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PART 3 – HUMAN IMPACT ON TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS Environmental Concerns for Tundra • Large scale extraction industries ( oil, gas, and minerals as uranium) • Pollution – chemical waste, mining, hydroelectric development • Expansion of agriculture/livestock, vehicular traffic, and tourism increase degradation • Global warming – 1/3 of soil bound carbon is found in this area. • Melting of permafrost releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere increasing

“Greenhouse Affect” as organic matter decays and released carbon dioxide. • In Arctic tundra, erosion is emerging due to permafrost thaw and overgrazing • Poaching – hunting and fishing out of season, on protected land, or to endangered species • Like deserts, the plant systems are fragile and the ground bears human traffic marks for years • The tundra has short food chains and only a few species of animals – a fragile ecosystem

The balance can be upset greatly if a specie is reduced or disease, over hunting or predation

Role of Tundra in regulating the Earth’s climate

• global warming is happening at twice the rate of more temperate regions of the earth • affect the release or retention of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane • methane is 20 times more efficient at trapping warmth than carbon dioxide • soil nutrients, plant type, and plant biomass will be affected by changes in soil moisture and can

modify the amount and types of greenhouse gases • the climate balance could tip not just in the Arctic, but throughout the world

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Environmental Concerns for Taiga (Boreal forest) • Pollution – chemical waste, mining, hydroelectric development • Clear cutting – trees are cut in large sections leaving no protection for wildlife or soil 2.5 million acres are harvested per year with 2/3 going for newspapers promotional mailings and

catalogs – which end up in landfills • Illegal logging – logging in national parks and other protected areas without government

permission • Poaching – hunting and fishing out of season, on protected land, or to endangered species • Forest fires – unnatural fires caused by careless humans. • Mining – can destroy wildlife habitat • Drilling for oil and natural gas disrupt the forest • Global warming

Role of Taiga in regulating the Earth’s climate • It stores large quantities of carbon stored as plant material on forest floor (up to 10 feet in some

areas • 1 cm of plant material can hold 2.5 tons of carbon per acre • Taiga acts like a large refrigerator preventing fallen trees, needles and other debris from

decomposing (decomposition would put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere) • Heating up the taiga is causing the following problems • Litter begins to decompose putting carbon into the atmosphere • Increases in forest fires • Infestation by bark beetles which is killing the trees and forming tinder to fuel the forest

fires and adding more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

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Environmental Concerns for Deciduous Forests • Many of the world's great tracts of temperate deciduous forest have experienced significant

alteration through logging, conversion to agricultural land and urban development. • Human industry within and adjacent to temperate deciduous forests may pollute air and water

resources • Species introduced to temperate deciduous forests by humans may become invasive and threaten

native ecological systems

Role of Deciduous Forests in regulating the Earth’s climate • Forests regulate the global carbon cycle, having a profound effect on the climate • It store large quantities of carbon and water • Carbon is stored as plant material on forest floor (up to 10 feet in some areas • 1 cm of plant material can hold 2.5 tons of carbon per acre • Trees provide shade, which in turn lowers summer temperatures and prevents the soil from drying

out, they reduce heat loss from the ground in winter and reduce storm damage by providing shelter from wind

• Deforestation is also contributing to climate change • CO2 released each year from forest loss is higher than that released by our yearly transport

emissions • More Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions which in turn leads to increased temperatures • Increases in temperature are projected to negatively affect up to two-thirds of existing forests,

thereby exacerbating deforestation and increasing the release of carbon.

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Deforestation of Taiga and Deciduous Forests

Deforestation – the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands for agricultural or exportation Causes include • Conversion of forests to agricultural land to feed

people Development of cash crops and cattle raising esp. in tropical countries

• Commercial logging that is not regulated • Poor soils in humid tropics do not support

agriculture for long so more clearing becomes necessary

Forest Terminology • Old Growth Forest: one that has never been cut down • Second Growth: area previously harvested • Plantations or Tree Farms: remaining forests • Silviculture: management of forest plantations to harvest lumber • Clear-Cutting: removal of all trees in a n area – significant environmental problems • Selective-Cutting: removal of selected trees leaving majority of habitat in place • Shelter-Wood Cutting: cutting only mature trees and leaving younger trees to reseed the forest. • Agroforest: trees and crops are planted together for symbiotic relationships • Green-Belts: open forested areas where no one is permitted to build Types of Forest Fires • Surface Fires: burn only forests’ underbrush but don’t damage trees • Crown Fires: damage canopies of trees and spread quickly • Ground Fires: smoldering fires that take place in bogs or swamps and can burn under ground for days

