetation in South
Australia is geographically isolated from other mangrove forests in Australia and this
stand represents the southernmost extent of its range in South Australia. Figure 6.6
illustrates the location of mangroves in Australia.
Mangrove areas are critical to the fishing industry as they are used as fish nurseries by
numerous fish species. They also protect the coast against storms and play a slow, but
continuous, role of land building (City of Salisbury, 2008).
__________________________________________________________________________________
Parham Action Management Plan 65
Figure 6.6 Mangrove forest locations in Australia.
Source: DEWHA (2001)
7.0 Recommended actionsThis section provides management recommendations to mitigate the threats to the
biological diversity of the management area described in Section 5. It should be noted
that as this management plan was based on a brief survey of the overall management
issues, additional detailed surveys, particularly of the areas that were not accessed as
part of this study, may help to provide additional specific management priorities. Table
7.1 lists likely impacts to the biological diversity of Parham management area and
Table 7.2 provides recommended actions to mitigate the threats. Figure 7.1 illustrates
priority areas to target for recommended management.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Parham Action Management Plan 66
Figure 7.1 Recommended management actions for Parham management area
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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Table7.1Managem
entofcoastalassets
Key
BiologicalA
sset
MainTh
reats
LikelyImpacts
Baker
Creek
Recreationalvehicles
Vegetationdestruction
Increase
inweedinfestations
andcompetitionwith
nativeplantspecies
Creationoftrackswhich
becomeerosionzonesinhigh
tideevents
Dum
ping
ofwaste/carbodies
Nutrientloading/distributionofwasteintocoastalw
aters
Increase
inspread
ofweedspecies
Destructiontonativevegetation
Walking
offtrails
bypublic
Vegetationtrampling,spread
ofweeds
Increase
inspread
ofweedspecies
Creationofartificialboatram
psErosion
toBaker
Creek
bank
Saltm
arshes
(saltpans)
Recreationalvehicles
Vegetationdestruction
Creationofaccess
trackswhich
becomeerosionzonesinhigh
tideevents
Increase
inweedinfestations
andcompetitionwith
nativeplantspecies
Tecticornia
flabelliformishabitat
Recreationalvehicles
Increm
entalloss
Drainagechanges
Changes
infloodingfrequency
MangroveFo
rests
Clim
ateChange
Lack
ofavailablelandscapetoprovideforthe
temporaland
spatialm
ovem
entofm
angroves
Sea
levelrise
Changeincoastline
andinundatedareas
Loss
ofhabitat/breeding
groundsandthereforereductioninbiodiversity
Use
oftrees
forfirewoodor
physicaldestructiontotrees
ReductioninMangroverecruitment,potentiallossofseed
bank
onmaturetrees
Waterbird
and
Migratory
Habitat
Alteredmovem
entofw
ater
AlteredwaterflowtowetlandsofNationalImportance
Disturbance
tosurvivalofbreeding
populations
Recreationalvehicles
Disturbance
/decreaseinavailablehabitat
Sea
levelrise
Loss
ofhabitat/breeding
groundsandthereforereductioninbiodiversity
FoxesandCats
Directmortality/R
eductioninpopulationnumbers/breedingpopulations
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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68
Key
BiologicalA
sset
MainTh
reats
LikelyImpacts
NativeFa
una
Predationby
Foxes/C
ats
Directmortality/R
eductioninpopulationnumbers/breedingpopulations
Disturbance
fromdomestic
dogs
Rabbits
Com
petitionoffood
sourcesandhabitats
Recreationalvehicles
Disturbance
/decreaseinavailablehabitat
OverallCoastal
Rem
nant
Vegetatio
n(Lan
dscape
Con
nectivity)
Recreationalvehicles
Reductioninbiodiversity/availablehabitatfornativefaunaspecies
Disturbance
