Part 1 - The Essay Structure
Essay Writing Skills
Part 1 - Lecture Outline
General structure of an essayIntroduction of common termsWriting arguments Achieving balance Sign-posting and distancing language
Possible essay structures
General Structure of an Essay
Introduction Contains the foundation to your subsequent
arguments State your stand clearly and unambiguously
towards the end of your introduction
Main Body – Support your stand by Writing arguments (reasons for believing in
your stand) Writing counter-arguments and rebutting
them (ie providing a balanced response)
Conclusion – Restate your stand and sum up your essay
Introduction to Common TermsStand – the position which the
writer takes
Argument – a reason the writer has taken to support a particular stand
Examples – significant events or trends which illustrate the argument which the writer is making
Introduction to Common TermsCounter-argument: An opposing
viewpoint or argument which does not support the stand that you are taking
Rebuttal: An argument which invalidates (make something invalid) or tries to point out the flaws in a counter-argument.
Balance: A consideration and discussion of alternative perspectives (ie counter-arguments) and rebutting them
General Structure of an Essay
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IntroductionBody
Conclusion
(at least 4-5 points)
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General Structure of an Essay ‘Press censorship is unnecessary.’
Comment.
Task 1: On the right hand column under
the headings A, B and C, label the sections of the essay (Introduction, Body and Conclusion).
What is the writer’s stand?7
Writing Arguments
When writing an argument, you have to persuade the reader to agree or be convinced with your argument or opinion.
A clear and coherent explanation as well as the use of relevant and current examples are therefore necessary to strengthen your argument.
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Task 2 – Refer to Paragraph 6 in the Sample Essay
Identify the writer’s argument (A) in this paragraph.
What example(s) (EG) does she use to reinforce her ideas?
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Example of an Argument (A) (Paragraph 6)
Furthermore, press censorship is necessary because the national press is taken by the world as an expression of the country’s views. Hence it is crucial for the government to act as a censor to the press as it has an obligation to its people to choose the peace and harmony of the society over individual freedom. This is precisely the point of a state—to look out for society’s well-being even if it means forsaking some individual interests. Since this is so, it is only natural that the government disallows dangerous comments to be made in the press, which is not just open for the interpretation of the nation’s citizens, but also a world-wide readership. Therefore, censorship becomes an issue of national security if the opinions in the press are perceived as offensive to another country. By not censoring the press, the government may have well drawn its country to war.
A
Use of Examples (EG) in Paragraph 6
This can be seen specifically in Japan, where the press has published several articles about Japan’s reluctance to apologize for war-time atrocities, much to the displeasure of China and Korea, its neighbours.
Needless to say, such discord amongst countries can only be detrimental and this only proves that censorship is necessary in our highly efficient world where word gets around at the speed of light.
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EGEvalua-tion of EG
Achieving BalanceBalance: A consideration and
discussion of counter-arguments and rebutting them
Counter-arguments need to be included and evaluated.
Readers are persuaded to take your view when you show that you have considered opposing views and are able to rebut them. 12
How to Incorporate Counter-arguments
Anticipate alternative viewpoints Who may disagree with my views?
Why? What evidence do they have to
support their views? Possible reasons why some may
hold an opposing view
Present these viewpoints objectively
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Sign-posting and Distancing Language To avoid contradicting yourself, use sign-
posting or distancing phrases to indicate your discussion of counter-arguments.
Such phrases include: Some may hold a different view. They insist
that… While some may claim that… Although some may argue that… An opposing viewpoint is that… It might seem that… One may object here that…
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Rebutting Counter-argumentsWhy do you need to rebut counter-
arguments?
Different ways to rebut: Show how and/or why it is mistaken Acknowledge its validity but suggest why it is relatively less important or less likely than what you have proposed
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Task 3 – Refer to Paragraph 2 in the Sample Essay. Identify the opposing viewpoint /
counter-argument (CA).
Identify the rebuttal (R).
How does the writer show she is discussing the counter-argument and then the rebuttal? What sign-posting devices does she use?
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Sign-posting Rebuttals Use sign-posting words or phrases to
indicate that you are rebutting the counter-argument.
Such words or phrases may include: However … However, I disagree with this view because… However, this opinion is fallacious because
… But I will argue that … Despite these claims / criticisms …
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Example of a Counter-argument (CA) in Paragraph 2
People who disagree with censorship claim that censorship limits expression to what the government or society allows the individual to say. Indeed it is a common argument that press censorship, as well as any other media censorship, eliminates freedom of expression. This can be stifling, because the channels of expression and subsequently perimeters of thought have been defined and limited. As a result, people will become aware and wary of taboos, and be fearful to speak out.