Deforestation Rates in the US – US Forest Service • The United States lost an average of 384,350 hectares (949,750 acres) of forest each year between

1990 and 2010. • A total of almost 4 million hectares (10 million acres) of timber is harvested each year, but most of

that timber regenerates and remains classified as forested land, albeit at a different successional stage.

• The deforestation here refers to lands that are converted from forest to some other purpose

• 82% of temperate forests have been cleared for crop fields and urban development

• 95% of virgin forests in the continental 48 states have been logged.

• Deforestation could increase in the future because tree pests and diseases such as bark beetles are becoming more prevalent in the face of climate change.

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Bark Beetle Damage

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Results of Deforestation

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Mining - Environmental Risks

Mining: excavation of the earth for the purpose of extracting ore or minerals • Metallic minerals: zinc, copper • Non-Metallic minerals: salt, precious gems • Mineral Deposit: where a particular mineral is concentrated • Surface Mining: starting from the top down and mining for minerals or oil deposits – results in

permanent scaring of the land and changing land features • Tailings: a waste created from mining operations (usually consists of acids, sulfur compounds)

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Major Environmental Issues That Effect Terrestrial Environments Issues

• Pollution of Air, Water and Land • Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes • Climate Change • Ozone Depletion • Environmental Factors • Loss of natural and cultural resources • Habitat loss • Overexploitation • Land Degradation   • Loss of Biodiversity • Exotic species and introductions • Overpopulation

Major Causes of Environmental Issues

• Rapid population growth and the effects of urbanization, industry and harvesting practices on the ecosystem

• Rapid and wasteful use of resources • Degradation of the earth’s environmental systems

Pollution - when harmful materials enter the environment

Sources of pollution usually fall into four main categories – industrial, residential, commercial, and environmental. Pollutants enter the environment through natural (volcanic eruption) or human activities

Sources of pollution may include o point source pollution from a clearly identifiable location o nonpoint source pollution that comes from many different places.

Sources of pollution may include o organic pollution – decomposition of living organisms and their bi-products o inorganic pollution – dissolved and suspended solids as silt, salts, and minerals o toxic pollution – heavy medals and other chemical compounds that are lethal to organisms o thermal pollution – waste heat from industrial and power generation processes o nuclear pollution - radioactive materials

Harmful Impacts of Pollution – three factors determine the severity of the harmful effects

1. Chemical nature – how active and harmful the pollutant is to living organisms 2. Concentration – the amount of pollutant per unit of volume

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3. Persistence (degradability) – how long the pollutant stays in the air, water, soil, or body of the organisms

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Biomagnification

• Humans release thousands of chemicals into the environment, many of them did not exist in nature before. Organisms take in these toxins with nutrients and water. As we move up on the levels of a food web, toxins become more and more concentrated – biological magnification.

• As a result, top level carnivores tend to be most severely affected by toxic compounds in the environment.

• Many toxins do not break down easily so they persist in the environment for decades or even longer. In some other instances, harmless substances can have toxic breakdown products or two or more chemicals can interact in the environment and can produce harmful effect together

Pollution can affect all areas of the environment and it is divided into the following:   • Air Pollution - the emission of

any impurity into the air, such as smoke (including tobacco smoke), dust, cinders, solid particles, gases, mists, fumes, odors and radioactive substances.