toconservationsignificantflora
Erosion
SealevelR
ise
Loss
ofsamphire
shrublands
around
inlets(BakerCreek)a
ndpossibleloss
oflowduneson
foreshore
Acuteweedinfestations
Com
petitionwith
nativeflora
Dum
ping
ofwaste/carbodies
Nutrientloading/distributionofwasteintocoastalw
aters
Increase
inspread
ofweedspecies
Destructiontonativevegetation
Rabbits
Herbivoryoffloraspeciesandreductioninseedlingrecruitment
Culturalh
eritage
values
Recreationalvehicles
Dam
agetoknow
nAboriginalheritagesites
Walking
offtrails
bypublic
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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Table7.2Actiontableform
anagem
entrecom
mendations
Threat
Action
Priority
Closed
commun
ication
channels
Meetw
ithDCofMallalaandCheetham(DryCreek)P
tyLtd.todetermineresponsiblebody
forp
estspecies
control,fencing,
publicsafety,and
access
regulationissues
High
Consultwith
localconservationvolunteerstoinvestigatewhere
possibleworks
couldbe
directed
andhowvolunteereffort
couldbe
included
Look
atwaystoengage
newvolunteers
High
Lack
ofpu
blic
perceptio
nof
value
ofthearea
Extension
ofexistingefforttoraisepublicaw
arenessofeconom
icandconservationbenefitsofthearea
High
Lack
ofprotectio
nof
conservatio
nvalues
Reviewreservationandprotectionofsaltm
arsh
habitats
High
Reviewminingtenements
High
Recreationa
lVe
hicles
Provide
heavybarrier
topreventaccesstoBaker
Creek
High
FencesaltpansalongPortP
arhamandNorthParhamRoads
topreventoff-road
access
intoadjacentSaltpansand
Saltmarsh
habitat
High
Fencesamphire
shrublands
andsaltm
arsh
habitat,especiallynear
thecoasttoprotecthabitatofw
adersandshorebirds
High
Destroyunnecessaryaccess
trackswith
atrack
rippera
ndrehabilitate
Medium
Determinehigh
trailbike
useareaswithindune
system
sandinvestigateifaccess
canbe
prevented.
Medium
Maintainexistingfences
Medium
Investigatethepossibilityofprovidingan
area
forcontrolledoff-roadrecreationalvehicleuseadjacenttoPortG
awlerC
P.
Low
Provide
signageatclosed
access
pointshighlightingalternativeplaces
tolaunch
fishing
andrecreationalboats(i.e.Middle
Beach,T
hompson
Beach,and
Parham)
Medium
Dum
ping
ofRub
bish
andCar
Bod
ies
Preventaccess
intosite(asdetailedabove)
High
Conductregularcleanups,authorised
byDCMallalaandinconjunctionwith
volunteers
Medium
Reportdum
pedcarb
odiestothelocalpolice
High
Consultwith
DCof
Mallalaaboutthe
possibilityof
providingaservicethat
helpscollecthard
waste
(i.e.
dumpedasbestos,
computers,drugmaterials,stolengoods).
Medium
Introd
uced
Species
Consultwith
DC
ofMallala
aboutimplem
entedactions
from
Thom
pson
Beach
–Th
irdCreek
Managem
entPlanand
Medium
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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70
Threat
Action
Priority
collaboratetoexecuteequivalentactions
inconjunction,ifpossible
Controlo
fLycium
ferocissimum
(AfricanBoxthorn)
andEuphorbiaterracina(False
Caper)weedinfestations,target
sand
dunesnear
Baker
Creek
asfirstpriority
High
Controlotherweedspecies,
primarily
within
coastaldune,Melaleuca
lanceolata
Shrublands,
theolddump,
andexisting
fenced-offconservationareas
Medium
ConsiderfencingAdrianaquadripartita(CoastBitter-bush)
patch(if
itisconsidered
that
thisactionwillnotd
rawunwanted
attentiontotheremaining
plants),activaterabbitandweedcontroland
possiblyrevegetatethisarea.
Low
Revegetaterippedtracksandcontrolw
eedspecieswithin
andaround
revegetatedareasto
perm
itcolonisationby
native
species
High
Liaise
with
regionalpestanimalcontrolofficertodeterminebestapproach
toferalanimalanddevelopm
entofanassociated
controlprogram
High
Undertake
coordinatedrabbitandfoxcontrolthroughoutthe
managem
entareaandwithinsurro
unding
privatelands.Consult
with
Cheetham(DryCreek)P
tyLtdabouttheirpossibleinvolvem
ent.Ta
rgetsandysoils
forcontrol.