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CA
Example of a Rebuttal (R) in Paragraph 2
However, these people are forgetting that censorship only applies to extreme views that may be detrimental to the well-being of society. Such views, if aired on national press could spark outrage and perhaps ruin a country, leading to unrest, or even a civil war. Therefore, censorship in this case actually safeguards the freedom of expression of more moderate views, which can only aid healthy discussion, instead of inciting hate.
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R
Some Possible Structures A BIntroduction Introduction
Your Point Counter-Argument
Your Point Rebuttal
Your Point Counter-Argument
Counter-Argument Rebuttal
Rebuttal Your Point
Counter-Argument Your Point
Rebuttal Your Point
Conclusion Conclusion
Concluding WordsThere is no one correct way to
write the essay.
It depends on the nature of the question your own writing style what you think is the most effective
way to present and discuss the issues in the question you have chosen
Part 2 - Question Analysis & Brainstorming
Essay Writing Skills
Aim of Part 2 (Question Analysis & Brainstorming)
Careful examination and analysis of the essay question in order to: Decide what the scope / boundaries
of the question are (i.e. What should/can I talk about in this
essay?)Decide what is important in the
question (i.e. What should I focus on in this essay?)
Decide what the question actually wants you to do (i.e. What do I need to address in this
essay?)
Part 2 - Lecture Outline
1. Classification of Questions
2. Word Analysis
3. Question Analysis Clarifying Key Terms Identifying assumptions
4. Brainstorming for Arguments
1. Classification of Essay TypesEssay Type is identified as :
• Argumentative Eg. The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010)• Expository Eg. How important are dreams ? (2008) Eg. Consider the view that most work these days could and should not be done from home. (2010) • Reflective / Philosophical Eg. Can humour ever be serious? (2012)
Part 2 - Lecture Outline
1. Classification of Questions
2. Word Analysis
3. Question Analysis Clarifying KeyTerms Identifying assumptions
4. Brainstorming for Arguments
A. Look Out For Modal Words
What do these modals imply?
• Should people be allowed to have children by artificial means ? (2012)
• Can humour ever be serious ? (2012)
• Consider most work these days could and should be done from home. (2012).
B. Look Out For Words With Absolutes / ExtremesAll, everybodyNothing, nobody, noneNever, ever
B. Look Out For Words With Absolutes / Extremes1.‘The most influential individuals in history are
those who have caused the most harm.’ How far would you accept this view? (2012)
2.How far is it acceptable for technology to be used only for financial benefit? (2012)
3.Is violence ever justified? (2012)4.Can prejudice ever be eliminated? (2012)5.Does modern technology always improve the
quality of people’s lives? (2007)
C. Look Out For Words Which Are Relative Or Comparative Or Degree-indicative
1.Is there any value in preserving minority languages in the world? (2012)
2.How effective are international efforts to ease the problem of global hunger? (2010)
3.‘People in the Arts, living or dead, receive far more recognition than those in the Sciences, even though it is less deserved.’ Consider this claim. (2012)
4.The key to good health is lifestyle rather than medicine.’ How far do you agree? (2010)
D. Look Out For Words Which Indicate Context
Meaning of ‘context’ – ..consider the related factors and characteristics that impact something so that it can be properly understood or explained.
In GP, there are two main contexts –• Place / Location• Time
D. Look Out For Words Which Indicate Context – Place Or Time
1. Is there any value in preserving minority languages in the world ? (2012)
2. To what extent are the rights of animals protected in your society ? (2012)
3. The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010)4. Only modern architecture and modern art have a place in
today’s world. How far is this true of your society ? (2011)5. In this digital age, do newspapers still have a role in your
society ? (2012)6. Can space research be justified nowadays ? (2011)7. Can mathematics be seen as anything more than a useful tool
in everyday life ? (2010)
E. Look Out For Topic vs. Issue
For any question, distinguish between1. ‘Topic / Subject Matter’ 2. ‘Issue / Contention’
Eg. Do awards and prizes serve any useful purpose? (2011)Topic 1 : Topic 2 : Issue :
E. Look Out For Topic vs. Issue
The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010)
topic (ISSUE) context
E. Look Out For Topic vs. Issue
In this digital age, do newspapers still
context topic context
have a role in your society ? (2012)
(ISSUE) context
Part 2 - Lecture Outline
1. Classification of Questions
2. Word Analysis
3. Question Analysis Clarifying KeyTerms Identifying assumptions
4. Brainstorming for Arguments
A. Clarify Key Terms Clarify meanings of key terms by• defining or re-defining keywords or phrases• interpreting • paraphrasing
1. How far can an individual be held responsible for crimes against humanity ? (2010)
Correct interpretation of ‘crimes against humanity’.
