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7/31/2019 Parts of Speech.pdf
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THE PARTS OF SPEECH:
Learning about the eight parts of speech is the first step in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first
step to being able to read and write. From learning the parts of speech we begin to understand the use or function of words and
how words are joined together to make meaningful communication. To understand what a part of speech is, you must
understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories.
Let's look at some examples of categories. Colors, fruits, drinks, and languages are categories. If I tell you that Grebo is a
language, you would understand exactly what Grebo is. If we did not have the category language, it would be hard to explainwhat is meant by the word Grebo. It is very convenient to have categories to talk about similar things.
Let's look at some more examples of categories.
In the list below, which does not belong with the others?
a) violin c) hammer e) drums
b) piano d) guitar
If you chose hammer, you are right. Violin, drums, piano, and guitar are used to make music, but a hammer is not used to make music. Hammer
doesn't fit with the other words because it is a tool and all of the others are musical instruments.
Which of these does not belong with the others?
a) hammer c) saw e) violinb) screwdriver d) wrench
This time, the word violin does not belong because it is not a tool. It is very useful to have categories like musical instruments and tools to
organize our ideas.
The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as
a way to make it easier to talk about language.
The philosopher Aristotle and later scientists studied animals and classified them according to what they have in common. For
example, eagles, robins and sparrows are kinds of birds; sharks, salmon and tuna are kinds of fish; and dogs, horses and
elephants are kinds of mammals. Aristotle and others also studied language and classified words according to what they have in
common.
We usually use 8 categories or parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect.Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. The same word may belong in different categories depending on
how it is used.
There may be better ways to classify English than by using the parts of speech. But this classification has been used for a long
time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without
knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier.
When you look up a word in a dictionary, you will find not only the meaning of the word but also what part of speech it is. This
information is very helpful in understanding the full meaning of the word and knowing how to use it.
The parts of speech that are used to describe English words are:
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
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NOUNS:
A noun names something.
It may name a person, place, thing, or quality.
E.g. girl, Edward, New York, desk, beauty, decision
It may name a collection of persons, place, or thing.
E.g. team, mob, battalion, jury
A noun may be expressed in plural form.
E.g. girls, desks, decisions
A noun may be uses a subject or an object.
E.g. Martha found an apartment
A noun may be used as a predicate nominative, which means the same thing as the subject but is separated from it by a verb.
E.g. Ira is the boss
A noun may be used as an appositive. When a noun means the same thing as some other noun in the sentence and stand
next to that word, it is an appositive.E.g. My sister, Betty, loss her ring.
KINDS OF NOUNS
A proper noun refers to a specific person, place, or thing. It is always capitalized.
Alaska is a large state.
George Washington was the first Presidentof the United States.
Boeingbuilds airplanes.
A common noun is generic. It shares its name with others in its class.
Every motherwishes for a healthy child.All the swings in the parkwere broken.
A concrete noun names something with can be seen, felt, heard, or tasted.
The dishes were stacked on the counternear the sink.After the snow fell, we took oursleds to the big hill.
An abstract noun names a quality or idea that can be perceived by the mind rather than the senses.
Sorrow descended upon the family.
Many have knowledge without possessing wisdom.
A collective noun names a group or collection.
Irvine highs winning team was honored at City Hall.
A somberjury filed into the courtroom.
A compound noun is made up of two or more words. Some are written as one word, some as two words, and some
with hyphens.
E.g. guidebook, common sense, all-star, doorman, dining room
Verbal nouns are verbal forms that act as nouns. These include gerunds and infinitives.
Teachingis a rewarding profession.
To speakwith thinking is asking for trouble.
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NOUNS PLURALS
Most nouns are changed to their plural forms by adding an s to the singular.
book bookslion lionsskyscraper skyscraper s
Nouns that end in ss, ch, s, sh, x, add es to their plurals.
glass glasseschurch churches
brush brushesbox boxesquiz quizesstomach stomachs Ifch is pronounced like k, just add s
To form the plural of words ending in y in which a vowel precedes the y add an s.
day daysmonkey monkeysvalley valleys
To form the plural of words ending in y in which a consonant precedes the final y, change the y to an i and
add es.
fly fliesenemy enemieslady ladies
To form the plural of most words ending in f or fe add an s.
chief chief sroof roof ssafe safes
There are some nouns ending in f or fe that change their endings to ves.
calf calveshalf halves
knife kniveslife livesleaf leavesloaf loavesself selvessheaf sheavesshelf shelvesthief thieveswife wiveswolf wolveself elves
To form the plural of words ending in o in which a vowel precedes the o add an s.
radio radiosrodeo rodeos
zoo zoos
To form the plural of words ending in o in which a consonant precedes the final o add es.
hero heroesmosquito mosquitoes
Some nouns have irregular plurals which must be memorized.
goose geese
ox oxenman men
woman women
tooth teeth
mouse mice
foot feetlouse lice
alumnus alumni
phenomenon phenomena
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Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.
e.g. deer, fish, sheep, species, corps, series, shrimp
To from the plural of numerals and letters which are used as words, add an apostrophe and an s.