High
Accessand
Visitatio
n
Determineareastodevelopamanaged
walking
trailtothecoastline.Installagatetothetrailtopreventuse
bytra
ilbikes.
Low
Use
signagetodesignatethearea
asalead-onlyzone
ford
omestic
dogs
Low
Consultwith
DCofMallalaaboutclosure
offoreshoreduringshorebird
breeding
times
(Sept–
Dec)
Low
SeaLe
velR
ise
Revegetatedune
system
sandrehabilitateerosionpointsandbare
areastostabilise
soils
Medium
Use
atrack
rippertoremoveunused
access
trackstopreventfunnellin
gofwater
inhigh
tideevents
Medium
Acquire
land
alongthecoasttosanctionas
areservetoprotectm
oreremnantcoastalvegetationtooffsetpotentialloss
Low
Acquire
land
furtherinland
thatcouldbe
used
asaretreatzone
forn
ativevegetationor
thatcanactasarevegetationzone
Low
Loss
ofTecticornia
flabelliformishabitat
Undertake
targeted
localactiontoconserve
species
High
Culturalh
eritage
values
Consultationtoappropriatelymanagesitesinthearea
Medium
__________________________________________________________________________________
Parham Action Management Plan 71
8.0 Reference ListAustralian Institute of Marine Science (2008). Field Guide to the Mangroves of Queensland
http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/fg-mangroves/pages/fgm-5051.html
Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary (2008). http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/ads
Atlas of SA (2009). (Online, accessed Mar 2009). http://www.atlas.sa.gov.au/go/text-menu/search-for-a-location
Baker, J.L. (2008). Marine Species of Conservation Concern in South Australia: Volume 1 - Bony andCartilaginous Fishes. Report for the South Australian Working Group for Marine Species ofConservation Concern.
Berkinshaw, Todd, (2004a). Mangroves to Mallee multi-site management plan for the Northern AdelaideCoastal Plains, Greening Australia, SA.
Birds Australia (2007). Coorong and Murray Lakes Orange-bellied Parrot Surveys Summary 2007. (Online,accessed 25th March 2009).http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/images/stories/downloads/current_projects/OBP_Coorong_Survey_low.pdf
Bryars, S, 2003, An Inventory of Important Coastal Fisheries Habitats in South Australia. Fisheries HabitatProgram, Primary Industries and Resources South Australia.
Bureau of Meteorology (2009). Daily Weather Observations, Northfield Research Centre, South Australiahttp://www.bom.gov.au
Caton, B., Fotheringham, D. Krahnert, E., Pearson, J., Royal, M. and Sandercock, R. (2009). MetropolitanAdelaide and Northern Coastal Action Plan. Prepared for the Adelaide and Mount LoftyRanges NRM Board and Department for Environment and Heritage. Government of SouthAustralia.
Cogger, H.G. (1994). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Reed Books, NSW.
Coleman, P. (2008). Biodiversity Lists for Eastern Gulf of St Vincent Coastal Habitats Between Gillman andPort Parham.
Coleman, P. & Cook, F. (2000) Local Recovery Plan for the Yellowish Sedge-skipper and Thatching Grass,Dry Creek Delta Environmental Consulting, South Australia.
Davis, JA., Froend, RH., Hamilton, DP., Horwitz, P., McComb, AJ., Oldham, CE., (2001), Environmental WaterRequirements to Maintain Wetlands of National and International Importance EnvironmentalFlows Initiative Technical Report Number 1, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
Delta Environmental Consulting (2005). Thompson Beach – Third Creek Management Plan (for the DC ofMallala), Delta Environmental Consulting, South Australia.
Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH) and Department of Water, Land and BiodiversityConservation (DWLBC) (2003). Wetlands Strategy for South Australia. Department forEnvironment and Heritage, South Australia.
Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH) (draft 2002) Provisional List of State ThreatenedEcosystems. In prep.
Department for Environment and Heritage DEH (2007b), Environment Protection and BiodiversityConservation website and online database, http://www.ea.gov.au/epbc/.
Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH). Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Estuaries InformationPackage (Online, accessed Feb 2009). http://environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/pdfs/amlr_eip.pdf
Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH) (2007a). South Australian Fauna and Flora database,Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia.