• Water Pollution – pollutants being added to ground water, surface water environments and marine water environments

• Thermal Pollution – changes in water temperature due to additions of hot or cold water to a natural water system – often heated water from cooling at power plants

• Soil Pollution – pollutants being added to soil by agricultural runoffs, unclean technology, waste

• disposal • Noise Pollution – excess noise

from industrial and urbanization activities

• Light Pollution – excess night lighting around urban areas which can impact life cycles or organisms

• Radioactive Pollution – radioactive waste and nuclear accidents

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Acid Rain or Acid Precipitation • Acid precipitation – rain, snow, sleet or fog that has the pH of 5.6 or lower. • It is a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher

than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids  • Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow • Dry deposition occurs where environment is dry and the arid chemicals are incorporated into the dust

or smoke sticking to surfaces of buildings, ground, cars and trees. As it is washed off by rain, it leads to acidic runoff

• About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition • It forms when wood, coal or other fossil fuels are burned and produce sulfur and nitrogen oxides.

These oxides react with water and form sulfuric and nitric acid that fall to the Earth with precipitation. • Acid precipitation lowers the pH of aquatic ecosystems and affects the soil chemistry of terrestrial

ecosystems. It leaches important minerals out of the soil and plants. • In industrial countries, acid precipitation decreased in recent years.

• Effects of Acid Rain

o Surface water in lakes, rivers, streams becomes more acid o Damages forests at high elevations o Damages building materials and paints o Affects human health

         

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Climate Change Issues

Atmospheric CO2

• Since the industrial revolution, the concentration of atmospheric CO2 levels has been increasing as a result of burning fossil fuels with a higher rate and due to the increased deforestation.

• There are several consequences of this increase: o Increased vegetation but with more C3 than C4 plants o Greenhouse effect – water vapor and CO2 traps the infrared radiation that is reflected back from

the Earth’s surface. As a result, more heat is trapped and global warming occurs. o Global warming has many effects on the earth’s weather patterns, ocean currents and can cause

flooding of the coastal areas.

Greenhouse Effect - warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward

space. • The Earth gets energy from the sun in the form of sunlight. • The Earth's surface absorbs some of this energy and heats up. • That's why the surface of a road can feel hot even after the sun has gone down—because it has

absorbed a lot of energy from the sun. • The Earth cools down by giving off a different form of energy, called infrared radiation. • But before all this radiation can escape to outer space, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb

some of it, which makes the atmosphere warmer. • As the atmosphere gets warmer, it makes the Earth's surface warmer, too.

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• The earth's temperature is dependent upon the greenhouse-like action of the atmosphere, but the amount of heating and cooling are strongly influenced by several factors just as greenhouses are affected by various factors.

o In the atmospheric greenhouse effect, the type of surface that sunlight first encounters is the most important factor.

o Forests, grasslands, ocean surfaces, ice caps, deserts, and cities all absorb, reflect, and radiate radiation differently.

o Sunlight falling on a white glacier surface strongly reflects back into space, resulting in minimal heating of the surface and lower atmosphere.

o Sunlight falling on a dark desert soil is strongly absorbed, on the other hand, and contributes to significant heating of the surface and lower atmosphere.

o Cloud cover also affects greenhouse warming by both reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface and by reducing the amount of radiation energy emitted into space

o Atmospheric gases – water vapor ( ), carbon dioxide ( ), methane ( ), and nitrous oxide ( ), all act as effective global insulators

o The negative concerns are related to the possible impacts of an enhanced greenhouse effect caused by excess pollutants going into the air

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Ozone Depletion - ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution containing the chemicals

chlorine and bromine (chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs) Depletion of Atmospheric Ozone

• Ozone is necessary to prevent living organisms from harmful UV radiation coming from the sun. It is located on the lower part of the stratosphere.

• The ozone layer has been gradually thinning since the 1970’s because of the introduction of CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) that were widely used. Chlorine from CFC’s moved up to the stratosphere and changed ozone into oxygen in a chain reaction where chlorine is gained back at the end. As a result, one chlorine atom can react with hundreds of ozone molecules.

• Low levels of ozone result in increased skin cancer rate and increased cataracts in humans, while other living organisms will also have seriously damaged DNA with unforeseen consequences.