There are two 8s in 16s.
There are three es in cemetery.
Cross yourts and dot youris.
Some nouns ending in s are used with singular verbs.e.g. mathematics, economics, news, civics, semantics
POSSESSIVES
Except in the possessive case, nouns in English do not change their forms to show which case they belong to. Use
apostrophes to from the possessives of nouns.
The girls dress is pretty.
The wifesproperty was more valuable.
Nouns that do not end in s, whether singular or plural, form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and s.
car car s engineman mens intentions
mouse mouses tail
Singular nouns that end in s usually add an apostrophe and s to form the possessive.
Jamess tie
The glasss contents
Plural nouns ending in s usually add just an apostrophe to show possession.
The boysteachers
The managersconference
Note: the possessive forms of pronouns do not add an apostrophehe his book
it its cover she her family
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PRONOUNS:
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Usually
pronouns refer to something that was already mentioned
in previous sentence or understood by the listener or
reader. They are very useful words because when you use
them, you do not need to repeat nouns all the time.
There are seven types of Pronouns:
Personal Pronouns: When speaking we distinguishFirst Person.- Person SpeakingSecond Person.- Person Spoken to
Third Person.- Person Spoken about
Subject Case Object Case
Singular
First Person I me
Second Person you you
Third Person
he him
she her
it it
PluralFirst Person we us
Second Person you you
Third Person they them
Possessive Pronouns: They express possession and atthe same time they substitute what is being possessed
Personal Possessive
I mine
you yours
he his
she hers
it its
we ours
they theirs
Reflexive Pronouns: They are used when the actiongoes back to the doer, when something is donewithout help, or when we want to give emphasis to
an action
Singular
First Person I myself
Second Person you yourself
Third Person
he himself
she herself
it itself
one oneself
Plural
First Person we ourselves
Second Person you yourselves
Third Person they themselves
Interrogative Pronouns: They are used to askquestions
who
whom
whose
what
which
Demonstrative Pronouns: They refer to no one inparticular
Singular Plural
this these
that those
Relative Pronouns: Substitute a noun and connect therelative clause to this noun.
who
whom
whose
whoever
whomever
that
which
what
whatever
whichever
Indefinite Pronouns: They refer to no one inparticular
all
another
any
anyone
anything
both
each
each other
either
neither
everybody
everyoneeverything
few
little
many
more
most
much
anybody
nobody
none
no one
nothing
one
one anotherother
several
some
somebody
someone
something
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CONFUSION IN PRONOUN CASE
Many errors occur because of confusion about the case of the pronoun to be selected.
Just between you and me, business is bad. since the pronoun is the objectof the preposition between, it must be in the objective case.
Don spoke to Vernon and herabout the problem. since the pronoun is the objectof the preposition to, it must be in the objective case.
We students disagree with the new regulation. since the pronoun is the subjectof the sentence it must be in the nominative case. It would be
incorrect her to say Us students since us is in the objective case and may not be used as a subject.
It is difficult forus. here us is the objectof the preposition for.
AMBIGUOUS USE OF PRONOUNS
Since pronouns take the place of nuns, our sentences must be clear about which nouns are being replaced.
When Lisa acted with her sister, she forgot her lines. was it Lisa or her sister who forgot?
William jointed Jonathan at the ball game where hebought hot dogs. was it William or Jonathan who made the purchase?
Note: these ambiguities can be eliminated if we remember that each pronoun should refer to a single antecedent(word, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers). By placing the pronouns closer to their antecedents, we can
make our meaning clear.
Lisa forgot her lines when she acted with her sister.
William bought hot dogs when Jonathan jointed him at the ball game.
A common error is to write its to show possession. The apostrophe is used for the contraction of it is and never in the
possessive form of it.
The cat is chasing its tail. Its so adorable!
Often there is confusion between whose and whos. Remember that whose is a possessive while whos is the
contraction of who is.
Whos the woman whose husband is on the phone?
The use of who and whom can be confusing, unless you remember that whom is always the object and never the
subject.
Whom did you see? since you is the subject of the verb see, the objective pronoun needs to be used for the object.
She was the managerwhom I wanted to work with. i.e. I wanted to work with her.
Substitute who/whom with him/her or he/she to decide whether to use who or whom. If the objective pronouns him/her fit, use
whom. If the nominative pronoun he/she fit. Use whom.
Be careful when using who, that, and which remember that who is used to refer only to people, which is used torefer things and animals, and that is used to refer to things, animals, and in some case people (when referring to a class
or type of people).
The investors are the ones who run the risk.