Department for Environment and Heritage (DEH). (2009).Wetlands - Migratory Waterbirds and their Habitats.(Online, accessed April 2009).http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/wetlands/shorebirds.html
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts (DEHWR). (2001). Insight Into Habitat Diversity& Threatened Species: Mangrove habitats. (Online, accessed Dec 2008).
http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/insight/mangrove.html
__________________________________________________________________________________
Parham Action Management Plan 72
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts (DEWHA). (2009a). Directory of ImportantWetlands in Australia, database (Online, accessed Mar 2009).http://www.environment.gov.au/cgibin/wetlands/search.pl?smode=DOIW
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts (DEWHA). (2009b). Species Profile and ThreatsDatabase: Neophema chrysogaster - Orange-bellied Parrot. (Online, accessed 24th April2009). http://www.environment.gov.au/cgibin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=747
Durant, M (2007a) Summary of native vegetation and threats to ecological assets: Middle Beach to PortGawler, Greening Australia and SA Department for Environment and Heritage.
Durant, M (2007b) Buckland Park: Summary of native vegetation and threats to ecological assets, GreeningAustralia and SA Department for Environment and Heritage.
Estuaries Management and Planning (South Australia) (Online, accessed Dec 2008).http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/coasts/estuaries.html
Environment and Biodiversity Services (EBS) (2009). Light Beach – Coastal Management Plan.(Unpublished). Environmental and Biodiversity Services, South Australia.
Fotheringham, D. and Coleman, P. (2008). Salt Marshes in S.A. Shepherd, S.Bryars, I. Kirkegaard, P.Harbison, and J.T. Jennings (eds.), Natural History of Gulf St Vincent, Royal Society of SouthAustralia, Adelaide, South Australia.
Garnet S.T. and Crowley, G.M. (2000). The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment Australia,Canberra
Grund, R (2002). South Australian Butterflies datasheets. (Online, accessed Dec 2008).http://users.sa.chariot.net.au/~rgrund/donnysa_ds.htm
Kraehenbuhl, D.N. (1996) Pre-European Vegetation of Adelaide – A survey from the Gawler River to HallettCove. Nature Conservation Society of SA, Adelaide.
Matthew, J. (1994). The status, distribution and habitat of the Slender-billed Thornbill Acanthiza iredalei inSouth Australia. South Australian Ornithologist, 32:1-23.
Moulton, B. and Kelly, T. (2002). Area Action Plan for the Protection and Enhancement of Remnant SmoothCutting Grass and Samphire Vegetation formation.
National Land and Water Resources Audit (2002). (Online, accessed Nov 2008). http://www.nlwra.gov.au/
NOVA: Science in the news (19/08/2008), Impact of Climate Warming on Biodiversity. (Online, accessed Nov2008). http://www.science.org.au/nova/091/091key.htm
Orange-Bellied Parrot Recovery Team (2006). National Recovery Plan for the Orange-Bellied Parrot(Neophema chrysogaster). Department of Primary Industries and Water (DPIW), Hobart.
Oz Coasts (2008). Coastal Indicators: Changes in Mangrove Areas. (Online, accessed Dec 2009).http://www.ozcoasts.org.au/indicators/mangrove_areas.jsp
Pedler, J.A and Mathison, W.E (1993). Remnant vegetation in the Mallala District Council Area: its status andconservation strategies. Save the Bush Program and DC Mallala.
SA Urban Forests Biodiversity Program Million Trees Program 2005 Revegetation Sites brochure
SAM (2008), South Australian Museum fauna database, South Australian Museum.
Seaman, R.L. (2002) Wetland inventory for the Mount Lofty Ranges: an assessment of selected wetlands forthe Mount Lofty Ranges, encompassing the four Catchment Water Management Boards.Department for Environment and Heritage.
South Australian Coast Protection Board (1992). Coastal Erosion, Flooding and Sea Level Rise Stands andProtection Policy. Coastline, 26.
Transport SA (2009).Weeds of the Eastern Region.Government of SA, Transport SA.
Turner, M. (2001). Conserving Adelaide’s Biodiversity: Resources, SA Urban Forests Biodiversity Program.
Watkins (1993). A National Plan for Shorebird Conservation in Australia, Australasian Wader Study Group ofthe Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union.
Wilson, S. and Swan, G. (2005), A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia, Reed New Holland, Australia.