Ozone Hole over Antarctica

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Loss of Biodiversity • Loss of habitat of many living

organisms because of the overpopulation by humans

• Biological magnification can poison organisms on the top of the food chain (top predators)

• Global climate change alters the pH, salinity, CO2 concentration in the ocean, alter the temperature and precipitation in terrestrial ecosystems.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss: • Habitat loss & Fragmentation • Climate Change • Over use and exploitation o deforestation o non-sustainable agricultural practices: over-cultivation, etc. o overfishing o excessive hunting o illegal poaching o illegal exotic species trade

• Construction, farming, etc. o simplification—clearing and cleaning up land areas of natural debris; stream channelization, etc. o intrusion—interference with species: telecommunication lighted towers attracting migrating birds,

casing collisions and entanglement in wires, etc.

Problems with Nutrient Enrichment:

• People can move nutrients from one area to another, enriching one and deplete an other • Farm soil may run off into streams • When natural vegetation is cleared from an area, nutrients can easily run off

o o Human population explosion o Pollution

o land and water pollution: pesticides, toxic waste, oil spills, eutrophication of water, pathogens from human waste

o air pollution and related issues: NO2, SO2, acid deposition; ozone depletion, GHG (Greenhouse gases)

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Habitat Fragmentation & Destruction

Habitat destruction and fragmentation is a process that describes the emergences of discontinuities (fragmentation) or the loss (destruction) of the environment inhabited by an organism. Causes include: • conversion to human-made uses: urbanization,

deforestation, etc. • fragmentation—natural geographic ranges are “cut up”

due to construction, farming, etc • simplification—clearing and cleaning up land areas of

natural debris; stream channelization, etc. • intrusion—interference with species: telecommunication lighted towers attracting migrating birds, casing

collisions and entanglement in wires, etc. It results in

o Loss of resident species o Loss of food sources o Loss of ecosystem functions provided by the habitat

Invasive Species Invasive species introduction can be accidental or deliberate (ornamentation, horticulture,

aquaculture) can take over an area, competing with native species for resources

• World-wide problem • Result of increase in travel and open trade routes • In U.S. costs $137 billion per year • Approximately 42% of Threatened or Endangered species are at risk due to non-native, invasive

species • They raise havoc in ecosystems and threatens species diversity

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Threats because of Invasive Species • Causing disease • Acting as predators or parasites • Acting as competitors • Altering habitats • Hybridizing with local species - If an invasive species is much more abundant than a native

relative, they may hybridize so often that the invaders genes "flood" the native species, such that no individuals contain the entire genotype of the native species, thus effectively driving the native species to extinction

• Major threat to biodiversity o Second only to habitat destruction as a threat to biodiversity o Almost half of the endangered species in the US are at risk because of invasive species o Introduced species are a greater threat to native biodiversity than pollution, harvest and disease

combined • Invasive predators may greatly reduce the population of native species or cause them to become

endangered/extinct because the native prey have no defenses against the invasive predator. • Invasive species can cause disease to other species as the Asian chestnut blight fungus the almost

eliminated the American chestnut from the Eastern US forests in the first half of the 20th Century harming the ecosystem and the organisms dependent on the chestnut for survival.

• Invasive species can cause human disease as the AIDs virus and West Nile virus • Invasion Meltdown - invading species interact with one another to generate a problem where

either species alone would be harmless

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CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the interactions between organisms and the physical environment.

Conservation Biology is the scientific study of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. Conservation biologists investigate the impact of humans on Earth's biodiversity and develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species and promote the sustainable use of biological resources

• They use rapid response strategies to curb loss and degradation of bio-diversity • Hot spots of species-rich environments are identified • Rapid Assessment Teams evaluate, make recommendations and take emergency action • Bioinformatics tools are used to manage, analyze and communicate biological information

they include high-resolution digitized images of species and computer databases, and DNA sequences for identifying microbes

Goals of Conservation Biology from Primack • To document the full range of biological diversity on Earth – “taxonomy, natural history, ecology” • To investigate human impact on species, genetic variation, and ecosystems – “ecology, genetics,

biogeography, etc.” • To develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species, maintain genetic diversity

within species, and protect and restore biological communities and their associated ecosystem function – “conservation biology, communication, natural and social sciences, economics, politics, management, etc.”