The rabbit which ravaged the garden is dead.
It was the basketball team thatdonated the money.
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EXAMPLES
Ilike coffee.
John helped me.
Do you like coffee?
John loves you.
He runs fast.
Did Ram beat him?
She is clever.
Does Mary know her?
Itdoesn't work.
Can the engineer repairit?
We went home.
Anthony drove us.
Do you need a table for three?
Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
Theyplayed doubles.
John and Mary beat them.
Robert made this T-shirt himself.
Lisa did the homeworkherself.
We helped ourselves to some cola at the party.
Emma, did you take the photo by yourself?
I wrote this poem myself.
He cut himselfwith the knife while he was doing the dishes.
The lion can defend itself.
My mother often talks to herself.
Tim and Gerry, if you want more milk, help yourselves.
Alice and Doris collected the stickers themselves.
Allare welcome to attend the concert.
Mary gave the book to another.
I don't have any.
Does anybody have a clue?
Anyone can play that game.
Peter didn't see anythingsuspicious.
Eachbrought a dish to pass.
Everybody left town for the weekend.
Everyone enjoyed the movie.
Everythingis taken care of.
Few visited that park.
Many called for information.
Jennifer told nobody her secret.
None came forward to claim the prize.
One could see the mountains from miles away.
Severalsigned the card.
he room is too gloomy forsome.
Somebody called the store.
Joe gave the form to someone.
ho entered the room?
Whatwas the noise?
Which came first?
Whom should we give the prize to?
Whoevercame to the door?
Whateverare you doing?
Whomevershould we invite?
Whichevercame first?
Who entered the room?
Whatwas the noise?
Which came first?
Whom should we give the prize to?
Whoevercame to the door?
Whateverare you doing?
Whomevershould we invite?
Whichevercame first?
I don't know who called.
Brad asked to whom he should give the package.
Pat knew that she had won the match.
Jerry didn't know which was his.
Emily told whoevercame first to open the gate.
Josh told Alex to askwhomeverhe wanted.
Sarah tookwhicheverwas left over.
I gave myselfplenty of time to get to work.
You should let yourselfinto the house.Jim bought himselfa shirt.
Jill read to herself.
The dog scratched itself.
We treated ourselves to pizza.
You can make yourselves at home.
The children are able to dress themselves.
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V E R B S
Verb is a word which is concerned with what people and things do, and what happens to them. Verbs express action or otherwise
(state of being) help to make a sentences.
A verb combines with a noun or pronoun used as the subject to express a thought.
I speakEnglish
John speaks Spanish
She spoke about it yesterday
We have spoken about it before
A verb may also express a state of being.
He is here
She remainedmy friend
Most people can find verbs by asking if the word in question shows action or estate of being. However, if you arent
sure after you try that method, perhaps this will help. Verbs generally add s to form the third person singular.
Thus, if you put a word in this tense and the word ends in s, it is evidence that the word is used as a verb
Tommy called his mother on the phone frequently.Suppose you think the word called is the verb, but you are not sure, you would say, he calls right now. (this is just a
simple way to make sure you have the verb in the third person singular). Now look at phone as it is used in this sentence.At times phone can certainly be used as a noun. But how is it used in this sentence? It may be enough for you to say it is
the name of something, and, therefore, a noun. However, a further clue is that in this sentence, if we added s to phone, it
would form the plural, phones. Nouns often add s to form plurals. In this sentence phone is a noun.
He names all his children with names that begin with A.
In this sentence, the first names is singular to agree with the singular subject he, and is, therefore, a verb. The second
names is plural and is, therefore, a noun.
Tony plays with his little brother every day. Plays is a verb
We saw five plays in London. Plays is a noun
TRANSITIVE VERBS, INTRANSITIVE VERBS AND LINKING VERBS
Depending on the type of object they take, verbs may be transitive, intransitive, or linking.
The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without one whom receiver the action (direct object).
subject verb direct objet
Mary bought a book.
The shelfholds three books and a vase of flowers.
The committee named a new chairperson.
The child broke the plate.
Sow her friend.
The meaning of an intransitive verb is complete without any additional nouns beyond its subject; it does not have a
direct object.
subject verb direct objet
Mary bought a book.
My house collapsed
We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.
The cookwatchedwhile the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.
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Many verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively.
subject verb direct objet
The train left left is intransitive verb.
I Left the book on the desk. Left is transitive verb.
A linking verb (also known as a copula) is a special kind of intransitive verb which connects the subject to a noun,
pronoun, or adjective in predicate. The verb to be is the most common linking verb.subject verb noun, pronoun, or adjective in predicate
Tom is the captain.
The play is waiting for Godot.
Some of us thought that the play was very good.
Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes.
The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.
VERBALS
A verbalis a noun or adjective formed from a verb. The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and adjectives
is that verbals can take their own objects, even though they are no longer verbs.