__________________________________________________________________________________
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9.0
App
endices
App
endix1.Ve
getatio
nassociations
andspecieslists
SPEC
IESNAME
COMMONNAME
AUS
SASL
12
34
56
7USE
FOR
REV
EGAGAVA
CEA
E*Agaveamericana
CenturyPlant
AIZOACEA
ECarpobrotusrossii
NativePigface
Y*Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum/
nodiflorum
IcePlant
Tetragoniaimplexicoma
Bow
erSpinach
YALO
ACEA
E*Aloespp.
Aloe
ANACARDIACEA
E*Schinusmolle
PepperT
ree
APO
CYN
ACEA
EAlyxiabuxifolia
Sea
Box
RY
ARACEA
EPhoenixcanariensis
CanaryIsland
Palm
AVICEN
NIACEA
EAvicenniamarinassp.marina
GreyMangrove
YBRASS
ICACEA
E*Matthiolaincana
Gilliflower
DIPSA
CACEA
E*Scabiosaatropurpurea
Pincushion
CACTA
CEA
E*Opuntiastricta
ErectPricklyPear
CASU
ARINACEA
EAllocasuarinaverticillata
DroopingSheoak
CHEN
OPO
DIACEA
EAtriplexcinerea
CoastSaltbush
YAtriplexpaludosassp.cordata
Marsh
Saltbush
Y
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
entP
lan
74
SPEC
IESNAME
COMMONNAME
AUS
SASL
12
34
56
7USE
FOR
REV
EGAtriplexpaludosassp.paludosa
Marsh
Saltbush
KEnchylaenatomentosavar.tomentosa
RubySaltbush
YMaireanabrevifolia
Short-leafBluebush
Maireanaoppositifolia
SaltB
luebush
Rhagodiacandolleanassp.candolleana
Sea-berrySaltbush
Sarcocorniablackiana
Thick-head
Sam
phire
Sarcocorniaquinqueflora
BeadedSam
phire
Tecticorniaarbuscula
Shrubby
Sam
phire
Tecticorniaindicassp.bidens
Brown-head
Sam
phire
KTecticorniahalocnemoidesssp.
halocnemoides
GreySam
phire
Tecticorniapergranulatassp.
pergranulata
Black-seedSam
phire
Suaedaaustralis
AustralS
eablite
Threlkeldiadiffusa
CoastBonefruit
COMPO
SITA
E*Cynaracardunculusssp.flavescens
ArtichokeTh
istle
Oleariaaxillaris
CoastDaisy-bush
Y*Oncosiphonsuffruticosum
Calom
baDaisy
*Reichardiatingitana
FalseSow
thistle
Seneciosp.
Groundsel
Vittadiniagracilis
Woolly
New
Holland
Daisy
CRASS
ULA
CEA
E*Aeonium
arboreum
-(succulentgardenescapee)
*Cotyledonorbiculata
Cotyledon
(succulentgarden
escapee)
CRUCIFER
AE
*Cakilemaritimassp.maritima
Two-horned
Sea
Rocket
CUPR
ESSA
CEA
ECallitrisgracilis
Southern
Cypress
Pine
UY
EPACRIDACEA
EAcrotrichepatula
Pricklyground-berry
Y
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
entP
lan
75
SPEC
IESNAME
COMMONNAME
AUS
SASL
12
34
56
7USE
FOR
REV
EGEU
PHORBIACEA
EAdrianaquadripartita
CoastBitter-bush
UY
*Euphorbiaparalias
SeaSp
urge
*Euphorbiaterracina
FalseCaper
FRANKEN
IACEA
EFrankeniapaucifloravar.fruticulosa
Southern
Sea-heath
GRAMINEA
EAustrostipaelegantissima
FeatherS
pear-grass
UAustrostipasp.