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Conservation Biology – Framework by the “Society of Conservation Biology” Goals: Conservation biologists seek to maintain three important aspects of life on Earth: biological diversity, ecological integrity, and ecological health

• Biological diversity is a measure of the diversity of all life at all levels of organization. • Ecological integrity is a measure of the composition, structure, and function of biological systems. • Ecological health is a measure of a biological system’s resiliency and ability to maintain itself

over time Threats: threats to biological diversity, ecological integrity, and ecological health

• Nature has faced and continues to face numerous threats from humans, including direct harvesting, habitat destruction, and introduction of non-native species.

• Principles of ecological economics correct oversights in neoclassical economic theory, which have contributed to conservation threats.

• Human societies have a long history of causing extinctions and making major changes to ecosystems.

• Human actions affect nature through their frequency, intensity, and spatial extent. Species are currently going extinct at a rate faster than at any time in human history and at a rate comparable to mass extinction events seen only in the fossil record.

• Humans cause extinction through habitat destruction and modification, overexploitation, and introduction of non-native species.

• Humans are currently causing the Earth’s climate to warm, which will have severe consequences for natural systems.

• Extinction of a species can cause extinctions of other species. • The present condition of most natural systems is changed from the past as a result of human

actions. Ideas about the “normal” condition of nature are influenced by what a person experiences in his or her own lifetime.

Actions: protection and restoration of biological diversity, ecological integrity, and ecological health

• Conservation requires a combination of many different strategies. • Protect species at risk of extinction. • Designate ecological reserves. • Lessen the magnitude of human impacts on natural systems. • Restore ecosystems that have been degraded. • Augment populations with individuals raised in

cultivation or captivity. • Control the number of individuals harvested in

nature. • Prevent the establishment of non-native species, and

eliminate non-native species that have become established.

• Understand and participate in the policy-making process.

• Educate others about the importance of conservation.

Note: from Conservation Biology, Pages 1180–1190 Volume 18, No. 5, October 2004

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Evaluating Environmental Impact: The PAT Model. Environmental Impact (I) (depends on three factors) - Paul Ehrlich

1. The number of people (population size, P) 2. The average number of units of resource each person uses (per capita consumption or affluence, A) 3. The amount of environmental degradation and pollution produced for each unit of resource used (destructiveness of the technologies used to provide and consume resources, T) I = P x A x T (environmental impact)

Sustaining the Earth– Learning as much as we can about how Earth sustains itself and adapts to ever-changing environmental conditions and integrating such lessons from nature into the ways we think and act

The basic environmental beliefs of the world: • Nature exists for all of Earth’s species, not just for people • There is not always more • Some forms of economic growth are environmentally beneficial and should be encouraged, but

some are • environmentally harmful and should be discouraged • Our success depends on learning to cooperate with one another and with the rest of nature to learn

how to work • with the earth • The key to creating a sustainable society:

SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES Sustainability - biological systems enduring and remaining diverse and productive thus the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs and maintain the a healthy world environment

Strategies include • Minimize energy consumption & using alternate

energy • Minimize water consumption • Minimize negative environmental impacts • Minimize waste generation and recycling • Develop eco-friendly products and processes

Strategies for a Sustainable World • advancing technologies to reduce waste • increasing recycling and reuse • creating even safer treatment and disposal options • developing sources of renewable energy • sharing the benefits of our learning and innovation

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MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

• Conservation: allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner • Preservation: setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities • Keystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others ( sea

otters, sea stars, grizzly bears, prairie dogs) • Indicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged ex.

trout • Characteristics of endangered species: small range, large territory, or live on an island • Endangered species: a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is

not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms; North spotted Owl (loss of old growth forest), Bald Eagle (thinning of eggs caused by DDT), Piping Plover (nesting areas threatened by development), and many others

• Invasive/Alien/Exotic species: non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance; examples: kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee “killer bee”, water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel, gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle

• Billions of Dollars are being spent to prevent the introduction and spread of Invasive Species as well as controlling Invasive species who are already disrupting aquatic environments.

• Science Olympiad has an event “Invasive Species” that addresses these issues. It is the taxonomy rotation in 2017.