This different verbals are: the participle (which acts as an adjective), the gerund (which acts as a noun), and the infinitive (which
also acts as a noun).
A participle is an adjective formed from a verb.
To make a present participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes doubling the final consonant:
think thinking
fall falling
run running
To make a past participle, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs form the past tense regularly. The
following are all past participles:
sink the sunken ship
ruin a ruinedcity
misspell a misspelledword
Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives, and that unlike other verbals, pastparticiples do not take objects (unless they are part of a compound verb).
A gerundends in ing and serves as a noun in that it can be the subject or object of a verb.
Dig Digging is hard work. They started digging.
But it is still like a verb in that it can have an object or be modified an adverb.
Dig Diggingditches is hard work.
Dig They were fined for carelessly diggingup a power line.
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An infinitivebegins with the word to and is followed by the root from of the verb. It acts as a verb-noun, a verb-
adjective, or a verb-adverb.
To fly was Johns greatest ambition. to fly is the subject of the verb was.
The rich kid had plenty of money to spendon trip. to spendqualifies the noun money.
The mourners came to pay their respects. to pay modifies verb came.
The perfect infinitiveputs the action of the infinitive in the past.
go to have gone there by train would have taken four hours.
Notice the contrast in the following examples.
He is too weakto move the stone. He will not move the stone, because he is too weak.
He is too weakto have movedthe stone. He couldnt have moved the stone, because he is too weak.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS
A verb is active when the subject does the action.
Bruce hitthe ball.
The boy was eatingice cream.
A verb is passive when the action is being done to the subject. The passive forms of verbs are constructed using a
form of be and the past participle of a verb.
The ball was hitby Bruce.
The award will be made at noon.
Why was the boy suspended?
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
Most verbs simply add ed or d to form the past tense or past participle.
jump Yesterday I jumpedover the wall. I have jumpedover the wall every morning this week.
There are, however, many irregular verbs in English whose past tense and past participles are formed in different
ways.
Review these familiar irregular ways.
Present Past Past Participle
arise Arose arisen
be is are was were been
bear bore borne
beat beat beaten
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Present Past Past Participle
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cut cut cut
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat aet eaten
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fly flew flown
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten or got
go went gone
hang hung hung
hold held held
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
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Present Past Past Participle
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
quit quit quit
ride rode ridden
rise rose risen
ring rang rung
run ran run
see saw seen
sell sold sold
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
show showed shown
sing sang sung
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
sting stung stung
steal stole stolen
strike struck struck
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
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MOODS OF VERBS
There are three generally recognized moods of verbs: indicative, impetrative and subjunctive.
A verb in the indicative moodasks a question or state a fact.
He wenthome.
Has he gone home?
A verb in the imperative moodis used to convey orders and requests. It is always in the second person as the subject
is always you.
Turn that volume down!
Please turn that volume down.
Sometimes the imperative moodis used to express a condition.
Study hard and you will succeed. This mean: if you study hard, you will succeed.
Normally no subject is expressed with an imperative verb, but it is sometimes added for emphasis.
You be quiet!
Never you mind.
Praise ye the lord.
The use ofsubjunctive moodis very limited. In formal English, it is used to express doubts, wishes, and statements
contrary to fact.
If I were king, I would banish her from the country.
I demand that he finish the job.
AGREEMENT OF SUBJECTS AND VERBSA verb must agree with its subject in number. If for example, the subject is singular (he, boy, suggestion), then the
verb must be singular also (has, plays, was). But if the subject is plural (we, boys, suggestions), then verb must be
plural in order to agree in number(have, play, were).
Phrases that follow the subject usually do not influence the number of the verb. The verb generally agrees only with
the main subject (although there are exceptions, such as indefinite pronouns).
The listof approved books is on my desk.
Mrs. Bensons portraitof the twins hangs in her den.
Marvin, together with his cousin, raises homing pigeons.
Compound subjects (e.g. Joe and Marilyn) require plural verb forms.
Both the house and the senate are in session today.
More independence and initiative are given to todays children.
When two or more singular subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be singular.
Either Jack or Jill is a suitable candidate.
Neither Joseph nor Linda is the answer.
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When two or more plural subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb form should be plural.
Either the policemen or the firemen are doe for a raise.
Neither the secretaries nor the executives were on duty.
When one subject is singular and the others is plural, the verb should agree in number with the subject nearest to it.
Neither the secretaries nor their boss was on duty.
Neither the doctor nor the nurses werepresent.
When the subject is each, nobody, everyone, etc., the verb should be singular.
Each of the girls has her uniform in her locker.
Nobody, not even the detectives, knows who turned out the lights.
Everyone in the surrounding houses is under suspicion.
Subject which are modified by each and every also require a singular verb form.
Each plumber and carpenter in this room is a member of our union.
Every boy and girl was dressed up for the occasion.