Spear-grass
*Avenabarbata
BeardedOat
*Bromusrubens
Red
Brom
eDistichlisdistichophylla
EmuGrass
Y*Lagurusovatus
Hare'sTa
ilGrass
*Piptatherum
miliaceum
RiceMillet
LABIATA
E*Marrubium
vulgare
Horehound
LEGUMINOSA
EAcaciacupularis
Cup
Wattle
RY
*Acaciacyclops
WesternCoastalWattle
Acacialigulata
UmbrellaBush
KY
*Acaciasaligna
GoldenWreathWattle
LILIACEA
E*Asphodelusfistulosus
Onion
Weed
Dianellabrevicaulis
Short-stem
Flax-lily
Dianellarevoluta
Black
AntherF
lax-lilly
LIMONIACEA
E*Limoniumcompanyonis
Sea-lavender
MYO
PORACEA
EMyoporuminsulare
Com
mon
Boobialla
YMYR
TACEA
EEucalyptusgracilis
Yorrell
V
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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76
SPEC
IESNAME
COMMONNAME
AUS
SASL
12
34
56
7USE
FOR
REV
EGMelaleucalanceolata
Dryland
Tea-tree
UY
PITT
OSP
ORACEA
EPittosporumangustifolium
NativeApricot
RPO
LYGONACEA
EMuehlenbeckiagunnii
CoastalClim
bing
Lignum
SANTA
LACEA
EExocarposaphyllus
Leafless
Cherry
VSantalumacuminatum
Quandong
SAPINDACEA
EDodonaeaviscosassp.angustissima
Narrow-leafHop-bush
YSO
LANACEA
E*Lyciumferocissimum
AfricanBoxthorn
THYM
ELAEA
CEA
EPimeleaserpyllifoliassp.serpyllifolia
Thym
eRiceflower
ZYGOPH
YLLA
CEA
ENitrariabillardierei
Nitre-bush
+Allsamphire
speciesingeneraHalosarciaandSclerostegiahave
undergonenamechangesandaregroupedunderthe
genusTecticornia
KEY
Regions
forc
onservationsign
ificant
flora
species
AUS=Austra
lia(EnvironmentProtectionandBiodiversityConservationAct,1999)
SA=SouthAustralia
(NationalParksandWildlifeAct,1972)
SL=SouthernLofty
Region(nolegislation)
Con
servationStatus
Cod
es:
V=Vulnerable:rareandatriskfrompotentialthreatsor
long
term
threatswhich
couldcausethespeciestobecomeendangered
inthefuture.
K=Uncertain:likelytobe
eitherTh
reatened
orRarebutinsufficientdatafora
morepreciseassessment.
R=Rare:hasalowoverallfrequency
ofoccurre
nce(may
belocally
common
with
averyrestricteddistributionormay
bescatteredsparselyover
awider
area).Notcurrently
exposedtosignificantthreats,butw
arrantsmonitoringandprotectivemeasurestopreventreductionofpopulationsizes.
U=Uncom
mon:lesscommon
speciesofinterestbutnotrare
enough
towarrantspecialprotectivemeasures
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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77
Assoc
iatio
n1-Tecticorniapergranulata
ssp.perganulata(Black-seedSam
phire)/Tecticorniaindica
(Brown-head
Sam
phire)+/-Maireanaoppositifolia(SaltB
luebush)
+/-
Atriplexpaludosa
ssp.cordata(Marsh
Saltbush)
Assoc
iatio
n2–Sarcocorniaquinqueflora
(BeadedSam
phire)+/-Tecticornica
arbuscula(Shrubby
Sam
phire)+/-Tecticorniapergranulata
ssp.perganulata(Shrubby
Sam
phire)+
/-Suaedaaustralis
(AustralS
eablite)
Assoc
iatio
n3–Atriplexpaludosa
ssp.cordata(Marsh
Saltbush),Maireanaoppositofolia
(SaltB
luebush)
+/-Tecticorniaspp.(Sam
phire),LowOpenShrubland
Assoc
iatio
n4–Oleariaaxillaris(CoastDaisy-bush)
/Myoporuminsulare
(Com
mon
Boobialla)/Acaciacyclops(W
estern
CoastalWattle)+
/-Acacialigulata(UmbrellaBush)
+/-Pittosporumangustifolium(NativeApricot)+
/-Alyxiabuxifolia
(Sea
Box)+
/-Nitrariabilladierei(Nitre-bush)S
hrubland.