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Control of Invasive Species – Key factors for the success of the control • PREVENTION • Catching the infestation EARLY • Eradicating potential invaders soon after

invasion • Physical (manual & mechanical) • Cultural – Ecosystem Management • Biological – natural enemies • Chemical - pesticides • Integrated Pest Management – Uses a

combination of methods – OFTEN MOST EFFECTIVE

RECLAMATION OF DISTURBED AREAS

Land reclamation refers to the process of repairing or restoring disturbed land to a useful state. Land reclamation is an important part of the construction, mining, forestry, and agricultural industries, as those industries generally disturb the soil with the use of heavy earthmoving machinery.

When land is disturbed, it is sometimes necessary for it to undergo reclamation.

• For the extraction of natural resources, such as in mining • For the extraction of fruits, vegetables, and grains • For raising livestock • To build structures and buildings • To raise animals and grow food • To harvest trees and plant new ones

US Department of Interior – Bureau of Land Management Reclamation Policy • Ensure the uniform application of exploration, development, and reclamation standards. • Ensure prompt reclamation of lands to productive uses consistent with land management policies. • Integrate appropriate disciplines in the natural sciences, engineering and design arts in establishing

criteria for reclaiming disturbed land, reviewing reclamation plans, and monitoring reclamation activities.

• Identify information needs that can be provided by research and encourage research projects to provide such information.

• Utilize the best available information in developing and reviewing reclamation plans

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Advantages of Land Reclamation    • It provides habitats for fauna and flora to live; this will also increase the biological stability of the

surrounding area. • It serves as a location where oxygen is produced, which is good if in proximity to urban areas. -

Local populations gain a sense of gratification out of it; people generally feel happy if they contribute to improving the environment.  

• It serves as a reservoir for possible future utilization; trees and animals for example can be forested or hunted at a later date

Disadvantages of Land Reclamation • It is expensive; clearing large tracts of land and making it possible for organisms to inhabit it again

is financially costly  • It takes a long time; succession is generally slow with full improvement in an already rehabilitated

area only coming to fruition after 150 years.  • Takes up space; excludes large areas of land from use for economic activities. Be they responsible

or not.

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REINTRODUCTION OF SPECIES Species reintroduction is the deliberate release of a species into the wild, from captivity or other areas where the animal survives

Reintroduction and translocation are both important tools for population and species management. • Translocation moves wild-caught animals from one natural location to another • Reintroduction moves captive-born animals into their natural historical range.

Re-introduction of a threatened species is an important and in some cases very successful tool for species conservation • Captive breeding saved the bison. • Wolves again roam Yellowstone and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan • The Peregrine Falcon is off the endangered species list

GUIDELINES FOR A SUCCESSFUL REINTRODUCTION

• A SELF-SUSTAINING CAPTIVE POPULATION IS NEEDED o enough breeding stock to provide a surplus. For big animals, this requires a lot of space o good genetic management.

• A SUITABLE AMOUNT OF ADEQUATE AND PROTECTED HABITAT IS REQUIRED o conduct field studies to determine the amount and type of habitat required by new

population o a "wild" model is necessary to establish suitable conditions for release o population must be protected from whatever caused its previous decline

• EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES TO PREPARE ANIMALS FOR REINTRODUCTION o train re-introductees prior to release in predator o ability to find and process o how to interact properly with conspecifics o how to find/construct shelter

• POST-RELEASE MONITORING AND EVALUATION o constant monitoring provides opportunity to evaluate and modify program

• PROFESSIONAL AND PUBLIC EDUCATION o partnerships with US can provide opportunities for education of professionals o conservation education can create local support to sustain the reintroduction efforts.

• SUFFICIENT LONG-TERM FUNDING POTENTIAL o Long-term money is necessary o long-term commitment by individuals/agencies

• SIDE BENEFITScan be substantial. include o habitat restoration required to allow successful reintroduction o public education, public pride o basis for continued habitat protection.