When the verb comes before the subject of the sentence like the following, it stll agrees with the subject.
Here are all the pencils you will need.
As for the children, there is nobody to care for them.
Theres more than one way to skin a cat.
There are lots of ways to accomplish this.
When using collective nouns (e.g. committee, family, jury, orchestra, etc.) choose a singular verb form when the
unit is acting together.
The choirreports here every Tuesday.
The jury has re-entered the courtroom.
But you can also use a plural verb form when the members of the group are acting as separate individuals.
The choirhavebeen straggling in all evening.
The jury are unable to agree on a verdict.
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ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun. In other words, adjective describe or limit nouns and
pronouns.
Adjective in English have only one form, which is use with singular and plural, masculine and feminine nouns. The
only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which chance to these and thosebefore plural nouns.
Adjective in English usually come before their nouns:
When there are two or more adjectives before a noun they are not usually separate by and except when the last
two adjectives describe the same kind of thing.
When several adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to be put in a particular order. Unfortunately,
there are no definite rules for the order of adjectives before nouns. It can be said that the order is generally as
follows.
Demonstrative
Article
Quality
Size
Age
ColorNationality
Origin
Composition(Made of)
Purpose(Another noun)
Noun
There are three degrees of comparison:
Positive Dark
Comparative Dark er
Superlative the Darkest
One-syllable adjectives from their comparative and superlative by adding -erand -estto the positive form.
Those ending in -er, -y, or-ly usually add -ier, and -iest
Three or more syllables form their comparative and superlative by putting more and the mostbefore the positive.
When expressing equivalence we use asas in order to form the description. With the positive form of the
adjective. When comparing we use than.
Its very common to use nouns as adjective by putting them before others nouns:
When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes written as one word, sometimes a hyphen is
used, or the words are written separately.
When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is almost always singular. Plural expressions with
numbers also become singular when they are used as adjective.
In certain expressions, we turn nouns into adjectives adding -ed.
Certain adjectives describing human character or condition can be pretended by the end used as nouns.
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An article is a kind of adjective used to signal, limit, or individualizer nouns and to specify their use. Article is the
term used in grammar for the words a, an, and the.
Rules for use ofthe (definite article).-
The points out particular person, places, or things. In general, we used it to indicate that a noun refers to
someone or something in particular, or that the noun has already been mentioned before. It can be used with
all types of nouns.
The is not used with proper nouns -people, nations-. The use of this article is also omitted when we are
referring to concepts that express generality.
In case of possessives (when we use s), the usually signals the immediately adjacent noun, even if the
expression refers to the second one. Therefore, if this first word is a proper name, the is not normally used.
When we use the title of a person along with his/her name, this title can be considerate as part of the name,
so we should not use the.
The is normally used for musical instruments.
Rules for use ofa and an (indefinite article).-
A and an (actually two forms of the same article) are used to indicated that a noun is one of a general group,
but it does not represent a particular person, thing, or place. I is used ehen we mention someone or
something for the first time. It can only be used with singular count nouns. A is use before consonant
sounds. An is used before vowel sounds.
A and an are not normally used before proper nouns. For the reason, a/an cannot be used for possessive or
names with titles in the cases mentioned for the definite article.
A and an should always be used before the names of professions.
Although a/an are similar to the word one, they are not always interchangeable. One is a number and it
means only one/no more than one, while a/an mean something like any (one)/one of a general group.
When counting or measuring time, distance, weight, etc. we can use eithera/an or one for the singular.
Singular count nouns must always have an article or another adjective.
Golden rules for using articles.- Most mistakes with articles are made through breaking one of these rules.
Do not use the to talk about things in general.
Do not use a/anbefore plural nouns (use some o no article).
Use a/an to say what peoples professions are.
EXAMPLES
My house is biggerthan yours.
This flower is more beautifulthan that one.
This is the most interestingbook I have ever read.
Non-smokers usually live longerthan smokers.
Which is the most dangerous animal in the world?
A holiday by the sea is betterthan a holiday in the mountains.
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It is strange but often a coke is more expensive than a beer.
Who is the richestwoman on earth?
The weather this summer is even worse than last summer.
He was the cleverestthief of all.
This is a nice cat.
It's much nicerthan my friend's cat.
She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is older.
This is a difficultexercise. But the exercise with an asterisk (*) is the most
difficultexercise on the worksheet.
He has an interestinghobby, but my sister has the most interestinghobby in
the world.
In the last holidays I read a goodbook, but father gave me an even betterone
last weekend.
School is boring, but homework is more boringthan school.
Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is more dangerous
than skateboarding.
This magazine is cheap, but that one is cheaper.
We live in a smallhouse, but my grandparents' house is even smaller than
ours.
Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the funniestjoke I've
ever heard.
My father is heavy. My uncle is much heavierthan my father.