2. Consider the view that mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty. (2012)
Defining meanings of ‘ truth’ and ‘supreme beauty’.
A. Clarify Key Terms
3. Do awards and prizes serve any useful purpose? Paraphrase meaning of ‘useful’.
4. Young people are slaves to fashion. Do you agree? Interpret meaning of ‘slaves to fashion’
B. Identify Assumptions in the Question
What is an Assumption? Something believed to be true without proof.
1. In this digital age, do newspapers still have a role in your society? (2012)Assumptions :• Newspapers had and still have a role to play in Singapore• The advent of the digital age could possibly affect this role
2. The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2012)Assumptions :• There is no need for the book in modern society• The book is not compatible with the characteristics of a modern
society
Question Analysis : Putting It All Together
Eg. ‘Only modern architecture and modern art have a place in today’s world.’ How true is this of your society? (2011)
Essay Type : Contexts : Topic : Issue : Value / Degree : Key Term : Have a place - presence recognised or valuedAssumption : Ancient / classical architecture and art have no place in today’s modern world.
Part 2 - Lecture Outline
1. Classification of Questions
2. Word Analysis
3. Question Analysis Clarifying KeyTerms Identifying assumptions
4. Brainstorming Ideas for Arguments
Brainstorming Ideas For Arguments
A. Brainstorm for ideas for arguments / points that explain your stand / position / opinion / thesis
B. Brainstorm for counter-arguments for rebuttal’s sake
Brainstorming Tools SPECTRAL GRACE SPICE LEVELS PLAYERS PAST PRESENT
FUTURE
WAYS TO RESOLVE ISSUES
TRENDS/CONTEXT
Tools S – Social, Scientific
P – Political
E – Economic, Environmental, Educational, Ethical (moral)
C – Cultural
T – Technological
R – Racial, Religious
A – Artistic, Aesthetic
L – Legal
G – Gender
R – Race
A – Age
C – Culture
E - Education
S – Spiritual
P – Psychological
I – Intellectual
C – Cognitive, Cultural
E – Emotional
Individual
Community/Societal
National
International
NGOs
IOs
Crime Syndicates
Religious Leaders
Government
Individual
Past vs Present vs Future
Short-run vs Long-run
Ideal vs Pragmatic
Change or no change
Individual vs Group
Modern World
Information driven
Technologically driven
Politically globalised
Economically globalised
Liberalised
Democratisation
Secularisation
Individualism
Purpose Identifying the implications on different sectors
Dependent Factors
Identifying different aspects of impact on an individual
Branching out to different levels of impact
Identifying different stakeholders and points of view
Showing an awareness of how the world has changed
Examining the impact and the feasibility of the solution
Showing sensitivity to today’s society
Always ask at the start of the question: Why is this question set? What is happening in the world that has resulted in the examiner asking this question? Why is the examiner asking this question now? Is there any trend that I should be looking out for?
Brainstorming tools
Brainstorming ToolsS.P.E.C.T.R.A.L Social, Scientific; Political;Economic, Environment, Education, Ethical, Education; Cultural; Technological; Religious, Racial; Artistic, Aesthetic; LegalIdentifying the implications on different sectors / domains / parameters
Brainstorming Tools
Eg. Can prejudice ever be eliminated ? (2011)
Use SPECTRAL to generate domains or parameters to determine the scope of coverage.
Prejudice …Social, Economic, Educational, Cultural, Religious, Racial.
Before exploring reasons for possibility of elimination of each type of prejudice
Brainstorming Tool – Context-related
Characteristics of the Modern World / Trends
Information driven Technologically driven Politically globalised Economically globalised Culturally globalised Liberalised Democratisation Secularisation Individualism
Showing sensitivity to today’s society
Brainstorming Tool – Context-related
Eg. Many developed countries are paying increasing attention to the needs of the disadvantaged. How far is this true in Singapore ? (2008) Characteristics of Singapore
Pragmatic Conservative Individualistic? Result driven Focus on academic achievement Multicultural society Secular
Showing awareness of Singapore’s culture
Review – Lecture Outline The Essay
Structure General structure of
an essay Introduction of
common terms Writing arguments Achieving balance Sign-posting and
distancing language Possible essay
structures
Question Analysis and Brainstorming Classification of
Questions Word Analysis Question Analysis ▪ Clarifying Key Terms▪ Identifying
assumptions Brainstorming for
Arguments
What Next After Question Analysis? If you have done a proper question
analysis and brainstormed for ideas for your arguments (and counter-arguments)…
You are NOW READY to start writing your essay
First, you have to learn how to write an effective introductory paragraph during the NEXT skills lecture