Assoc
iatio
n5–Myoporuminsulare
(Com
mon
Boobialla)/Nitrariabillardierei(Nitre-bush)+/-Oleariaaxilaris
(CoastalDaisy-bush)
+/-Atriplexcinerea(CoastSaltbush)
+/-
Atriplexpaulodosassp.cordata(Marsh
Saltbush)
+/-Sueadaaustralis
(AustralSeablite)O
penShrubland
Assoc
iatio
n6–Melaleucalanceolata
(Dryland
Tea-tree)
+/-Callitrisgracilis(SouthernCypress
Pine)
+/-Eucalyptusgracilis
(White
Mallee)
+/-Acacialigulata(Umbrella
Bush)
+/-Acaciacupularis
(CoastUmbrellaBush)
OpenShrubland
Assoc
iatio
n7–Avicenniamarinassp.Marina(GreyMangrove)
LowClosedForest
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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78
App
endix2.Habitatp
references
andassociated
behaviou
r(foraging
,roo
sting,or
breeding
)for
conservatio
nsign
ificant
bird
speciesrecorded
with
inthe
Managem
entarea,or
expected
tousethesite.Informationsourcedandadaptedfrom
DEH
(2009)andDEW
HA(2009).
ScientificNam
eCom
mon
Nam
eAUS
SAStud
yArea
Status
Prim
aryhabitat
Salinewetland
sFreshw
ater
wetland
sCoastal
habitat
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Man-
groves
Inter-tid
alsaltm
arsh
Samph
ireshrublands
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Beaches
androcky
banks
Acanthizairedalei
rosinae
Slender-billed
Thornbill
Vres
supratidalsamphire
bb
Actitushypoleucos
Com
mon
Sandpiper
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
fr
r
Anhinger
melanogaster
Darter
Rirreg
mudflats/beaches
fr
ff
Ardeaalba
GreatEgret
Ma,Mi
res
mudflats/beaches
ff
r
Ardeaibis
Cattle
Egret
Mi
Rwin
supratidalsamphire
f
Ardeaintermedia
IntermediateEgret
Mi
Rirreg
mudflats/beaches
f
Arenariainterpres
Ruddy
Turnstone
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Calidrisacuminata
Sharp-ta
iled
Sandpiper
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Calidrisalba
Sanderling
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Calidriscanutus
Red
Knot
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
r
Calidrisferruginea
CurlewSandpiper
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Calidrisruficollis
Red-neckedStint
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
f
Calidrissubminuta
Long-to
edStint
Ma,Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
f
Calidristenuirostris
GreatKnot
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Charadriusbicinctus
Double-banded
Plover
Mi
win
mudflats/beaches
f
Charadrius
leschenaultii
GreaterSand
Plover
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Charadriusmongolus
Lesser
Sand
Plover
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Charadriusveredus
OrientalPlover
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
r
Chlidonias
White-winged
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
fr
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ParhamActionManagem
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79
ScientificNam
eCom
mon
Nam
eAUS
SAStud
yArea
Status
Prim
aryhabitat
Salinewetland
sFreshw
ater
wetland
sCoastal
habitat
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Man-
groves
Inter-tid
alsaltm
arsh
Samph
ireshrublands
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Beaches
androcky
banks
leucopterus
Black
Tern
Cladorhynchus
leucocephalus
BandedStilt
Virreg
mudflats/beaches
ff
r
Egrettagarzetta
LittleEgret
Mi
Rres
mudflats/beaches
ff
r
Egrettasacra
Eastern
Reef
Egret
Mi
Rirreg
mudflats/beaches
rr
Gallinagohardwickii
Latham
'sSnipe
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
f
Glareolamaldivarum
OrientalPratincole
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
r
Haematopus
fuliginosus
Sooty
Oystercatcher
Rres
mudflats/beaches
r
Haematopus
longirostris
Pied
Oystercatcher
Rres
mudflats/beaches
r
Haliaeetus
leucogaster
White-belliedSea-
eagle
Ma,Mi
Eirreg
mangroves
fb
Heteroscelusbrevipes
Grey-tailedTattler
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
rr
rr
Limicolafalcinellus
Broad-billed
Sandpiper