The test in Geography was easy, but the test in Biology was easier.
Florida is sunny. Do you know the sunniestplace in the USA?
Stan is a successful sportsman, but his sister is more successfulthan Stan.
My mother has a soft voice, but my teacher's voice is softerthan my mother's.
Amy has a beautiful baby, but my daughter has the most beautifulbaby on
earth.
I live in a large family, but my grandfather lived in a largerfamily.
We have only little time for this exercise, but in the examination we'll haveeven less time.
Lucy is clever, but Carol is clevererthan Lucy.
Have you visited the old castle? It was the oldestcastle we visited during our
holidays.
He quickly reads a book.
Mandy is a pretty girl.
The class is terribly loud today.
Max is a goodsinger.
You can easily open this tin.
It's a terrible day today.
She sings the song well.
He is a carefuldriver.
He drives the carcarefully.
The dog barks loudly.
The bus driver was seriously injured.
Kevin is extremely clever.
This hamburger tastes awful.
Be carefulwith this glass of milk. It's hot.
Robin looks sad. What's the matter with him?
Jack is terribly upset about losing his keys.
This steak smells good.
Our basketball team played badly last Friday.
Don't speak so fast. I can't understand you.
Maria slowly opened her present.
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A D V E R B S
Adverb modify verbs, indicating, how, where, when, or to what extent an action was done.
She dresses neatly. How
I went there. Where
Martha arrived early. When
They chatted endless. to What extent
Adverbs also modify adjectives.
Eric is a verybright individual.
The explanation was perfectly clear.
I found the movie quitinteresting.
Adverbs also modify others adverbs.
Im very much involved in politics.
Carmen speaks too quickly to be understood.
It cost considerably more than it did last year.
KINDS OF ADVERBS
There are eight kinds of adverbs.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Certainty
Adverbs of Degree
Interrogative Adverbs
Relative Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner: tell us how an action is done.
Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully
My girlfriend dances beautifully.
The little boy ran quickly.
The girl ran slowly.
The class did well.
Adverbs of Place: tell us when an action takes place.
Here, there, near, behind, above, up
I sat down there.
Did you see my keys anywhere?
She went up in the elevator.
He is a long way behind.
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Adverbs of Time: tell us when an action was done.
Now, then, today, tomorrow, later, still
We didnt go to church yesterday.
Did you bring your cartoday?
Adverbs of frequency: tell us how often an action is done.
Always, usually, once, never, sometimes
I always get up at 6 oclock.
My mothersometimes cooks meatballs.
Adverbs of Certainty: tell us how we are about an action or a description.
Apparently, surely, presumably, obviously, undoubtedly
They certainly worked hard.
He is undoubtedly more intelligent than his brother..
Adverbs of Degree: can give or reduce intensity to an adjective or another adverb.
Well, high, easily, slowly, and beautifully
Romario plays soccervery well.
Your son is pretty intelligent.
I hardly know him.
Interrogative Adverbs: are used to ask questions.
Why, when, where, and how
Where do you live?
Why did you do that?
Relative Adverbs: are interrogative adverbs used to connect parts of a sentence or phrase.
When, where and why
The day when they arrived.
The hotel where they are staying.
EXCEPTIONS, MEANING, AND USE OF CERTAIN ADVERBS
The adverb of good is well.
Some adjectives and in -ly and should not be confused with adverbs:
Cowardly, deadly, friendly, ghostly, likely, lonely, lovely, lowly, orderly, silly, and ugly
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Some words can be used as adjectives or adverbs:
High, low, deep, nerd, far, fast, hard, early, late, much, little, direct, straight, pretty, wrong, kindly, and enough
Notice that the forms highly, nearly, hardly, lately, directly, and wrongly exist, but they have a slightly different meaning from their corresponding
adjectives.
Fairly and rathermean moderately (between a little and very), but fairly is chiefly used with favorable adjectives
and Adverbs (such as good, nice, well, bravely, etc.), while rather is chiefly used before unfavorable adjectives and
adverbs (such as bad, ugly, stupid, etc.)
Tom is fairly clever, but peter is ratherstupid.
You did fairly well on your exam, but Ann did ratherbadly.
With adjectives or adverbs which are not favorable or unfavorable in themselves (such as fast, slow, thin, think, hot,
cold, etc.), the speaker can express approval by using fairly and disapproval by using rather:
You lookfairly thin. I like your shape. You are not fat at all.
You lookratherthin. I do not like the way you look. You look feeble.
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PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word or a group of words that shows the relationships of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the
sentence. One way to identify preposition is to look for words that indicate connection between others words.