• 8. SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES o whooping crane, o bison, o American condor,

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o perigrine falcon, o wolves

Many factors can attribute to the success or failure of a reintroduction. • Predators, food, pathogens, competitors, and weather can all affect a reintroduced population's

ability to grow, survive, and reproduce. • Animals raised in captivity may experience stress during captivity or translocation, which can

weaken their immune systems Examples of Programs in North America

• Grey wolf to Yellowstone National Park (successful) • Musk ox in Alaska (United States) (successful) • American flamingo to Anegada, British Virgin Islands (successful) • Black-footed ferret in Canada, United States and Mexico • California condor in California and Mexico (ongoing) • Fisher in Washington State (ongoing) • Whooping Cranes, including migratory population in the Eastern United States and non-migratory

population in Lousiana (ongoing)   Advantages to Reintroduction Programs

• Enables research on the biology of species • Captive colonies can be used to educate the public about the species • Can eventually reduce the need to collect individuals from the wild

Disadvantages to Reintroduction Programs  

• Building up numbers for reintroduction • Initial source of stock can endanger remaining small wild populations • Facilities in which to do the breeding are needed • Maintaining a large enough population size to prevent problems of genetic drift and loss of

variability • Captive populations may undergo selection, adapting them to their captive conditions and leaving

hem maladapted to their natural environment • Loss of learned behavior can occur due to unnatural behavior under captive conditions • Susceptibility to disease due to artificially high concentration of individuals • It may be difficult to get the species to breed under captive conditions

 

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ENERGY Nonrenewable vs. Renewable Energy Sources

• Non-renewable energy sources – fossil fuels as coal, oil and natural gas as well as nuclear fuels – limited supply will run out and have negative environmental impacts

• Renewable energy sources – sun, wind, waves, heat, hydropower and biomass that can be used again and again and is cleanest energy sources.

• There are pros and cons for each type of energy

Non-Renewable Energy-Fossil Fuel • Fossil Fuel (64% of world’s electricity) • Nuclear Energy (provides 17 % of

world’s electricity) • Renewable Resources (19% of world’s electricity) • Petroleum: formed as sediments are buried and converted to

rock, organic material in sediments are chemically transformed into petroleum through a process called maturation.

• Petroleum formation: microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons (animal remains) o Pros of petroleum: relatively cheap, easily transported, high-

quality energy o Cons of petroleum: reserves will be depleted soon; pollution

during drilling, transport and refining; burning makes CO2 • Crude Oil: underground petroleum • Coal: black combustible rock • Natural gas: a “by-product” of maturation and propane which is a mixture of natural gas and oil.

Pros and Cons of Non-Renewable Energy Pros

o Cheap and easy to use o Small amounts of nuclear energy can produce large amounts of power o Have Little or no competition o Cheap when converting one type of energy to another

Cons o Will expire some day o Can have serious environmental changes o Prices will go up as supply diminishes

Renewable Energy • Biomass including

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o wood and wood waste o municipal solid waste o landfill gas and biogas o ethanol o biodiesel – waste vegetable oil

• Gasohol: Ethanol 85-90% gas and 10-15 % ethanol • Hydroelectric: using water to move a turbine that powers a generator • Solar:

o Passive – widows facing the sun o Active – solar panels; photovoltaic cells collect sun energy through panels and directly

store it into batteries • Wind: Wind turns blades which are connected to gearbox and generator that controls the turbines • Geothermal: capturing earth’s internal heat to heat water and turn turbines to create electricity • Wave/Tidal Energy: newer and exploratory

Pros and Cons of Renewable Energy

Pros o Wind, geothermal, ocean energy are available in abundant quantity and free to use o Have low carbon emissions and are environmentally friendly o Can potentially stimulate the economy and create jobs with state and federal government

incentives Cons

o Initial costs are very high and sustainability may be cost preventive o Often located in remote locations and building lines to urban areas is very expensive o Can have serious environmental changes as with geothermal energy which can bring toxic

chemical from beneath the earth surface to the top and can create environmental changes o Hydroelectric provides clean energy but building dams is expensive and can affect natural

river flow and affect wildlife o Wind power needs strong winds, can be expensive to set up and maintain as well as

affecting bird populations o Cloudy days reduce solar power, calm days reduce wind power and droughts reduce water

available for hydropower

Alternate Energy Sources-Alternate to Fossil Fuels – produced and recovered without negative

effects on the environment as: Alternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells

• Solar • Wind power • Geothermal • Tides and waves • Biomass • Fuel cells