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Limosalapponica
Bar-ta
iledGodwit
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
rr
r
Limosalimosa
Black-ta
iled
Godwit
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Macronectes
giganteus
SouthernGiant-
Petrel
E,
Ma,Mi
Vvag
mudflats/beaches
f
Meropsornatus
Rainbow
Bee-
eater
Mi
irreg
woodlands
/grasslands
Neophema
chrysogaster
Orange-bellied
Parrot
EE
win
supratidalsamphire
f
Neophema
chrysostoma
Blue-winged
Parrot
Ma
Vwin
supratidalsamphire
ff
Neophemaelegans
ElegantParrot
Rirreg
supratidalsamphire
ff
Neophemapetrophila
RockParrot
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
f
Numenius
madagascariensis
EasternCurlew
Mi
Vsum
mudflats/beaches
rr
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ParhamActionManagem
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80
ScientificNam
eCom
mon
Nam
eAUS
SAStud
yArea
Status
Prim
aryhabitat
Salinewetland
sFreshw
ater
wetland
sCoastal
habitat
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Man-
groves
Inter-tid
alsaltm
arsh
Samph
ireshrublands
Ope
nwater
Shallow
water/
mud
Beaches
androcky
banks
Numeniusminutus
LittleCurlew
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
r
Numeniusphaeopus
Whimbrel
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
rr
Pandionhaliaetus
Osprey
Eirreg
mangroves
fr
Phalaropuslobatus
Red-necked
Phalarope
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Philomachuspugnax
Ruff
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
f
Plegadisfalcinellus
GlossyIbis
Ma,Mi
Rirreg
mudflats/beaches
f
Pluvialisfulva
PacificGolden
Plover
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
ff
Pluvialissquatarola
GreyPlover
Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
rr
Podicepscristatus
GreatCrested
Grebe
Rirreg
mudflats/beaches
f
Rostratulaaustralis
Painted
Snipe
V,M
iV
sum
mudflats/beaches
f
Sternaalbifrons
LittleTe
rnMi
Eirreg
mudflats/beaches
fr
Sternabergii
Crested
Tern
Mi
res
mudflats/beaches
r
Sternacaspia
Caspian
Tern
Ma,Mi
res
mudflats/beaches
fr
r
Sternahirundo
Com
mon
Tern
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
r
Sternanereis
Fairy
Tern
Esum
mudflats/beaches
fr
Sternaparidisaea
Arctic
Tern
Mi
vag
mudflats/beaches
Thinornisrubricollis
HoodedPlover
V,M
iV
irreg
mudflats/beaches
r
Tringanebularia
Com
mon
Greenshank
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
ff
r
Tringastagnatilis
Marsh
Sandpiper
Ma,Mi
sum
mudflats/beaches
f
Xenuscinereus
TerekSandpiper
Mi
Rsum
mudflats/beaches
f
KEY
Regions
forc
onservationsign
ificant
flora
species
AUS=Austra
lia(EnvironmentProtectionandBiodiversityConservationAct,1999)
SA=SouthAustralia
(NationalParksandWildlifeAct,1972)
__________________________________________________________________________________
ParhamActionManagem
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81
Con
servationStatus
Cod
es:
E=Endangered:facing
averyhigh
riskofextinctioninthewild
inthenear
future.
V=Vulnerable:facing
ahigh
riskofextinctioninthewild
inthenear
future.
R=Rare:hasalowoverallfrequency
ofoccurre
nce(may
belocally
common
with
averyrestricteddistributionormay
bescatteredsparselyover
awider
area).Notcurrently
exposedtosignificantthreats,butw
arrantsmonitoringandprotectivemeasurestopreventreductionofpopulationsizes.
Irreg
=Irregular
visitortothemanagem
entarea.
Mi=
Migratoryvisitortothemanagem
entarea.
Ma=Marinelistedspecies.
Res
=Residentspecies
thatuses
themanagem
entareaforb
reedingandfeeding.
Summ
=Sum
mer
migrantspecies
Win=Winterm
igrantspecies.
Vag=Vagrantvisitortothemanagem
entareathatutilisesthemanagem
entareararely.
HabitatU
sage
Cod
es:
b=Breeding
f=Feeding
r=Roosting
Adelaide and Mount Lofty RangesNatural Resources Management Board205 Greenhill RoadEastwood SA 5063Phone 08 8273 9100www.amlrnrm.sa.gov.au
This project is partially funded by the Adelaide and MountLofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board andthe Australian Government’s Caring for our Country.