Most prepositions are short words. Their forms never change; no matter they appear in sentences. The following is a list of the
most common prepositions:
at
in
on
aboard
about
above
across
according to
after
against
along
along with
amid
among
anti
apart from
around
as
as for
as of
aside from
because of
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besidesbetween
beyond
but
by
by means of
by way of
center on
common to
compatible with
concerning
considering
consist ofcapable of
depend on
despite
different from
down
dream of
during
except
except for
excepting
excluding
following
for
from
in addition to
in back of
in case of
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
interior to
instead of
including
inside
into
likeminus
near
next to
of
off
onto
on account of
on behalf of
on top of
opposite
opposite of
outout of
outside
over
owing to
past
per
plus
prior to
regarding
regardless of
rely on
round
save
similar to
since
substitute for
than
think of
through
throughout
till
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlikeuntil
up
upon
versus
via
with
with regard to
within
without
Note many words in this list can also works as other part of speech
Several prepositions present usage problems, mainly because in many cases the only rule to know which preposition to use
is by habit.
At, in, and on are all used to talk about position in space. The different between them are rather complicated, and
it is not always easy to know which of the three is correct.
Atis used when we talk about position at a point. If youre atthe north pole, every direction in south.
On is used to talk about position on a line or a surface. There is a good restaurant on the Glasgow read.
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In is used to talk about position in a place that has three dimensions. I think I left my tennis racket in the bathroom.
But the situation is not quite as simple as this. There are some specials uses of atthat should be studied.
We use atwhen the size of the place is not important, not necessarily because it really is a point.
A person who comes from a small Pennsylvania city like Harrisburg would probably say:I live in Harrisburg. (Harrisburg is a place with streets, houses, shops, etc.)
But a person who is traveling from Cleveland to New York, just passing through, would say:I stopped atHarrisburg. (Harrisburg is just a pointon the way to New York.)
For the first person, the place is well known and important; it has streets, houses, churches, etc. but
for the traveler, it is just a point on the journey.
We often use atwith the name of a place when we are interested in the activity that happens there,
and not in the exact shape or dimensions of the place. For this reason, atis very often used when
we talk about places of entertainment, cafes, restaurants, and about the places where people works
or study.
We also use atin addresses when the number of the house is given.
Most of the time prepositions are not interchangeable.
Using one preposition when another is needed is mistake.NOT: could you write that in the blackboard? on, not in, is the preposition needed here.
In some cases, using one preposition or another will make very little difference.Professor Shaw is an expert in marine biology.
Professor Shaw is an expert on marine biology.
However, keep in main that most of the time prepositions are not interchangeable, so be carful
when choosing one.
Another two common mistakes are omitting preposition when they are needed, and including prepositions
when they are not needed. As it was mentioned before, there are some cases in which omitting or
including prepositions does not make a difference.
In the following sentence, the meaning does not change whether the preposition in is include or
not.A mosquito can travel more than ten miles (in) a day.
Most of the time, however, the correct preposition should be included.NOT. Karen and I are going the store.In this sentence, the proposition to is required. Karen and I are going to the store.
In the following sentence, the preposition offis sufficient by itself and does not require the help of
the additional word of.NOT. Take your feet off ofthe table.Here, Take your feet offthe table is correct.
Some verbs and adjectives are followed by specific prepositions, not because the two are logically
connected but because good speakers and writers have always used them that way.
The preposition with the adjective capable is of, as in the following sentences.Ralph is capable ofdoing much better work than he has done so far.
Using another preposition instead ofcapable of(such as capable to) would be awkward
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EXAMPLES
I will tell you a story abouta lion.
The plane flies above the clouds.
They walked across the field.
Afterlunch, I shall complete the remaining task.
I helped her going againstthe wishes of my loved ones.
All alongthe way, she did not speak a word.
The profit was shared amongthe shareholders.
Due to the snow, we turned aroundto return home.
The land is atwar with its neighbor.
She had decided to quit before Christmas, but changed her plan.
The church is located behindthe supermarket.
The temperatures have dipped below freezing point.
The water level is beneath the average level.
When we were in school, I used to sit beside her in class.
Besides maths, I am very fond of history.
The profit was shared between the three of them.
The play was beyondmy expectations.
Everyone buther agreed with the arrangement.
A house by the sea, to retire, is my dream
He is always curious about anything concerningher.
Despite the snowfall, she decided to carry on with her journey.
Jimmy lives down the street.
She works duringthe day and studies at night.
Excepther no one has any objections to the plan.
I jog for10 miles everyday.
She comes from Argentina.
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Inside the tough exterior, lies a gentle soul.
As soon as she stepped into the room, there was pin drop silence.
She looks like her father.
Ten minus eight equals two.
They have bought a new home nearthe school.
A friend ofmine recommended the beautician to me.
To regain her lost health, it is important; she stays off her fad dietprograms.
There is an apple on the table.
He always climbs onto the table.
Her desk is located diagonally opposite my desk.
Out ofsheer curiosity, I asked her the question.
Outside the house lies a beautiful garden.
The journey cost me way overmy budget.
She walked pastme, but refused to acknowledge my presence.
What was the perperson cost incurred?
Eight plus six equals fourteen.
She was waiting for him since ten in the morning.
I slept all through the day.
Throughoutwinter, she has been sick.
I am going to Atlanta, before I head back home.
It started raining towards the evening.
The road is underrepair.
She found her earring underneath the carpet.
I did not get the documents until5 pm.
Once upon a time, there lived a king.
I walked up the stairs, to see the problem.
The decision is up to the both of them.
The last game was England versus France.
I will go via Sydney.
She walked in with her new boyfriend.
She caters to customers within a radius of 5 miles.
I never leave my house withoutan umbrella, due to the uncertain weather.
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Although:Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.
As:As he is my friend, I will help him.
We watched as the plane took off.
As if:As ifthe bank robber dodged the bullet, Joey was shot seventeen times in the tibia.
She talks as ifshe knows everything.
As long as:As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
He has lived there as long as I have known him.
As soon as:Write to me as soon as you can.
As though:I had a funny feeling as I saw the house disappear, as though I had written a poem and it was very good and I had lost it and would neverremember it again.
It looks as though there will be a storm.
Because:We had to wait, because we arrived early.
BecauseNorman was constantly late, Mr. Russell cut him from band practice.
Before:I arrived before the stores were open.
Even:Im going out even ifit rains.
For:He is happy,forhe enjoys his work.
In case:Take a sweaterin case it gets cold.
If:Ifeveryone demanded peace instead of another television set, then there would be peace.
Ifshe is here, we will see her.
Lest:I watched closely, lesthe make a mistake.
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In order to:I am always doing that which I cannot do, in orderthat I may learn how to do it.
Or else:Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.
Once:Once the test starts, you will not be able to talk
Provided that:I can believe anything,provided thatit is quite incredible.
Since:Since you are here, you can help me.
I have been here since the sun rose.
So:It was raining, so we did not go out.
I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
So as to:I hurried so as tobe on time.
Still:I was stillstudying at six o'clock in the evening
Supposing:Supposingthat happens, what will you do?
Than:He is tallerthan you are.
Though:Though Susan appreciated the flowers, a Corvette would be a finer gift.
Unless:Unless we act now, all is lost.
Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.
Until:A platitude is simply a truth repeated untilpeople get tired of hearing it.
I will wait untilI hear from you
When:While the State exists, there can be no freedom. When there is freedom there will be no State.
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Whereas:He is short, whereas you are tall.
Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
These are white-looking figures, whereas the men who are about to spar have on dark head guards that close grimly around the face like an
executioner's hood.
While:Jerry passed the exam first time while I had to retake it three times.
While it was snowing, we played cards.
He is rich, while his friend is poor.
While I am not an expert, I will do my best.
Whether:Whetheryou win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
I do not know whethershe was invited.
Wherever:Every man, whereverhe goes, is encompassed by a cloud of comforting convictions, which move with him like flies on a summer day.
Who:The candidate, who ran a clean race, was elected by a wide majority.
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INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word, or group of words we use to express a sudden feeling, for example, surprise, pleasure, pain, etc.
Interjections have no grammatical relationships to the rest of the sentences. They are usually set apart from the sentences by an
exclamation point or by a comma when the feeling isnt as strong.
Ah
Pleasure - Ah, that feels good.
Realization - Ah, now I understand.
Resignation - Ah well, it can't be helped.
Surprise - Ah! I've won!
Alas
Grief or pity - Alas, she's dead now.
Dear
Pity - Oh dear! Does it hurt?
Surprise - Dearme! That's a surprise!
Eh
Asking for repetition - Its hot today. Eh?" "I said its hot today."
Enquiry - What do you think of that, eh?
Surprise - Eh! Really?
Agreement - Let's go, eh?
ErHesitation - Lima is the capital of er Peru.
Hello, hullo
Greeting - Hello John. How are you today?
Surprise - Hello! My car's gone!
Hey
Attention - Hey! Look at that!
Surprise, joy etc. - Hey! What a good idea!
Hi
Greeting - Hi! What's new?
Hurrah
Surprise - Hurrah! We won the game again.
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Hmm
Hesitation, doubt or disagreement - Hmm. I'm not so sure.
How interesting
Surprise, joy etc. - How interesting! You have been to Italy.
Oh, my God! OMG!
Surprise - Oh, my God! It is an earthquake.
Oh,
Surprise - Oh! You're here!
Pain - Oh! I've got a toothache.
Pleading Oh, please say 'yes'!
Ouch
Pain - Ouch! That hurts!
Uh
Hesitation - Uh I don't know the answer to that.
Uh-huh
Agreement Shall we go? Uh-huh.
Um, ummHesitation - 85 divided by 5 is um 17.
Well
Surprise - WellI never!
Introducing a remark - Well, what did he say?